Arab ( Arabic Arabs: Arabic: Arabic), a Semitic branch, refers to A surname and North Africa speak Arabic Of the inhabitants, belong to Europaean - Mediterranean Type, the vast majority believe Islam With a population of about 450 million, the Arab community is composed of Arab world .

"Arab" as a nation Demonstrative pronoun It first appeared in the ninth century BC Assyria conquer Aland The Akka of the period German language On the document "Kurn Monolith". Europeans call them "Saracens". Arabist Main nationality The countries include Saudi Arabia , Oman , Yemen , United Arab Emirates , Qatar , Bahrain , Kuwait , Iraq , Syria , Jordan , Lebanon , Palestine , Egypt , Libya , Tunisia , Algeria , Morocco . And most of them are in Mauritania , Sudan , Djibouti , Somalia and Comoros Other countries, a small number of distribution in Iran Hormuzgan Province .

Chinese name: Arab
Foreign name: Arabic: Arabic: Arabs: English: Arabs
species: Arabic

religion: Islam
Population number: About 450 million people (2011)
Species of man: Europaean species Mediterranean type
Main distribution: Arab country interior

catalogue

definition

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EDITOR

There are two ways to determine to what extent a person is an Arab.

Language

religion-based Arabic For the group First language Other dialects are spoken in different places.

gene

The Arabs are one Language community Not a nation. Consanguinity group . For religious and historical reasons, Islam and the accompanying Arabic language and its various dialects are widely used.

Most people who identify themselves as Arab do so for linguistic reasons, but there are also those who satisfy the above criteria but do not identify themselves as Arab for genetic reasons.

In addition, the Qur 'an holds that Ismail It's the ancestor of the Arabs, it's considered by the Muslims to be their spiritual ancestor, and it's the Ismaili Abraham The son of Abraham, so the Arabs also consider Abraham to be their ancestor.

origin

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EDITOR

The Arabs trace their ethnic origins back to the ancient Semitic tribes, which they considered themselves to be Ishmael The descendants of... In history with the Assyrians, Alami , Canaanite Phoenicians, Hebrews (Jews) and so on kinship . In the early 7th century, after the rise of Islam, the Arab tribes expanded rapidly after completing their unification under the banner of Islam. The East was founded in the middle of the 8th century Indus , west to Atlantic Across Asia, Africa and Europe Arab Empire (Chinese history called" gorge "). The period of the four Caliphs (632-661) founded the capital medina , move back to Kufa . The Umayyad Dynasty (661-750) moved the capital Damascus ; The Abbasid Dynasty (750-1055) moved the capital Baghdad . From the 10th century onwards, the state's power declined and it split into many independent states caliph The regime. 1055 Seljuk The Turkmen capture Baghdad and the eastern caliphate falls. The western caliphates also fell. But the caliphate continued until 1258.

The Arab before and after the rise of Islam are two different concepts. Before the spread of Islam and Arabic, the term "Arab" meant Arabian Peninsula They live as nomads Semite (Semitic) residents.

After the Arab Empire, The Middle East and North Africa The inhabitants of the region adopted Islam and Arabic and experienced mixed blood. To form a language linked by Islam and Arabic Cultural group .

Arab country scope

The modern term Arabs includes people from West Africa Morocco To southwest Iran bog An Arabic-speaking population that includes North Africa Maghreb (Maghreb) all, the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and other vast areas.

Living area

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EDITOR

Arabs are not the same as Muslims. Here is an Arab who believes in Christianity

The Arabs are mainly distributed in Arab country Internal, genus Europaean Mediterranean Type, Arabic For Arab countries Official language , belong to A group of Semitic languages , divided into numerous dialects, used Arabic . It has been used since the 6th century Aramaic alphabet In Arabic. The vast majority are Islamic, mostly Sunni and a small minority Shia. In addition, Lebanon , Syria , Palestine , Jordan A minority of people believe in Christianity.

Historical background

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EDITOR

Arab concept

Arab

In Arabic, the masculine noun is Arabi, the feminine noun is Arabiya, and the plural is Arab.

Arab is Arabic Native speakers. Before the spread of Islam and Arabic, the term "Arab" meant Arabian Peninsula The Semitic people who lived as nomads.

More recently, from West Africa Morocco to Iran The southwestern marshes are home to Arabic-speaking peoples whose territory includes North Africa Maghreb (Maghreb) all, the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and other vast areas.

Due to considerable regional variation, the people have a variety of looks and body types that cannot be divided into rigid patterns.

Before the birth of Islam

The early Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula grazed sheep in the desert, Goat camelic nomad . The settled Arabs planted the oases Date palm And grain. Oases also became caravans from southern Arabia and Horn of Africa Transporting spices, ivory and gold to the civilized North Trade center . To this day, the distinction between desert nomads and citizens and farmers remains widespread in the Arab world. The Arabs of that time believed Primitive religion Southern Arabs mainly worship The sun, moon and stars The northern Arabs worshipped objects such as springs, rocks and plants as gods. The Arabs were still in Clan society As the barren desert could support only a limited number of people, the Arabs began to move out, but at that time Persian Empire and The Byzantine Empire There were also controls on the entry of Arabs, resulting in a relative conflict within the Arabian Peninsula overpopulation The Arabs in the peninsula fought constantly, Blood revenge Prevail.

