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27 BC - 1453 Empires in European history

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The Roman Empire 27 BC - 1453 AD), so Mediterranean As the center, across Europe, Asia, Africa three continents of the great empire ^[1] . 395 years later divided into Western Roman Empire (395-476) and Eastern Roman Empire (395-1453).

Roman Republic Later, in 27 BC, curia confer Gaius Octavian " Oh, Augustus "Title, Ancient Roman civilization Thus entered the Age of empires. 2nd century AD The Dynasty of Antony During this period (96 AD - 192 AD), the Roman Empire reached its peak, with unprecedented economic prosperity. 395 AD , the Emperor Theodosius I The empire was divided between two sons, and the East and West were divided, and the Roman Empire was never unified again. The year 476 The Germans Odovaca depose Western Roman Empire Emperor, Western Roman Empire perish ^[2] , European history Into the Middle Ages. The year is 1204 The Fourth Crusade Break through Eastern Roman Empire capital Constantinople (not recovered until 1261) From then on the Eastern Roman Empire collapsed, 1453 Ottoman Empire Sudan Muhammad II Led an army to capture Constantinople, the Eastern Roman Empire ( The Byzantine Empire ) Perish.

Trajan During his reign (98-117), the Roman Empire reached its largest territory. Rise from the west Spain , Gaul with Britain , east to The Euphrates River Upstream, south to Africa North, North Dakota Rhine with Danube Along the way, Mediterranean Become the inland sea of the empire. At its peak it controlled about 5 million Square kilometer The land, is Ancient world history The largest in the world monarchy One of the countries.

Chinese name: Roman Empire
Foreign name: English: Roman Empire
Time frame: From 27 to 395 BC
Abbreviated form: Roman
continent: Europe
capital: Roman , Constantinople , Milan , Ravenna Etc.
Major city: Carthage , Alexander , Antiochus , Ephesus , Jerusalem Etc.
National Day: April 21st (Founding Day of Rome)
Official language: Latin - Greek language (after 610 AD)
currency: Oris, dinar , Cestes, etc
Time zone: UTC-1—UTC+3

Political system: monarchy
Population number: Peak above 60 million (median from estimated population of 46 million to 120 million)
Major nationality: Roman , Hellenic , Egyptians , Celts , Jew , The Germans Etc.
Major religion: polytheism , Christianity (After 325 AD, Nicene/Trinitarian)
Land area: About 5000000 km² (A.D. 117)
Founding emperor: Gaius Octavian ( Oh, Augustus )
The subjugated emperor 1: Romulus II ( Western Roman Empire )
Subjugation Emperor II: Julius Nepos (Western Roman Empire)
Subjugation Emperor 3: Constantine XI ( Eastern Roman Empire )
Official name: curia with Roman people ( SPQR )

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Empire building

Subject clause : Roman Republic

Roman Republic At the end of the period, the social situation was extremely volatile. In 44 BC, Gaius Julius Caesar Assassinated. Named in the will Octavian As his heir. He was 19 years old Greece Of the Apollonian army Octavian As soon as they learned of this, they marched back to Rome. At this time Rome was in the grip of murder Cesar The Republican patriarch Burutu with Cassius In hands. Octavian Work out with Cesar Colleague of Mark Antony , Rapida Alliance, History says The latter Triumvirate . The three began to clean up. curia Heresy. Hundreds of senators and thousands of knights killed. Anthony with Octavian He led the pursuit of Brutus and Cassius, who had fled east. In 42 BC, Burutu With Cassius in The Battle of Philippi He committed suicide in defeat. Octavian Returning to Rome, Antony went to Egypt to meet Caesar's lover, Egypt The Ptolemaic Dynasty Queen Cleopatra VII ( Cleopatra An alliance. So far, Romanesco Octavian , a surname Anthony .

Octavian

Anthony Focused on the Parthian war in the East, and always at peace Egypt Queen's keep Intimate relationship . Octavian consolidated his power in Rome, while vilifying Antony for conspiring with foreign powers and rebelling against Rome. The conflict between the two sides is becoming increasingly fierce. Finally, in 32 BC, Octavian declared war on Antony. In September 31 BC, Antony and the Queen of Egypt joined forces in Greece Actium point Fighting Octavian, as the history says Battle of Actium . As a result, Antony was defeated and fled back with the queen Egypt . Thirty years before, Octavian invaded Egypt, Antony and the Queen committed suicide, while the Queen and Caesar's bastard Caesarion was put to death, The Ptolemaic Dynasty Perish. At this point, Egypt became a Roman province.

For the first 27 years, Octavian Using clever political skills, he declared that he had removed all power and wanted to restore it republicanism ; On the one hand, he pretended to be forced by the Senate and the citizens to accept absolute powers completely contrary to the republican system, and became the chief senator (i.e. the Fuhrer). Principate system Hence), Supreme Consul, Consul for life, Consul for life Tribune High priests, etc., who call themselves" First citizen The Supreme Commander (or translated as "Victorious General"), Grand marshal "), and received the Senate's award of" Oh, Augustus "(meaning" sacred ") and" Father of the motherland "The title. Octavian's wonderful performance announced the founding of the Roman Empire.

Transitional development

Subject article: The dynasty of Julia Claudius

Oh, Augustus During his reign, he reformed the military, reduced armaments, and established the first permanent army of the Empire Impera Brigade Guard ; A cabinet was set up to assist the emperor in government affairs; The establishment of the "Internal Revenue Service" to assume overall financial authority; The administrative divisions were reorganized into senatorial provinces and emperor provinces to establish the supreme military power of the emperor. Augustus to Diplomatic means With Parthia and Armenia Establish friendly relations.

Tiberius (reigned 14-37)

In the first 19 years, the Empire conquered Spain Throughout the territory. From 16 BC onwards, Augustus sent troops Alps Eastern Hoa Danube Upriver, the provinces of Rhaetia and Norric were set up, followed by an army Danube In the middle and lower reaches, there are two provinces, Pannonia and Mercia. The first 12 to 5 years, gradually conquered Rhine to Elbe Between the lands, but the newly conquered lands there were constant riots. Nine years, General Varus In suppression The Germans insurrectionary Battle of the Teutoburg Forest The army was ambushed and destroyed, and Augustus had to give up Rhine to Elbe Between the land. The expansion of the Roman Empire into West Germania came to a halt. Augustus made no further great conquests, and the following two centuries were marked by a long period of stability called" Pax romana "Period.