Rise of Islam

In the 6th century AD, The Byzantine Empire with Persian Empire Frequent engagements make the way Red Sea The trade routes were almost interrupted, thus stimulating Mecca The trade activities of the Quraish have greatly shaken the local clans Social system , Private ownership Mecca began to prosper.

Arab

The Islamic Prophet Muhammad was born into the noble Hamshi clan, but his family had fallen. While Muhammad was still in his mother's womb, his father went out for business and fell ill and died. Muhammad spent his childhood growing up in the desert, returning to Mecca at the age of five, and being raised by his grandfather and uncle after his mother died of illness at the age of six. Muhammad's youth made a living by herding for people, and then went to Syria with his uncle for business, which opened the eyes of young Muhammad and taught him a lot of valuable knowledge. When Muhammad was 25 years old, he was employed by a wealthy widow Khadijah He went to Syria to do business, and soon after Muhammad married Khtiche, from which he lived a good and prosperous life.

Muhammad, however, was not greedy for wealth, and often went to a cave on the outskirts of Mecca during the forbidden month (September in the Islamic calendar) to live in seclusion and meditate and seek true faith. It is said that one night in 610, Allah The revelation began to come. Later, Muslims call this night "the night of authorization" (the Quran calls it "the Night of Noblest"), and from this day Islam was born and Muhammad began his career in spreading Islam.

After the establishment of Islam, Muhammad adopted a secret missionary way to preach, and the converts were few, and most of them were relatives and friends. Around 612, Muhammad preached publicly, but the Quraisi opposed it, and Islam was in danger of dying. It was at this time that Muhammad encountered the arrival of Yasleb, and it turned out that the Yasleb had begun to fight among themselves over their limited resources. In 620 and 621, 66 and 12 Yarebs converted to Islam, respectively. In 621, Muhammad and the Yarebs made a covenant on the outskirts of Mecca: Muhammad would mediate disputes within the Yareb tribe and preach, and the Yarebs would pledge allegiance to Muhammad. During the Hajj in 622, 75 Yarib converts came to Mecca to make a new oath of support to the Prophet Muhammad. Subsequently, Muslims from Mecca began to move to Yasleb, and these people became known as "Muslims". transfer They were all core members of the early Muslim community. Muhammad changed the name of Yasleb to Medina, which means "City of the Prophet". Muhammad first stopped the vendetta at Medina, then launched a counterattack against the Quraisi in Mecca, and after a series of military victories, and the persuasive force of unity and equality in Islam, a large number of Arabs converted to Islam.

In 629, Muhammad came Hajj . In 632, Muhammad led 100,000 Muslims to Mecca again for the Hajj, and delivered his famous "farewell speech", which expounded the social norms of the Islamic world. Muhammad died on June 8 of the same year, but a powerful empire with Islam at its core had been established.

Arab Empire

In the early 7th century, Islam arose in west-central Arabia, uniting desert nomads - the Bedouins - and an oasis Urban dweller The power of religion. Within a century, Islam had spread widely throughout most of the Arabic-speaking world, as well as into Central Asia and Asia Iberian peninsula . Arabic, the language of the Quran, is widely used in the Middle East and North Africa due to the rapid rise of Islam. Elements of Arabic culture, including the right Nomadic life Praise, then with many local Cultural tradition Come together. However, Arabs today are not all Muslims, and Arabic is spoken all over the world Native language About 5% of the population is Christian, Druzes are Islamic, Judaism Apostles and animists.

The Arab conquest

After the unification of the Arabian Peninsula, Muhammad and his successors began to lead the Arab cavalry to conquer the surrounding areas, and in more than ten years, the modern Arab world was basically established Türkiye , Spain, Central Asia and Italy , India, Transcaucasia Part of it. The Arabs lived through the early Medina caliphate, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the Abbasid Dynasty. In addition, in North Africa and Europe, Spain, France, Italian peninsula Parts of the south had a Muslim regime and were tolerant, and Christians and Jews could keep their faith by paying a poll tax.

The 20th century

Arab woman

The tradition of the Arab world in the middle of the 20th century value Mind receiving urbanization , industrialization, detribalization, and Western influences. Nearly half of Muslim Arabs live in cities and towns, where family and tribal ties are gradually being broken.

Most Arabs continue to live as farmers in small, isolated villages, where traditional values and industries still prevail, including female deference and family segregation (purdah). Urban Arabs tend to distinguish more by occupation or nationality than by tribe, while peasants still respect the nomadic life of pastoralism (nomadism) and claim to be related to the large tribes of the past in the desert Blood relation . On account of Petroleum industry Made possible by development nationalism With the change of lifestyle, the nomadic life of the Arabs underwent fundamental changes.

Nomads who live a desert herding life, that is, a life still typical of traditional Arab culture, make up only 10 percent of the modern Arab population. Of the remaining nomads, many have given up completely nomadic, or rural farming, raising Domestic animal They were employed by oil companies, sought other jobs in towns, or emigrated in large numbers.

Cultural custom

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EDITOR

Direct marriage is prevalent in some places Exchange marriage And a temporary marriage. Traditional houses are generally mud houses and Siheyuan. The South Arabs mostly live in towers and fortresses Multistory building ; In southern Iraq, Palestine and other coastal areas, it is mostly inhabited by residents Palm leaf A hut made of reeds or coral reef masonry. Because of the hot weather, most locals like to move their beds to the roof to sleep in order to enjoy the cool. Nomads live in wool or canvas tents.

costume

Traditional clothing In vain Long gown , thick woolen Cape, black bloomers ; wear calico Or gingham lid Or wrap your head. Women in most areas wear veils when they go out. Women like to wear rings, necklaces and nose rings and other jewelry; Some are still on their foreheads, neck , lips, cheeks, chest and soles of feet are tattooed in blue. ^[1]

Economic system

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EDITOR

Historically, the Arabs were mainly nomadic and commercial. Later, due to the discovery of oil and gas, most Arabs began to turn to settled life, and some Arabs are still nomadic or semi-nomadic Nomadic life . Semi-nomads mainly raise goats and sheep, Arabian horse Also engaged in farming. The nomadic Arabs, also known as "Bedouins", kept camels and retained their tribal system Kindred revenge The remnants are one of the few remaining purely nomadic tribes in the world.

Contribution brief

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EDITOR

The Arabs brought Islam and Arabic with them Arab Empire Each corner, replacing the local language and religion, while absorbing the culture of the conquered peoples, formed to Baghdad , Cairo And Cordoba centered Arab culture He has made outstanding achievements in literature, medicine, history, mathematics, astronomy, architecture and other fields, and has made important contributions to the treasure house of world culture. Arabic style buildings are still everywhere today A surname , Central Asia and North Africa . As early as The Abbasid Dynasty (Ancient Chinese book" Wear black clothes and eat big During this period, the Arabs entered into trade relations with China and went inland Silk Road . Battle of Talas After that, the Arabs not only took control of Central Asia, but also gained it papermaking . By sea Guangzhou , Quanzhou , Yangzhou (in Jiangsu Province) And some Arabs stayed in China. There is also a market in Baghdad that specializes in Chinese goods.

Cultural thought

The historical contributions of the Arabs are different from those of other peoples, and the scientific achievements of the Arabs are inextricably linked to Islam. For in the long years before Islam entered the Arab lands, the obscurantist Arabs and some other peoples of the empire who later converted to Islam were completely enveloped Ancient Egypt , Ancient India , Greece, Roman with Persian civilization In the shadows. With the Arab map and Range of activity Many peoples such as the Persians became Muslims following the Islam first spread by the Arabs. Practicing Islam's idea of equality under God, the Arabs and other peoples of the Empire were Scientific culture The attitude of tolerance and inclusiveness greatly promoted the progress and development of science in that era. Under the Islamic Empire, religious persecution against infidels was rare - as long as they paid a certain amount Poll tax .

Arabs and Islam are in Asia And the influence of North Africa is great, in Arab Empire At its peak, Arabs went out in droves to trade or preach, spreading Islam around the world. The spread of Islam, the great idea of "all Muslims are brothers" enshrined in the Koran, led to unity among different Muslim peoples, Common development . Hundreds of millions of Muslims who believe in tolerance, freedom and equality heartily embrace and follow Islam, even sacrificing their blood and lives to preserve its dignity.

The contribution of the Arabs is very significant, mainly in the fields of literature, mathematics, history, as well as in the exchange, development and inheritance of culture. The Arabs admire science, and the Prophet Muhammad of Islam once said: "Seek knowledge, believers, even as far away as China!" Another quote from Muhammad: "If you have two pieces Bread You should exchange one of them for one narcissus Flowers." This shows that the Prophet of Islam advocated Material civilization with Spiritual civilization Equally important.

Arab scientific contributions are mainly through translation Greek , Latin and Persia Literature and books reflect. in Islamic Golden Age A large number of literature and scientific books were translated into Arabic, which greatly promoted the culture in Arabic Arab world The development of... At the same time, Arab merchants contributed to the promotion of cultural exchanges.

Arabic numeral

Indian Arabic numeral All were introduced to Europe and the rest of the world by Arabs through war or trade. In 830 AD, the Sultan Mamun was founded Translation agency House of Wisdom And thus gave birth to what Westerners call" Knowledge explosion The Times of ". The Arabs translated Ptolemy's Astronomical success Almagest, Arabic for Almagest Grand argument The Spanish translated the book, and only then did the West know Ptolemy cosmology , Copernicus, Galileo The object of criticism, Newton finally found gravitation . The Palace of Wisdom mentioned above, Sudan Mamun In order to get the precious books, no matter In order to He was rewarded with gold of equal quality. It can be seen that the Arabs contributed to the spread of culture.

Maths

Sphinx modulator Flowers are thick the algebra Developed into an independent branch of mathematics, his Science of Reduction and Objects became a famous work in the history of mathematics, and he himself is known as the father of algebra, and his works were textbooks in major European universities until the 16th century. Other Arab mathematicians made great achievements in trigonometric geometry, they put trigonometry Developed into an independent discipline, and calculated PI to 17 digits, breaking the Chinese mathematicians Zu Chongzhi A record held for a thousand years. in geometry In terms, they put graphics and algebra equation Connect, become Analytic geometry The forerunner, the later Descartes Analytic geometry was also realized on the basis of the Arabs. The greatest contribution of the Arabs to science is the combination of Arabic numerals as a tool Ancient Greek the logic A well-developed ALGEBRA was developed, and today's word "algebra" comes from the Arabic (AL-JABR). Omar Khayyam, the Persian author of The Argumentation of Algebraic Problems (Algebra for short), is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of mathematics, especially algebra. In addition, Omar Khayyam has further developed Binomial theorem .

trigonometry in Arabic mathematics It occupies an important position, and its emergence and development are closely related to astronomy. The Arabs developed trigonometry based on the work of the Indians and Greeks. They introduced several new trigonometric quantities, revealed their properties and relationships, and established some important ones Trigonometric identity . gave Spherical triangle Sum of forms Plane triangle The whole solution, made many more sophisticated Trigonometric function Table. The systematic and complete work on trigonometry was written by the scholar Nasirdin in the 13th century, which made trigonometry separate from astronomy and became an independent branch of mathematics, and had a great influence on the development of trigonometry in Europe.