In 14 Augustus died and was adopted Tiberius . Tiberius canceled it to strengthen his imperial power Assembly of citizens The legislative power and Right to vote He concentrated his guards in Rome to defend the emperor. Tiberius's personality was cold and harsh, and he acted arbitrarily in the later years of his reign, repeatedly punishing the words and deeds of the emperor against or against him curia Can only agree with him, and the relationship between the Senate and the family is strained. He retired in '26 Capri And ruled Rome there for nearly a decade. In 37 Tiberius died of illness Capri .

After the death of Tiberius, the guard was raised Caligula For the emperor, this is Roman history The first time an army crowned an emperor. In the early years of his reign, Caligula was generous and widely loved by his people. Later, sudden attack psychosis He ignored state affairs, indulging in recreational activities, and was temperamental, brutal and murderous, often executing senators and nobles and confiscating their property. In 40 years, he preached personal dictatorship in Rome and deified the emperor. In '41, Caligula was killed by the Guards.

Claudius (reigned 41-54)

After Caligula's death, the guards promoted his old uncle Claudius Enthrone. During the reign of Claudius, he reformed the institutions of government and established a system bureaucracy The Central Government has three departments, namely the Secretariat (in charge of internal affairs, military affairs and foreign affairs), the Finance Department (in charge of finance) and the Justice Department (in charge of law). Raise your knighthood, and you will Roman citizenship Granted to the inhabitants of the province. As a result, provincial nobles could also serve as high officials or in the Senate. In terms of foreign expansion, new conquests Britain Minami Hoa Mauritania . Claudius also built Tiber buccal Ostia Port as well as large-scale Water pipeline . In 54, Claudius was probably killed by the empress Little Agrippina Poison.

After the death of Claudius, adopted son Nero Enthrone. During the reign of Nero, a number of policies were enacted to benefit the common people. The appointment of general Corbulo, successfully defused Parthia with Armenia A crisis. But at the same time, he was a famous tyrant in Roman history, cruel and tyrannical, killing his mother and wife. He is keen on art and describes himself as a "great entertainer". In 64, a great fire broke out in Rome, destroying almost all of the city. After the Great fire, Nero began building a new palace under the name" Golden Palace ". Rumors spread in Rome that Nero had set the fire to build a new palace. In order to dispel rumors, Nero used Christians as scapegoats and hunted them down. ^[3] In '66, Palestine Regional outbreak Jewish war . Then Nero arrived again Greece Go on a long art tour. With Nero out of power, revolts broke out against Nero. In March of '68, Gaul Governor Windix and Spain viceroy Garba Rise up in rebellion. In May, Windix was killed. At this time, the Senate declared Nero An enemy of the state, Nero committed suicide on the run.

Nero (reigned 54-68)

After Nero's death, curia acknowledge Garba To the Emperor. As Galba was old and weak, he was unable to control the situation, leading generals from all over the country Support the army and respect oneself . Governor of Lower Germania, January 69 Vitellius Declaring himself emperor while Garba was under his command Octo Killed. Otto declared himself emperor. In March, Vitellius He fought for the throne against Otto, who was defeated and committed suicide. In July, it is being pacified Jew Rebel general Vypasian He was proclaimed emperor by many armies. In October, Vespasian defeated Vitellius, ending the battle for the throne.

Stability and consolidation

Subject article: The Dynasty of Flavius

In December of '69, Vypasian Declare yourself emperor. After Vespasian became emperor, the empire faced a crisis, he first suppressed the uprisings everywhere. In '70, he successfully suppressed the Badawi rebellion. In the same year, his son Titus Lead troops to capture Jerusalem , massacres Jew And burned down the Jewish temple, Jewish war That's it. Vespasian was strengthened to make up for the financial problems caused by the civil war Tax administration Raise the province The amount of tax payable To rectify the military and domestic affairs. During his reign, the position of the provinces was greatly strengthened. In '73, he joined the nobles of the provinces curia He granted Roman citizenship to many provincial nobles, allowing them to participate extensively in politics.

Flavian emperors: Vespasian, Titus, Tumithan

Vespasian died in 79 and was succeeded by his son Titus. Titus was a moderate ruler. First year in office, Mount Vesuvius Explode, bury Pompeii ; After that, there was another fire in Rome and plague . Titus Rush about Tired of disaster relief work.

In '81, Titus died, brother Tumithane Enthrone. Tumician vigorously promoted the imperial power, consolidated the head of state system, reformed the cabinet, and further attracted knighthood Get involved in politics. In terms of foreign expansion, he achieved success in South Germania, building the Germanic Great Wall, which took Rhine with Danube The upper reaches were integrated into the empire. But in... Dacia Lost the war twice, and finally made peace. Despotic and dictatorial, he regarded himself as "the Lord and God" and despised the Senate. In 89, under the pretext of supporting the rebellion, Tumishan executed a large number of senior dignitaries, causing widespread panic. Tumishan died in '96 Palace coup .

heyday

Subject article: The Dynasty of Antony

After Tumician's death, the Senate elected an old, childless former consul Nerva To the Emperor. Nerva treated the Senate with respect and kindness, and the authority of the Senate was restored to some extent. But he was very unpopular with the army and the military commander. In order to win the support of the army, Nerva, in the second year of his reign, selected the German governor who had distinguished himself in battle Trajan As an adopted son, he succeeded in appeasing the army.

Trajan (reigned 98-117)

In '98, Nerva He died and Trajan ascended the throne, the first emperor born of provincial nobility. Trajan Continue to execute Nerva's policy of being kind to the elders, vigorously built Public facilities And actively expanded abroad, the Roman Empire reached its largest territory during the reign. From 101 Trajan led an invasion Dacia By 106, it had been completely conquered and created the province of Dacia. Trajan held a grand triumphal celebration, declaring the holiday 123 days, and built it Trajan's column . In 105, Trajan captured Arabia In the north, there will be an Arab province. In 114, Trajan annexed Armenia The province of Armenia was established. Trajan then continued his march east, defeating the Parthian army and capturing the Parthian capital in 116 Tesiphon . At the end of the year Trajan's army arrived The Persian Gulf He was the only Roman general to ever reach it. In 117 Trajan became ill and withdrew Assyria and Mesopotamia Two provinces. Deathbed pronouncement Hadrian Adopted son.

Hadrian (reigned 117-138)

After Trajan's death, Hadrian ascended the throne. Hadrian turned to the defensive, abandoning the lands Trajan had conquered in the East. During his reign, Hadrian traveled extensively, covering almost the entire empire. During which he was in Britain The northern part of the island was built with an east-west" Hadrian's Wall "To defend Scotland The barbarian invasion; Uniform recruitment standards, strengthen the quality of the army, and establish a temporary military system. Hadrian further promoted imperial power, making the emperor's will the supreme law, and ordered jurists to compile the" Perpetual edict As the legal basis of the empire; Greatly strengthen Jack Status, making it a specific bureaucratic class; Continue and strengthen province The Romanization of the city narrowed the distance between the provincial cities and Rome. He still Roman The famous Pantheon was rebuilt. In 131, Hadrian banned it Jew hold circumcision The practice of observing the Sabbath and reading Jewish law sparked a Jewish uprising, which the Roman army suppressed by killing 580,000 Jews over the course of two years. Hadrian forbade it Judaism Dwell in Jerusalem A large number of Jews have been displaced since then. Hadrian took the question of succession seriously and chose a 52-year-old councillor Antony Pius As an adopted child, and asked him to accept an 18-year-old Congressman Marcus Aurelius With 7 years old Lucius Verus Adopted son.

In 138, Hadrian died and his adopted son Antony Pius took the throne. During the reign of Antony Pius, the external borders were closed, and there was little trouble; Work hard at home, love the people, and curia Relations were good, the Treasury was rich, and Rome enjoyed more than 20 years of peace and prosperity.

Antony Pius (reigned 138-161)

161 years, Antony Pius Died, the throne by two adopted sons Verus and Marcus Aurelius Succession. It was the first time in Roman history that two emperors had ruled together. Marcus Aurelius was the famous "philosopher emperor", yes The Stoics Leading expositor of philosophy, author of the book Meditations Verus was more mediocre.

At the time of their accession, the situation on the Empire's borders was grim, and Parthia invaded in 162 Armenia It took Verus four years to defeat Parthia, which he annexed in 164-165 Mesopotamia North. In 167, The Germans There was another invasion, and the two emperors had to lead an army. Due to financial constraints, dinar The silver content of silver coins was further reduced. When Verus died in 169, the empire was restored to a single emperor. Marcus Aurelius, in order to relieve the pressure of the Germans on the Empire, allowed them to settle on the imperial borders, setting the stage for future barbarian invasions. 175 years, General Avidius Cassius Revolts in the east of the Empire, and soon Zhenping . Marcus Aurelius then launched a war against the Germans, attempting to annex them Bohemia . In 180, just as he was about to succeed, Marcus Aurelius died of illness in the army.

Marcus Aurelius was a relatively great emperor, he was diligent in the administration of the people, actively handled the government, and guarded the empire's borders. However, during this period, the Germanic barbarian invasions intensified, and the border defenses were already showing signs of being lost, domestically Economic situation Worsening day by day. After his death, the Roman Empire gradually began to decline.

From prosperity to decline

Commodus (reigned 180-192)

After the death of Marcus Aurelius, son Commodus To ascend the throne. Commodus did not dare to indulge in the early years of his reign, and was more respectful of the senators appointed to assist him before Marcus Aurelius. In 182, his sister Lucilla and some senators tried to assassinate him, and after the incident, he executed all those involved in the assassination, as well as many innocent people. Commodus no longer trusted the senator, and left all government affairs to his favourites and ministers Impera Brigade Guard Sir Handle it. In the later period of his reign, he was cruel and suspicious, and loved circus and wrestling Physical activity He called himself Hercules Hercules Reincarnated, often wear gladiator Dress, participate wrestle Contest.

Commodus's rule caused discontent among the people, and many people plotted to assassinate him, which also encouraged him to become more eccentric and violent. At the end of 192, when Commodus announced his intention to become consul of the year in the gladiator costume, his mistress gave him a poisoned drink, and he was subsequently murdered by wrestlers sent by the prefects of the Guards.

After Commodus's death, the Guards proclaimed Prefect of the city Pettinax To the Emperor. Pettinax was active in quetting what Commodus had brought to the Empire Negative impact But when he tried to clean up the military discipline, he was immediately killed by the guards.

Pantheon

After Pettinax's death, the Guards announced that the throne would be auctioned off, and the highest bidder would be made emperor. After many people compete with each other, Julianus Bought the throne at a price the guards were happy with. But Julianus doesn't have one follower The army was even more dismissive of him. Syria Governor Nigel first declared himself emperor, followed by Governor Pannonia, North Africa people Severus In revolt, he led his troops on a swift march to Rome, where the guards were demoralized and soon routed. curia Instead, Severus was proclaimed emperor. The guards executed Julianus in order to ask Severus for forgiveness. When Severus entered Rome, he replaced the old Guard with High treason They were all executed for their crimes, and formed a new and larger guard with their own soldiers.

Beginning of crisis

Subject article: The Severus Dynasty

Severus (reigned 193-211)

Severus After declaring himself emperor, he immediately went to war with the already declared emperor, and in 194, he was defeated at Issus. In 197, Severus was there again Lyon Defeat the rebels Britain Albenus, the governor, ended the civil war that had begun in 193. Severus is a soldier. He's used to doing things his own way curia He removed many senators from important positions and replaced them with cronies and knights. Severus's rule was backed by an army, and he expanded it to an unprecedented size, most of them foreigners, and paid high salaries for them, reward And not stingy. Severus achieved no small military success and, in addition to ending the civil war, defeated Parthia in 197 and annexed it again Mesopotamia The northern part was made a province. General Severus Principate system Transition to absolute monarchy The jurists of the time said, "He is not subject to everything. Legal constraint He is the master of any man, and the empire is his property." In 208, Severus invaded Britain Conquer the South Scotland . He died of illness in 211 York . His last words to his two sons were: "May you brothers live in peace and make the soldiers rich, and leave the others alone."