In terms of approximate calculation, the fifteenth century Alcasy in his "Circle", described the calculation method of PI, and got accurate to Decimal point After 16 bits of PI, thus breaking Zu Chongzhi A record held for a thousand years. In addition, Alcaci has done important work on decimals, and is one of the most famous. PASCAL triangle The form deals with the binomial theorem as the first Arab scholar.

Arabic geometry is less accomplished than algebra and trigonometry. The rigorous logical arguments of Greek geometry were not accepted by the Arabs.

In general, at a time when most of the world was scientifically barren, Arab mathematical achievements were great, and Europeans were aware of the mathematical achievements of ancient Greece, India and China mainly through the translated works of Arab mathematicians, which shows the great contribution of Arabs to mathematics.

literature

Arabic literature The main subjects are poetry and prose. The Qur 'an is a model of Arabic literature, and the Qur 'an is not just one book Religious scriptures It is also a book about social, political, Moral system A classic of all-round planning, she makes Islam more representative of a way of life. " One thousand and one nights "Is a vivid representation of the ancient Islamic world Social life A colorful picture of Gorky When commenting on "One Thousand and One Nights", he praised it as "the most magnificent milestone" in folk oral creation. The story collection reflects the social life and customs of the people of all ethnic groups in the Arab territory, showing the high wisdom and rich imagination of the Arab people; It is a precious literary heritage left by the Arab people to the people of the world. In addition to their own literary achievements, the Arabs have also made remarkable contributions to the collation, translation and adaptation of classical works.

One of the four greatest literary figures in Asia Kahlil Gibran The poem is known as the treasure of contemporary Arabic literature, and even the literature of the world.

astronomy

The Arabs are studying astronomy

Famous Arab mathematician Flowers are thick His work, The List of Flowers and Flowers, had a great influence on later European astronomy. His own name was misrepresented as "algorism," which later came to mean "the art of computation," which we now call "arithmetic" (while the ancient term for arithmetic was what we now call "number theory"). Arab scientist Biruni (973-1050) proved Earth rotation The theory that the Earth revolves around the sun, and the precise determination of the Earth Longitude and latitude . Batani (858-929) corrected many of Ptolemy's errors and compiled Sabian astronomy calendar Later, the Copernican theory of celestial operations cited this data in many places. In astronomy, the Arabs created a series within the empire observatory And made a lot of sophisticated Astronomical instrument They measured the earth's circumference 48,001 km, has been quite accurate, they formulated Solar calendar The error is only one day every 5,000 years.

Arab astronomers criticized geocentrism predicted Earth rotation And orbiting the sun, and they measured it precisely meridian The Arab astronomer Al Batani corrected some of Ptolemy's errors in his work The Sabi Astronomical Table, which spread to Europe and became the basis for the development of European astronomy. In addition, the Arabs also made great achievements in the study and formulation of the calendar of Islam Solar calendar A year has an average of 365 days, with 31 leap years in 128 years and 366 leap years. The instruments used by the Arab astronomers were also very advanced, and they were already in use around the 9th century quadrant , astrolabe , sundial , seismograph Let's wait.

In 829 AD, the observatory was established in Baghdad, where famous astronomers such as Fagani worked. Fagani wrote the Foundations of Astronomy, which gave a concise introduction to Ptolemy's theory. Jafar ABU Masher wrote The Great Book of Astrology, which later spread widely in Europe and was one of the first books printed in Augsburg in 1486.

In addition, Tabi ibn Khura discover Precession constant More than Ptolemy's one degree per hundred years; while The intersection Angle of the yellow From 23°51' in Ptolemy to 23°35'. Combining these two phenomena, he developed the theory of vibration, which argues that ecliptic In addition to moving westward along the ecliptic, the intersection with the equator moves in a small circle with a radius of four degrees and a period of four thousand years. In order to explain this movement, he also used Ptolemy's octet (sun, moon, Five stars And stars) added a ninth weight.

philosophy

Arab scholar Farabi Aristotle 's metaphysics "And" organicism He became an "encyclopedic" scholar and was hailed as the "second teacher" after Aristotle and the "greatest philosophical authority of the Islamic East."

At the beginning of the 7th century, Muhammad (circa 570 -632) was in Arabian Peninsula Revived Islam. At the end of the 7th century, some Mohammedans were dissatisfied with the extravagance, corruption and secular tendencies of the rulers, and they resorted to poverty, asceticism and celibacy Passive protest, gradually formed Sufis . The ideology of this school is very varied and is based on the Qur 'an and the Hadith (the sayings of Muhammad) neoplatonism and Persia , India Such as the influence of ancient Oriental thought. The idea of the school is to mysticism Characterized, especially after the mid-8th century, by the promotion of mystical love, pantheism and theosophism Thought requires the practice of inner practice and meditation in order to achieve unity with God.

It appeared in the early 8th century Murtazilai It was the earliest theological and philosophical school in the Arab Middle Ages. Questions about the nature and attributes of God, the relationship between God and the world, and whether man has free will are discussed.