Caracalla (reigned 211-217)

After Severus died, two sons Caracara Enthronement at the same time as Gaeta. Caracalla was also a tyrant, and the following year he killed his brother Geta and his associates, as well as his wife, father-in-law and many prominent people. Caracalla continued Severus's preferential treatment of the army in order to increase revenue and expansion Tax source It was promulgated by Caracalla in 212 Edict of Antoninus Granted to all within the Empire Freeman With Roman citizenship. In 217, Caracalla was captured during his expedition to Parthia Impera Brigade Guard Kill.

After Caracalla was killed, Captain of the Guards Macrinus Make yourself emperor and take your son Diadomenian For the co-ruling emperor. Macrinus accepted extremely unfavorable terms when he took the throne, ending the war with Parthia and reducing it again Military expenditure This led to discontent in the army. In 218, Severus's sister-in-law Julia Misa instigated a rebellion in which Macrinus and Diademenian were present Asia Minor Killed.

Misa had a grandson who was only thirteen years old Elagabalus To the Emperor. Elagabalus worshipped the Eastern gods, indulged in immorality, ignored state affairs, and had poor relations between the Senate and the army. In 222, Misa acquiesced to the Guards killing him and taking another grandson, aged 14 Alexandre Severus To the Emperor. During the reign of Alexandre Severus, relations with the Senate improved. In 231, Alexandre Severus traveled to the East with the emerging Empire Sassanian Persia Fighting, the situation slightly improved, and rushed to the west to resist the invasion of the south The Germans . In 235, the army revolted and Alexandre Severus was killed.

Climax of crisis

Subject article: Third century crisis

Posthumus (Emperor of Gallic Empire, 259-269)

After the death of Alexander Severus, the army rose Thrace people Maximinus To the Emperor. Maximinus was a barbarian who was despised and treated with brutality curia And the people. In 238, secret instructions from the Senate Impera Brigade Guard Kill it. In the same year, the Senate introduced four emperors, all of whom were killed. He ascended the throne later Gordian III But 13 years old, a puppet of the Guards. In 244, the army was established Philip the Arab . In 247, Philip celebrated the 1,000th anniversary of the founding of Rome. In 249, Philip was defeated by a rebellious general Dekius Kill. Dekius was married in 251 Goth Died in the war, ascended the throne Gallus There was a prolonged plague during his reign, and Gallus died at the hands of soldiers in 253. enthronement Valleran And son Galenus Take two armies, one to resist in the east Sassanian Persia The other is resisting in the west The Germans This was the first step in dividing the empire between east and west. 260 years, Rhine Regional general Persidumus Make yourself emperor, establish Gallic Empire , the rule includes Gaul , Britain , Spain Most of the area. That same year, Valerian fought with Persia Captured in action, results unknown. In 267, Palmyra in the east became independent, splitting off parts of the eastern provinces.

At this time, the chaos of the Roman Empire reached its climax, the empire was divided into three, and the central authority was almost paralyzed; The emperor not only faced external enemies, but also suppressed armies and people who rebelled from time to time. In addition, the army continued to appoint new emperors, hoping for more rewards, and if they were not generous, the emperor would be killed. In 268, Galenus reformed the military, relieved the soldiers of other duties, and created a new reserve army, which was stationed in Milan Milan was the military capital of the Empire. The reformed army successfully defeated the Ostrogoth attack. In 269, an uprising broke out in Gaul between slaves and coloni Baguda movement The rebels declared themselves emperor and minted coins, which lasted until 286.

The Illyrian emperors

Aurelian (reigned 270-275)

Galenus Killed by his men less than a year after reforming the military, Claudius the Second Enthrone. He first defeated the Alamanni, then a powerful one Goth Army, the title of "Gothic Conqueror".

Claudius II died of plague in 270, Aurelian Enthrone. Aurelian struck the Goths again in Pannonia, putting an end to the Goth invasion. Then he led an army to the east and defeated The Palmyra Empire recovered Asia Minor and Syria He then stormed the city of Palmyra, captured the queen of Palmyra, Zinobia, and razed the city to the ground in 273. That same year, Gallic Empire Emperor Tetrykus I Seeking help from Aurelian to put down the uprising at home, expressing his willingness to give up his independence, Gaul , Britain and Spain Before being reintegrated into the Empire ^[13] . Aurelian reunified the empire, hence the name "The Light of the World". In order to strengthen the defense, Aurelian Roman A new wall 20 kilometers long and 6 meters high was built and abandoned Dacia In order to take advantage of Danube The defense of nature.

In 275, Aurelian is on the march Sassanian Persia When he was killed, curia state Claudius Tacitus This was the last time the Senate would elect an emperor. Tacitus died after a year on the throne, and an army was established Probus . Probus shattered The Germans A three-way invasion of Gaul and the expulsion of the Vandals Balkan Peninsula .

In 282, Probus was killed, Marcus Aurelius Carus Enthrone. Carus again defeated the Germans in the north and attacked Persia, which he briefly occupied Tesiphon . In 283, Carus died violently, his son Carinus To ascend the throne. In 284, Impera Brigade Guard prefect Diocletian Rebellion, in Belgrade Nearby defeated Carinus and became ruler of the empire.

Partition empire

Subject article: Tetrarchy

Diocletian After declaring himself emperor, will Principate system Make real monarchy . The monarch wears a crown and a silk robe, and his subjects are expected to act towards him Bow down ; The monarch was called "Lord" and was worshipped as a god, as Diocletian called himself Jupiter Avatar. Imperial power was at its peak. In 286, Diocletian awarded it to generals Oh, Maximian " Oh, Augustus He was named co-emperor of the western part of the Empire. In 287, Britain Carausius, commander of the fleet, conspired against him to become emperor and occupy Britain Gaul The northwest was pacified until 296. Diocletian managed to consolidate it in 288 The Euphrates River Defensive line, quilt curia Award" Persia The title of Conqueror. In the same year, he led the army Syria Antiochus returned west, headed Danube To help fight bandits in Gaul Oh, Maximian . In 290, the suppression of the bandits in Gaul ended, and they went to Syria again to suppress Arabia nomad The rebellion of... 291, repelled The Nile The natives who invaded the Empire upstream. In 292, he returned to the Danube and repelled the Northern Germanic barbarians across the south The Sarmatians . ^[4] In 293, Diocletian began to implement" Tetrarchy ", specifically as follows:

The first tetrarchy
orientation	Title	Emperor's name	capital	jurisdiction
Eastern Empire	Augustus (Emperor)	Diocletian	Nicomedia	Asia Minor , Syria , Palestine and Egypt
Eastern Empire	Caesar (Vice Emperor)	Galerius	Belgrade Nearby	Danube South of Pannonia , Moesia , Thrace and Balkan Peninsula
Imperial West	Augustus (Emperor)	Oh, Maximian	Milan	South of the upper Danube, The island of Corsica , Sardinia , Sicily , Algeria , Tunisia and Libya
Imperial West	Caesar (Vice Emperor)	Constantius the First	Trier	Britain , Gaul

Diocletian (reigned 284-305)

Diocletian stipulated that the two Augustus in the east and the west of the Empire should each appoint a Caesar (deputy emperor), and that Augustus must abdicate after 20 years on the throne and be succeeded by the original two Caesars as Augustus, and then appoint a Caesar each. The Tetrarchy did not divide the empire into four parts, but entrusted the defense of the empire to four emperors. Diocletian's position is still the highest of the four. ^[5]

Diocletian reduced the size of the provinces, divided into about 100 provinces, and set up administrative districts, over a dozen provinces, local governors did not hold military posts. Diocletian's reforms Military, the army is divided into border army and field army, the border army is used to resist foreign invasion, the field army is used to suppress popular uprising and army mutiny and large-scale foreign enemy Mobile operation . He also reduced the size of the legion and increased its number for dispatch. Since Diocletian divided the empire into four, each emperor had a large number of soldiers, which greatly increased the economic burden of the empire. So Diocletian introduced a new tax system and changed it Monetary system , adjusted prices, and issued Price edicts, but were unsuccessful. In 297, co-ruler of Diocletian Galerius intrude Sassanian Persia In 298, the occupation Tesiphon . In 299, a peace treaty was concluded with Sassanid Persia, and Rome won the war Mesopotamia North and Armenia the Right of control . Diocletian abdicated in 305 after 20 years on the throne, and at the same time Oh, Maximian Also abdicate.

The Tetrarchy

Augustus in the west Constantius the First In office for just over a year, just before Britain Died, son Constantine the First (i.e. Constantine the Great Came to the throne with the support of the army. When Constantine I came to the throne, he possessed only Britain and Britain Gaul , Italy , Spain with North Africa The district was the son of Maximian Maxentius Control. In 312, he defeated Maxentius and united the West.

In the east, Augustus Galerius He ascended the throne after his death in 311 Licini Beat possession Egypt Sum part Asia territorial Daia And unified the East. In 313, Constantine I and Licinius issued a decree Edict of Milan He declared Christianity legitimate. In 314, conflict broke out between the two, and Licinius was defeated and forced to abandon the war Thrace Outside of Europe. In 323, the two fought again, Licinius was defeated, and Constantine I became the sole ruler of the empire.

Zte and transformation

Subject article: The Dynasty of Constantine

Constantine I (reigned 306-337)

When Constantine I came to the throne, he was running around the empire, and he adopted something like Diocletian The way to appoint Three sons Constantine II, Constantius the Second , Constance the First for Cesar Each ruling empire was a part of: Constantine the Great ruled Balkan Peninsula and The Black Sea The region was ruled by Constantine II Spain , Gaul and Britain Constantius II ruled the East and Egypt The reign of Constance I Italy and Africa . Constantine I reformed the administrative divisions and divided the country into four Greater administrative region The next is the administrative region, and then the next is the province. Economically, he continued Diocletian's policy of hereditary occupation, fixed peasants to the land, and enacted laws to reaffirm it Slave Master The status of. Militarily, repeal Impera Brigade Guard It was replaced by Palatine cavalry guards, and a large number of barbarians were recruited into the army, improving the effectiveness of the Roman army. otherness Terror tactics Conscription was forced and those who refused could be put to death. Religiously, the First Council of Nicaea was held in 325, which established many of the basic tenets of Christianity and put it into practice Arianism Dismissed as heresy. His actions laid the foundation for the future dominance of Christianity in Europe.

Beginning in 324, Constantine I embarked on a major project to build a new capital on the Bosphorus Constantinople Called the New Rome. 330, initially built, its special Geographical environment and Strategic position , yes Eastern Roman Empire An important reason for not dying through thousands of years. In 337, Constantine I died and was baptized.

Julian (Apostate) (reigned 361-363)

After the death of Constantine I, the Roman Empire immediately broke out in the scramble for the throne, Constantine II, Constantine I, Magnentius have been killed. In 353, Constantius II became the sole ruler of the Empire. In 361, he was a cousin of Constantius II apostate Jullian In revolt, Constantius II died on his way to the war against Julian, who took power. Julianby neoplatonism After taking the throne, he implemented anti-Christian policies and vigorously assisted polytheism . Churches were burned and looted, Christians were expelled from the army and schools, and he himself wrote books attacking Christianity. On the economic front, Julian succeeded in stopping inflation. Militarily, he defeated The Germans And invade Persia Sassanid dynasty . In 363, Julian was killed in battle Jovian To cancel Julian's anti-Christian policies.

Imperial decline

Subject article: The Valentinian Dynasty

In 364, Jovian Death (may be Food poisoning ), Danube officer Valentinian the First He was made emperor by the army, and then he appointed his brother Valens Co-emperor of the eastern part of the Empire. The garrison of Valentinian I Milan Garrison Valens Constantinople . In 376, Valentinian I died, Valentinian II Enthrone. In 378, Valens was in Adrianople with Goth The battle of the Empire was followed by Gratian and Theodosius I Shared governance. After the death of Gratian in 383, Theodosius made peace with the Goths, allowing them to settle in the territory, join the army, and serve as officials. In 388, he defeated the western usurpers Magnus Maximus and Flavius Victor. In 392, Valentinian II was born Gaul Death in the palace of the Southeastern Viena (possibly by hanging) ^[6] .