After the 12th century, Sufi thought developed further. It forms many sects and operates throughout the Islamic world.

In the early 13th century, Ibn Arabi founded the so-called" monism "The doctrine, put Objective thing sympathetic Free will They are seen as manifestations of the nature and attributes of God, thus developing mysticism into systematic pantheism. Sufi thought still has a great influence in the Islamic world.

9th - 12th century, in the dissemination Greek philosophy cordial Philosophical thought In the process, a large number of philosophers appeared in the vast areas under the rule of Arab Islam. These philosophers were influenced more by ancient Greek and Roman philosophy and various Eastern traditions, especially Aristotle, and annotated his philosophical or scientific works. They are based on the needs of social struggle and life practice, using from Aristotle and neoplatonism The spiritual nourishment obtained there, the various interpretations of the Qur 'an and the teachings of Islam, and Islam orthodox scholasticism To fight. These philosophers make up the Middle Ages Arabic philosophy The subject of the Western scholars generally called Arab Aristotelian school They are right Muslim world Has important implications. These philosophers are known Baghdad And Cordoba, Spain as the center, divided into east and West two branches, representative figures are Farabi , Ibn Sina Let's wait. Most of them are Natural scientist Or doctor, attention Empirical knowledge Emphasis on the role of reason. Right Natural philosophy There is a strong interest in problems and logic and a strong secular orientation. However, they have not completely got rid of the bondage of Islamic theology. They generally admit the existence of God as the original entity and cause, and believe that all things in the world overflow from God through a series of spiritual entities such as reason and soul, but they also maintain that all things in the world are Objective existence There is a causal relationship, and Allah's relationship to the world works indirectly through the medium. They did their best to exclude theology on some specific philosophical questions, and more or less arrived at pantheism materialism The conclusion.

Medical science

Establishment of hospital system

During the Middle Ages, the Arabs were rich in medicine, and Arab Spain had some of the best hospitals in Europe. Spain still has a lot masjid . A large number of medical works by famous Arab doctors, Razi The 24 volumes of Medical integration ", Central Asian Ibn Sina The five volumes of Medical Canon Zahrawi's Medical Treatise was translated into many European languages, republished many times, and served as a textbook in European medicine for 400 to 600 years.

The Arabs preserved and translated a great deal of ancient Greek, Roman Medical literature Drawing on the medical achievements of all ethnic groups at that time. The best Arabic translators of the 9th century translated into Arabic the writings of the great medical scientists of the ancient world nutriology , pulse, medicine, fever , calculus Illness, gastropathy , epilepsy , ophthalmology , Department of surgery More than 100 volumes of medical books. The Arabs not only preserved ancient medicine, but also developed it further. They worked with Greece, Persia , Byzantium The scientific and cultural communication between the peoples of Central Asia and China in the Tang Dynasty created a prosperous Arabic medicine .

physics

Arabs in optics, on the spherical contrast, lens magnification , Lunar halo , moonbow There are superb studies, but also studied the structure of the human eye, put forward a modern vision theory. In physics, too, the Arabs absorbed a great deal Ancient Greek The scientific achievement. Archimedes , Aristotle The works of Ptolemy and others were translated into Arabic. From the 10th century onwards, the Arabs did a lot of work in physics, especially in optics and statics Remarkable results have been achieved. In optics, the most eminent Arab physicist is Al Hazin (c. 965-1038). He was in Egypt He is a minister and author of the book of Optics. Al Hazin learned from the Greeks Law of reflection . On this basis, he further stated: Incident ray , Reflected light and normal They're all on the same plane.

Al Hazin also corrected Ptolemy's Refraction law . Ptolemy asserts: Angle of incidence with Angle of reflection In direct proportion. Al Hazin set up an experiment specifically to test it. He placed a disc with a scale on it vertically, half submerged in water. Incident light Shot through a small hole on the side of the disc and a small hole in the center, the Angle of incidence and the Angle of reflection can be accurately read from the scale on the disc. What he found was that incoming light, Refracted ray It's in the same plane as the normal; Ptolemy's law of refraction only holds approximately if the Angle of incident is small. Unfortunately, he also failed to get the correct refraction formula. He also studied it Spherical mirror And parabolic columns Diving mask . He found that when light rays parallel to the main axis hit the spherical mirror, they were reflected on this axis. To this end, he proposed the famous The Al Hazin question : When the light point and the eye are set, look for spherical mirrors, conical mirrors, and circles Cylindrical mirror On the reflection point. He discussed the problem at length. Al Hazin also studied the physiology of vision. It was in the Arabian desert and tropics Regional eye disease prevalence, so the Arab eye disease research is very developed. The Arabs have long been able to treat eye diseases with surgery, paying attention to the physiological structure of the eye. Al Hazin was the first to use the terms "omentum", "cornea" and "retina". Vitreous body ", "anterior chamber fluid" and other terms of the person. He believed that vision was obtained in the vitreous body. He also opposes by Plato and Euclid In favor of the theory that vision is caused by light emitted by the eyes Democritus The view that light is emitted from the object being observed in the form of a sphere. Al Hazin's research on optics strongly promoted the birth of modern optics.