Subject article: The Theodosian dynasty

Division of the Roman Empire, 395.

In 393, Theodosius I Declares Christianity the state religion and opposes everything heathenism And heresy, close polytheism The temple, the new Christian church. He thinks Ancient Olympic Games Against the Christian fundamentalism, is a pagan activity, so announced the abolition of the ancient Olympic Games. In 394, after defeating the usurper Eugenius in the west, Theodosius I became sole ruler of the Empire, which was also the Roman Empire After a lot of divide-and-conquer The last unification. The population under Roman rule may have been around 56 million in that year ^[7] . In 395, Theodosius I was born Milan When he died, he divided the empire again into east and west, with the east given to his eldest son Arcadius The west was given to his younger son Honorius.

The Western Roman Empire collapsed

Subject article: Western Roman Empire

Honorius (Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, 395-423)

Five centuries later, The Great migration of peoples in Europe The wave reached a peak. Chief of the Visigoths Alaric In Northeast Asia nomad The Huns were under intense pressure to invade the Roman Empire. In the winter of 405, Alaric and the Huns broke through the Empire Rhine The line of defense, which Rome offered no effective resistance to, effectively gave up Gaul Most of the area. 407, garrison Britain The general Constantine III revolted, Western Roman Empire When the emperor Honorius tried to get Alaric to attack Constantine III, Alaric demanded 4,000 pounds of gold in return, and Honorius agreed. Then, after Honorius reneged on his promise, Alaric and the Huns invaded Italy Honorius from Milan Escape to Ravenna . Alaric went south and laid siege to Rome.

At this time, famine and plague broke out in Rome, curia He had to make peace with Alaric, handing over 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, and many valuables and treasures. In 409, Alaric The Huns and the Huns besieged Rome for a second time and erected one Puppet emperor While Honorius hunkered down in Ravenna Eastern Roman Empire With the support of his Majesty. In 410, Alaric and the Huns besieged Rome for the third time and finally conquered it. The Allied forces pillaged the city for three days and made great gains, while Rome was devastated. In the same year, all Roman legions stationed in Britain were withdrawn, declaring the end of Roman rule over Britain.

Valentinian III (Western Roman Emperor, 425-455)

He was co-emperor of Honorius for the next ten years Constantius the Third Becoming the military head of the empire, the empire was stable for a while. In 418, The Visigothic Kingdom in Aquitaine The province of Gaul, with its capital at Toulouse, was the first barbarian kingdom to be established within the Western Roman Empire. When Honorius died in 423, Valentinian the Third Enthronement, regent to his mother, Gala Placida.

In 439, The Kingdom of Vandal-Aran in North Africa The region was founded, capital of Carthage, and built up its own navy, which kept attacking the Western Roman Empire from the sea. 451, chief of the Huns Attila Led the invasion, was named by the empire Aetius Allied with the Visigothic Kingdom and other Germanic repulsed. Since then, Aetius has repelled several barbarian attacks. In 454, Petronius Maximus Conspiring with his ministers to falsely accuse Aetius of treason, Valentinian III believed it and murdered Aetius in the palace. Maximus then conspired with his soldiers to murder Valentinian III and proclaimed himself emperor. 455. Leader of the Vandals Geisseric The Union Huns took advantage of the chaos and invaded Rome, where Maximus was killed and the city was sacked again.

Romulus Augustus (Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, 475-476)

By this point, the Western Roman Empire was no longer sustainable, but only surviving. The eight subsequent emperors were puppets, with real power in the hands of barbarian generals. During the 16 years of Lichmeyer's rule, it was abolished Avitus , Mayorian , Libius Severus To kill the emperor who was supported by the East Emperor Anthemius , separately Olibrius . When Gundobide was in power, he supported Glisellius. 475 years, Orest General son Romulus II Make himself emperor. In 476, the barbarian general Odovaca Rebel against Oreste, depose Romulus Augustus Declaring allegiance to the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno The power of the Western Roman Empire was transferred to the Eastern Roman Empire, thus ending the Western Roman Empire. The fall of the Western Roman Empire Western Europe slavery The history of Western Europe has since opened a new page.

The Roman Empire changed dynamically

Imperial succession

Eastern Roman Empire ( The Byzantine Empire )

Western Roman Empire After its demise, the Eastern Roman Empire became the de facto successor to the Roman Empire. 1453, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire Constantinople for Ottoman Empire Sudan Muhammad II The siege. In 1460, the Eastern Roman Empire fell Moria The territory was occupied by the Ottoman Empire. In 1461, the Ottoman Empire collapsed The Trabzon Empire . At this point, the Eastern Roman Empire was gone forever.

Eastern Roman Empire (6th century under Justinian I)

Eastern Roman Empire (9th - 11th centuries during the Macedonian Dynasty)

territory

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EDITOR

The provinces of the Roman Empire were divided into three categories: curia Provinces (administered by the Senate), Emperor provinces (administered by the Emperor), local provinces (administered by Local finance Governor-general). ^[8] The following table lists the provinces of the Roman Empire around 120.