In mechanics, Al Hazni (date of birth and death unknown) made important contributions. In his Story of the Weigher of Wisdom, published in 1137 AD, he described in detail his own invention of five bands steelyard the steelyard . It can be used as a steelyard, or a moving pan to measure heavy objects without weights, and can also determine the weight of objects in water. Al Hazni uses a smart scale to measure the weight of objects, while using one with a downward tilt nozzle Fill the container with water to the nozzle, and then dip the object into the container, and the volume of the object can be determined by measuring the overflow water weight. He used this method to determine the density of some substances. Al Hazni also discovered that air also had weight, so he put Archimedes' Buoyancy law From liquid to air. He found that "as the density of the atmosphere continues to increase with height, its density becomes smaller and smaller, so that objects differ. Height measurement The weight will be different." This is also a very important mechanical law. He also gave the concept of speed in terms of distance to time.

The study of physics in Arabia is closely linked to its economic development. After its heyday from the 10th to the 12th centuries AD, due to the Arab interior Irrigated agriculture Poor management; The outside bears the Christian The Crusades As well as Mongol and Tartar invasions. As the internal and external constraints of the Arab economy declined, so did Arab physics, along with mathematics. Arab physics mainly inherited the achievements of the Greeks and made some innovations. Arab physics provided rich materials, experiments, theories and methods for medieval Europe, which strongly promoted the Renaissance of European physics.

Chemistry

In chemistry, the Arabs improved many experimental instruments, using distillation, sublimation, filtration, dissolution, crystallization, etc., to test the differences and chemical forces of various bases and acids, to produce alcohol, soda , Nitric acid , vitriol , Hydrochloric acid , Silver nitrate , Mercuric oxide And used them to develop medicines and glass Manufacturing process And printing and dyeing technology. The Arabs were right Alchemy A lot of research has been done. The Arabs took a great interest in chemistry, the most experimental of the sciences, and made outstanding achievements. Arabia had a great reputation for alchemy. The Arabs have been practicing alchemy for more than 700 years. theirs Work center First in Iraq He then moved to Spain.

Perfume history A major advance in science occurred in the early Middle Ages, when the Arabs invented plants on a large scale Distillation method . In the 12th century, Arabs discovered that by dissolving the essence with alcohol, the fragrance could be slowly released, and some concentrated essences were better preserved by alcohol. So the Arabs made a major contribution to the development of perfume.

geography

The geography of the Arab Empire is very rich and detailed, both cartography and maritime exploration knowledge, but also traveller The recording of mountain landforms also includes geodesy such as precise mathematical measurements of geographical coordinates and quantitative geomorphological studies. Scholars not only learn from geographical knowledge Ancient Babylon The achievements of India, Persia and Greece, and many achievements, are of great significance to the coming of the age of navigation. The maps they drew were the most important understanding of the world since the Greeks, and were qualitatively advanced from the Middle Ages Christianity in Europe Adopted by the world Jerusalem The "world map" centered on it is quite different. Also: the Arabs arrived when they first conquered North Africa Atlantic They thought they were the most western part of the world, so they called it "the West." Maghreb In the 21st century, the North African states are still referred to as "Maghreb".

history

Middle Ages Arab historiography It draws on the useful elements of Jewish, Persian, and Christian history and preserves them Islamic culture The bright personality. Its great achievements are reflected in: left a large number of historical works; And produced the stars historian ; With a broad vision, profound content of the historical, social, cultural unique insights. It also had a positive impact on the progress of Western historical thought. Arab historiography surpassed that of contemporary Europe. 14th century Arab historian Ibn Khaldun He was the first to see history as the subject of the origin and development of civilizations, with his book Introduction to History Historical theory It has a great influence not only on Arab but also on world historiography. Tabery And Mesoudi is recognized as the greatest Arab historian, and his achievement is an unsurpassable peak for future generations. Mesodi, known as the Arab Herodotus He is adopted The chronicle endgame The first Arab to write history. The material he collected was compiled into a great work of thirty volumes, of which, unfortunately, only one abstract has been preserved: The Golden Steppes and the Jewel Treasures. In this encyclopedic work, Mesoudi devoted himself to the history and religion of India, Persia, Rome, and Judea, in addition to the formal Muslim subjects. And Mesodi is still a naturalist He summed up his views on the order among minerals, plants, and animals in a monograph called "Reminder and Supervision."

education

Muhammad was born poor, but he was fascinated by ancient Arabian technology and Educational development It has far-reaching consequences. He was a man who admired knowledge and encouraged people to pursue it. He and his successors led the Muslim horsemen to the north and south to establish the great Islamic Empire at the same time as the ancient Arab Education system And it was set up accordingly.

For popularization Religious education The ancient Arabs established primary schools, which were often taught in mosques. Most boys, a few girls, and some children of slaves received free or minimal education in these primary schools. Most of the school curriculum is about religion, everyone has to pray, Read the Qur 'an Learn about theology, history, ethics, and law through the Qur 'an. Writing is accepting Higher education The talent to learn a skill. People who can't write often hire jobs copyist . Later, under the control of the government, secondary schools were opened and became vocational schools with government funding. In these schools, students study grammar, linguistics, rhetoric , literature, logic, mathematics and astronomy. facultative pay And the students' expenses are provided by the government and philanthropists, so there are no tuition fees. Sometimes students have to travel long distances to listen to the most famous teachers. Just as Latin was used by all European students, Arabic became the language of study throughout the Islamic world. Students do not get a degree, but teachers can give a certificate of recognition.

The Arabs established many libraries and universities, and almost all mosques had libraries and schools within them. In the 9th century, there were a number of universities in the major Arab cities, among which University of Cordoba The most famous. These universities not only taught the teachings of Islam, but also taught astronomy, mathematics, medicine and law, which later had an important influence on the universities of Paris and Oxford in Europe.

Art and architecture

The Arab world Beauty of art Have a unique pursuit. Because Islam is against it idolatry Because of the rejection of representativeness, Arabic art works lack the shaping of figures and animals. The talent and wisdom of the artists is focused on Calligraphy art Geometric patterns and ingenious and unique ideas, with obvious abstract method and formalization characteristics.

Islamic architecture Unique, including mosques, Islamic institutions of learning, caliphate palaces, mausoleums and more Public facilities Residential housing, etc., is the world Architectural art And an integral part of Islamic culture. It is similar to Indian architecture, Chinese architecture It is known as the three major architectural systems in the East. The Arabs copied the Greek, Roman and Persian styles Architectural form Arab architecture is famous for its magnificence and magnificence, its appearance is towering domes and towering minarets, exquisite and simple interior sculptures and flowers, birds and animals. Mecca the Forbidden temple , medina the Temple of the Prophets , Damascus the The Umayyad Mosque Cordoba's Grand mosque And Indian The Red Fort , Uzbekistan the Ancient city of Bukhara The complex is referred to as Islamic Classical architecture The model. ^[2]

TRANSLATORS

Arab Translation movement It is not only a long time, but also involves a wide range of areas.

I. Translation of Persian classics

Abbasid dynasty It was heavily influenced by the Persians. Whether in life, or in the country Political system and Cultural construction All Arabs followed the example of the Persians. The Persians, who converted to Islam and mastered Arabic, took on the task of translating Persian texts into English Arabic The important task, which is mainly literary works.

2. Translation of Greek classics

As early as the Hellenistic era, the Greeks used to spread Greek culture A surname and North Africa The vast area. Until the Arabs came to conquer these areas, there were still many Hellenistic cities, among which the famous ones were Jundishapur in Persia, Haran in Iraq, Edza and Antioch in Syria, and Egypt Alexander City, etc. In the translation movement, mastery Greek culture The Nestorian Christians became translators of Greek texts into Arabic Backbone force . During the early Abbasid period, hundreds of translators laboriously translated almost all the important scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece into Arabic.

3. Translation of Indian classics

The Arabs have been translated as Farsi Indian classics, or direct translations of Indian classics, allowed the spread of Indian culture to the Arab world. The Indian influence on the Arabs was reflected in mathematics, astronomy, literature and so on.

Union of states

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EDITOR

League of Arab States Meeting to strengthen Arab country Union and Cooperation, September 1944, in Egypt On the initiative of the government, seven Arab countries were represented in Egypt Alexander Meetings were held to formulate a draft Alexander Protocol ", decided to establish the organization.

On March 22, 1945, Egypt , Lebanon , Saudi Arabia , Syria , Iraq , Jordan and Yemen Arab Republic Representatives from seven countries were present Cairo A conference was held, the Charter of the Arab League was signed, and the League was formally established.

Egypt's membership was suspended in March 1979 and resumed in 1988. By 1983, in addition to the above six members, there were Algeria , Bahrain , Kuwait , Libya , Morocco , Qatar , Sudan , Tunisia , Democratic People's Republic of Yemen , United Arab Emirates , Oman , Somalia , Mauritania , Djibouti and Palestine Liberation Organization A total of 21 countries. charter The purpose of the League is to promote close relations among its members, coordinate their political activities, and defend the independence and sovereignty of the Arab States; Taking full account of the affairs and interests of the Arab States, the member States cooperate closely in the fields of economy, finance, transportation, post and telecommunications, culture, nationality, social affairs and health care. The charter stresses that member states respect each other Political system Disputes between member States shall not be settled by force, and treaties concluded between Member States and other States shall not apply to other Member States Binding force . The highest authority of the Federation is Arab summit , by the heads of member states or plenipotentiary To attend, to discuss the alliance Major problem Emergency summits may be convened at the request of member states.

The Summit has been held every November since 1978. Since 1964, 16 summits and three emergency summits have been held. Leading body It is the Council, made up of representatives from all member states, which meets in March and October each year Regular meeting . Regular meetings are presided over by member states in turn. Resolutions adopted by consensus are binding on all Member States. The Council consists of 14 specialized agencies for politics, economy, society, law, culture, information, human rights, finance, women, transportation, health and petroleum. There is a secretariat responsible for implementing Council resolutions and handling daily affairs.

In March 1989 Arab League Council election Tunisia Shadley Calleby was reappointed Secretary-General. Also affiliated to the League are the following specialized organizations: the Joint Defence Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Council of Arab Economic Unity, the Arab Educational, Cultural and Cultural Organizations Scientific organization , Arab States Broadcasting Union Arab News Council of ministers Arab Labour Organization, etc. The headquarters of the League was originally located in Cairo, but moved to Tunis in March 1979.

Historical celebrity

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EDITOR

scholardom

Muhammad, prophet of Islam, reviver.

Zed Ben Sabit , study and master Syriac and Hebrew . Participating in the Qur 'an from recording, collecting, organizing to Definitive edition The whole process is subject to Disciple of the holy gate He was honored as Hibr Ummah Muslimin (" Scholar of the Muslim people ").

Mohammed Rashid Rida He was a prominent Egyptian Islamic scholar and religious and social reformer.