Provinces of the Roman Empire (circa 120)
Chinese name	Latin name	Establishment year	sort	General area
Province of Achaea	Achaea	146 BC	The senatorial provinces	Southern Greece, Peloponnese region
Provinces of Egypt	Aegyptus	The first 30 years	provincial	Egypt
The Province of Africa	Africa	146 BC	The senatorial provinces	Tunisia
The province of Cotia Alpes	Alpes Cottiae	The first 14 years	provincial	Italian-french border
The province of the Coastal Alps	Alpes Maritimae	The first 14 years	provincial	Italian-french border, near the Mediterranean Sea
Department of Peni Alpes	Alpes Poenninae	The first 14 years	provincial	Swiss-france border
Arab province of Petra	Arabia Petraea	105 years	Imperial province	Jordan, and southern Syria
The Province of Asia	Asia	129 BC	The senatorial provinces	East Asia Minor
Province of Lower Armenia	Armenia Inferior	114 years	Imperial province	East coast of Black Sea
The province of Assyria	Assyria	116 years	Imperial province	Northern Iraq
Province of Bitinia	Bithynia	74 BC	Imperial province	Northwest Asia Minor
Provinces of Britain	Britannia	Forty-three years	Imperial province	England, Wales
Province of Cappadocia	Cappadocia	17 years	Imperial province	East central Asia Minor
The Silesian Province	Cilicia	64 BC	Imperial province	South Asia Minor
Comagni Province	Commagene	72 years	Imperial province	Southeast Asia Minor
The province of Codunet	Corduene	66 BC	Imperial province	Kurdistan region
Provinces of Corsica and Sardinia	Corsica et Sardinia	231 BC	provincial	Corsica, Sardinia
Provinces of Crete and Cyrenaica	Creta et Cyrenaica	The first 30 years	The senatorial provinces	Crete, northeastern Libya
Province of Cyprus	Cyprus	58 years	The senatorial provinces	Cyprus
Dacia Province	Dacia	105 years	Imperial province	Romania
Adb Province of Dalmatia	Dalmatia	The first 32 years	Imperial province	Southern Croatia
Epirus Province	Epirus	146 BC	provincial	Western Greece
Galatian Province	Galatia	The first 25 years	Imperial province	Anatolia
Aquitaine, Gaul	Gallia Aquitania	87 BC	Imperial province	Central and southeastern France
Gaul, Belgium	Gallia Belgica	57 BC	Imperial province	Belgium
Lyon, Gaul	Gallia Lugdunensis	87 BC	Imperial province	Central and northern France
Narpung, province of Gaul	Gallia Narbonensis	118 BC	The senatorial provinces	Southern France
Lower Germanic Province	Germania Inferior	90 years	Imperial province	Netherlands
Upper Germanic Province	Germania Superior	90 years	Imperial province	France, Germany and Switzerland
Spanish Province of Betica	Hispania Baetica	14 years	The senatorial provinces	Southern Spain
Lusitania, Spanish province	Hispania Lusitania	14 years	Imperial province	Portugal
Spanish province of Tarragona	Hispania Tarraconensis	The first 27 years	Imperial province	Most of Spain
Italy	Italia	/	mainland	Italy
Judea	Iudaea	First 63 years	Imperial province	Israel
The province of Likonia	Lycaonia	64 BC	Imperial province	Anatolia
The province of Lycia	Lycia	Forty-three years	The senatorial provinces	South Asia Minor
Provinces of Macedonia	Macedonia	146 BC	The senatorial provinces	Macedonia
Caesarea Province of Mauritania	Mauretania Caesariensis	40 years	provincial	Northwestern Algeria
Tingitana Mauritania	Mauretania Tingitana	40 years	provincial	Northern Morocco
The province of Misia	Moesia	The first 29 years	Imperial province	South bank of the Danube
Norric Province	Noricum	The first 16 years	Imperial province	Austria
Numidian Adb Province	Numidia	The first 25 years	Imperial province	Northeast coast of Algeria
Osloni Province	Osroene	116 years	provincial	Northern Syria
Pannonia Province	Pannonia	20 years?	Imperial province	Hungary
Pamphilia Province	Pamphylia	The first 25 years	Imperial province	Southwest Asia Minor
The province of Pontus	Pontus	64 BC	Imperial province	North Asia Minor
Reti Adb Province	Raetia	Fifteen years	Imperial province	Most of Switzerland
Province of Sicily	Sicilia	241 BC	The senatorial provinces	Sicily
The province of Sofiana	Sophene	89 BC	Imperial province	Armenia
Provinces of Syria	Syria	64 BC	Imperial province	Most of Syria
Taurika Province	Taurica	The 1st century	Imperial province	North coast of Black Sea
The province of Thrace	Thrace	Forty-six years	Imperial province	Northern Greece, southern Bulgaria

Military affairs

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EDITOR

Reference: Roman legion

For the first 29 years, Octavian proceed Military reform Set up a standing army. Roman army The main arms are hoplite and cavalry. The main equipment of the Roman hoplite javelin , short sword and shield and armor. The armor was usually made of copper sheets and leather, even later Chain mail and Scale beetle . In addition to the basic equipment, the cavalry is equipped with a beautifully made copper helmet. The early metal equipment of the Roman army was generally made of bronze.

Roman Basic unit It's a corps with auxiliary units and mercenary . The regiment consists of a team of hundreds, the leader of which is called centurion . Roman military discipline was strict, requiring absolute obedience from subordinates to superiors. There are also various punishments in the army, and deserters are punished." The law of eleven kills That is, one out of every ten people was put to death. In the later period of the Roman Empire, the army was mainly composed of barbarians, and the military discipline was poor and the combat effectiveness was low.

economy

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EDITOR

agriculture

The most important part of the Roman Empire's economy was agriculture. imperial Food crop Mainly wheat, it was cultivated throughout the Empire, especially in the eastern provinces. imperial Cash crop mainly Olive and Grapes , Mediterranean The region is a major producer of grapes and olives. Each year, the Empire imported large amounts of grain, wine and oil from the Eastern provinces, and the Eastern provinces were also an important source of tax revenue for the Empire. Imperial agriculture Production efficiency It is not very high, and two-zone rotation is common, and swing foot plows are used more than furrows. The agricultural industry of the Empire consisted mainly of large-scale estates, using slaves or coloni Labor (flourished after the 3rd century), small farmers ( owner-peasant ) Almost disappeared. In the later years of the Empire, these estates heavily influenced the empire's tax revenue.

Handicraft industry

Among the handicraft industries of the Roman Empire, the most important was pottery production, because the transportation of food, wine, oil and other commodities used pottery. Italy The pottery center is mainly in Pozzuoli . Gaul The pottery industry was also very competitive, and the Gauls also invented the amphorus. Spain the Mining industry Very developed, monopolized by the state. Textile industry Aspects of Padua Woolen fabric Spanish woolen cloak And a kind of Gaul cowl The coats are more famous. There is another system in Spain Fish juice the Handicraft industry It is made of fish seasoning .

Roman money

Oris (Augustus)

Dinar (Augustus, Tiberius)

Oris (Nero, Agrippina the Younger)

Oris (Hadrian, Trajan)

Dinar (Hadrian)

Oris (Antony Pius, Marcus Aurelius)

Oris (Marcus Aurelius)

Sestes (Marcus Aurelius)

Oris (Commodus)

Oris (Severus)

Dinar (Severus)

Oris (Caracalla, Gaeta)

Dinar (Alexandre Severus)

Antoninus (Philip the Arab)

Antoninus (Aurelian)

culture

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EDITOR

philosophy

new The Stoics Philosophy flourished during the imperial period, and the main philosophers were Seneca He Emperor Marcus Aurelius Preaching fatalism and asceticism .