Tarig Ramadan , Switzerland Islamic scholar, born in Egypt in 1963, is one of the most influential contemporary Islamic teachers in the Western world.

Military and political circles

Khalid bin Walid A famous military general in the early days of Islam, Muhammad, in recognition of his bravery, awarded" The Sword of Allah "Title.

ABU Bakr He is considered one of the most important supporters of Muhammad's revival of Islam. The Prophet said, "Among my friends, I know of no one who is more powerful than him."

Abe 苏富扬 Mecca in the early days of Islam The Quraish tribe Representative of the aristocratic ruling group, converted to Islam in 629; In 630, Go with an army Took part in a campaign against polytheists Battle of Hounain and Taif He became blind.

Umar I, Arab general and caliph. And the first caliph ABU Bakr was called "the two great assistants of the Prophet".

Mamun The seventh caliph of the Arab Empire, the Abbasid dynasty, carried out the famous Arab and world history Centennial translation movement Thus, the Abbasid culture and the whole Arab Islamic culture entered the heyday.

Yasser Arafat He was chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization Palestinian president It is honored by the Chinese people as "Aweng" and has been obtained Nobel Prize .

Sheikh Ahmed Yassin Palestine Islamic resistance Founder of the organization (Hamas) and Spiritual leader .

Jack Beaton His real name is "Refat Ali Raman Al Kamal". He was planted for Egypt Israel The spy, who has been lurking in Israel for 17 years and served Egyptian intelligence for nearly 30 years, is known as the "Egyptian Spy King."

Hafez al-Assad Syrian politician, president, was involved Wars in the Middle East And shoot down British planes.

Mahmoud Abbas He was the first Prime Minister of the Palestinian Self-government. Elected on 23 November 2008 President of the State of Palestine .

Ahmed Abtalib An Arab of Moroccan descent, his father is an Islamic imam, Ren Netherlands Rotterdam Mayor of the city.

Scientific community

Tebit ibn Quila was an Arab mathematician who translated the works of many Greek scientists, and some of his ideas were published about a thousand years later Bowyer And Lobachevsky developed into Non-euclidean geometry . And put forward Amicable numbers .

Batani Arab astronomer and mathematician. Discovered the sun apogee the precession And also accurately measured the length of the year, Annual precession and The intersection Angle of the yellow ; A clever new solution for spherical triangles was introduced and developed Spherical trigonometry .

Al Hazni Arab physicist who made important contributions to mechanics. His handle Archimedes the Buoyancy law From liquid to air. He found that "the density of the atmosphere becomes smaller and smaller with increasing altitude, so that objects have different weights when measured at different altitudes." This is also a very important mechanical law.

Al Hazin Arab light physicist, Al Hazin studied Spherical mirror And parabolic cylindrical mirrors, he found that when light rays parallel to the main axis hit the spherical mirror, they would be reflected on this axis. He made the famous The Al Hazin question .

Ahmed Xavier , Egyptian chemist, obtained in 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry , Peking University Honorary doctor .

Literary circle

Mutenaibi He was a pioneer in the innovation of Arabic poetry.

Kahlil Gibran He was a Lebanese Arab poet, writer, and painter. Known as the "artistic genius" and the "proud son of Lebanese literature", he is the main founder of modern Arabic fiction, art and prose.

Mohammed Darwish In 2007, Darwish won the prestigious poetry award "Golden Laureate Award" and is also known as the "national poet" by the Palestinian people.

Ahmed Emin He was a famous Egyptian Arab writer and thinker. His main works are: "Sun", "Sun" History of Arab-Islamic culture ".

Najib Mahfouz Egyptian author of "The Mockery of Fate", "Adubis", "The Battle of Eibai". Obtained in October 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature .

Medical field

Ibn Nafis He was a famous Arab doctor of the 13th century. And laid the foundation for cardiovascular physiology, which he described Pulmonary circulation and Coronary vessels The first person to build Circulatory system He was regarded as the "greatest physiologist" of the Middle Ages.

Peter Medava Arab British immunology Home, in 1960, Medava was awarded for his outstanding contributions to immunology Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine .

Ma Haide, Chinese medical scientist of Arab descent. ^[3-4]

other

Ibn Khaldun He is a famous Arab philosopher, historian and political activist. Summarize the latest achievements of historical research at that time and overcome the attention of Arab historians Historical phenomenon It combines philosophy and history to explore the internal relationship between the laws of historical development and historical phenomena, and proposes new ones in a pioneering way View of history and Research method , a set of Historical science Take it to a new level.

Mohammed Waili In January 2008, Guinness World Records Announced the recognition of a 9-year-old boy in Egypt Mohammed Waili The smartest child prodigy in the world, he has the highest IQ of his age and an amazing talent for math.

Walid bin Talal Al Saud Arab entrepreneur, investor, known as the Arab Warren Buffett , there is Middle eastern divinity The title of. 2005 individual Total assets Is $23.7 billion, in the" Forbes "Ranked fifth on the list.

Mansour bin Mutaib 2010 Shanghai World Expo Saudi Arabia General Representative of the exhibition area, Deputy Minister of Urban and Rural Affairs of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Prince.

Helen Thomas , Lebanese-American, White House Correspondents' Association The oldest member of the White House Correspondents' Association, Helen Thomas, was founded in 1998 Lifetime achievement Award Helen became the first winner.

Pu Shougeng Arab merchant in Song and Yuan Dynasties. ^[5]

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