St. Augustine

Seneca (4 BC-65), Emperor Nero He believes that the purpose of philosophy is to lead people to virtue, and advocates suppressing desire and pursuing morality. Seneca himself, however, did not match his words with his actions and amassed wealth. Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote the book Meditations Advocates patience and restraint. ^[10]

Third century crisis Later, neoplatonism Focused on the time mysticism The representative figures are Plotinus and Proclor . Calling God the Source of the world, yes Absolutely infinite Exists, and cannot be recognized; The human body is the source of sin, and man must get rid of the body in order to communicate with God and obtain the truth. This is the doctrine of the unity of man and God.

The Christian side emerged what is known as" Patristic theology Of the initial theology, the representative figure is St. Augustine . St. Oh, Agustin Author of "On the City of God" and "On the City of God" Confessions And so on, incorporating neo-Platonism Christian doctrine Medium. Patristic philosophy Philosophically demonstrates many of today's basic doctrines, the main ones theism , The Trinity , creationism , Theory of original sin , Doctrine of redemption And the kingdom of heaven and so on.

literature

Reference: Ancient Roman literature

A poet in the time of Octavian Virgil (70 BC - 19 BC), early works "pastoral" 10, mainly singing pastoral life. 29 years ago, Virgil published his book idyll Volume 4 (also translated as" Farm poem "), mainly talking about agricultural production, but also singing Pastoral scenery . Book one on planting crops, book two on planting fruit trees, book three Nanyang livestock Book IV on keeping bees. In his later years, he wrote the epic poem The Aeneid "(also translated" Inart ") 12 volumes, narrative Roman mythology The hero of Aeneas flee Troy Came to Italy and became king.

POEMS Horace He wrote Songs of Praise, a eulogy for Octavian.

Ovid (43 -14 BC), to Love poems Famous, famous as "Love Song" 3 volumes 49, is a love poetry collection. She has also written 21 pieces of "Lady's Letters", which is a love letter written by Ovid in the tone of the heroine in the love story based on mythological stories. The author of Ovid's Kama Sutra was himself sentenced to exile for violating Octavian's policy of "clarifying customs. The Black Sea Area. Ovid's representative as the long poem" Metamorphosis ", made about the exile period, rewrote many myths and legends, the plot is changeable, the imagination is strange, long Psychological description .

history

Octavian Period historian Livy (59-17 BC), the author of 142 volumes of the History of Rome since the Founding of the City, 36 volumes of which are in existence, describing the legendary Romulus Set up Rome Up to 9 years of history. It is the first general history of Western historiography.

Tacito (55 -120), the author of 12 volumes of the History, the main narrative The Dynasty of Flavius History of the reign (69-96). Tacitus was politically republican and fiercely opposed to emperor and despotism. In addition, there is" The biography of Agulicola "" The Germanic Annals "Dialogues of the Orator" and" Chronicles "And other works handed down, both high historical and Literary value .

Tacitus

Suvitonius (c. 69-122 years later), his biographical data mainly from Pliny the Younger The book of Letters and the author of Twelve Roman emperors In the form of biography, the twelve monarchs of the early Roman Empire were described, focusing on the depiction of strange stories, but lacking in historical seriousness.

Appian (c. 95 - C. 165), author of the History of Rome. Start from above The time of the Roman Kings It ended in the early 2nd century Trajan The Emperor period covers nearly 900 years of history.

Arian of Nicomedia, author of the book The Expedition of Alexander "Is the most detailed in existence Alexander the Great A biographical work.

Alexander the Great

Amianus Marcellinus (330-395), Antiochus Man, author of A History of the Late Roman Empire, recounts 96 years The Dynasty of Antony It began as Emperor in 378 Valens The history of defeat. The last 18 volumes of this work, volumes 14-31, cover the history of the Roman Empire from 354 to 378. The first 13 volumes are basically excerpts from other existing historical works; The latter 18 volumes are mainly the author's own experience of history, so the content is detailed and vivid, and is the most important original historical records about the late classical era and the early period of the Great migration, because the author is rich in experience Career officer Therefore, the war description in the book is particularly excellent, and it is recognized as since Cesar After the best classical Military history Work.

Language

Latin It's from the Roman Empire Official language It is also the regional language of Italy. Latin was divided into at least two categories during the imperial period: Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin . Classical Latin as Written language While Vulgar Latin is generally spoken as spoken language. Classical Latin was remarkably stable, unchanged from imperial times until the Middle Ages. Vulgar Latin was spoken in dialects in all parts of the empire, and varied greatly, gradually evolving into Romance group These words.

Although Latin was the official language of the empire Greek language It was one of the main languages of the Empire, especially in the eastern provinces of the Empire. Even in Rome, Greek became the language of education and Upper class The language of... Greek is the language of religion (Christianity), science and art.

In the 4th century, Greek gradually lost ground in the western part of the empire, and Latin gained the upper hand. Standard Latin translation, early 5th century Bible This is reflected in the publication of... Western Roman Empire And they began to reject people who spoke Greek. This led to a cultural split between the eastern and western parts of the empire. The Greek language has been used since 610 Eastern Roman Empire Official language ^[9] .

Others such as Aramaic , Coptic , Armenian They also pass through the Empire.

jurisprudence

Second century jurist Gaius, author of the book Legal ladder ".

In the third century, jurists compiled the Code of Gregorian and the Code of Hermogenian, which preserved a large number of imperial edicts and decrees. Jus romanum For modern society Law making Have a profound effect, Civil law system National laws, such as debt laws, Property law And so on, all bearing the shadow of Roman law.

unit

roundness Arena (also known as Colosseum , The Colosseum ), built The Dynasty of Flavius During the period, there were 3 layers of arches that could accommodate tens of thousands of people and were held wrestle The place of the performance, there is a complex Underground facility It can be used for gladiatorial shows, and it can even be filled with water to perform naval battles.

Arc de Triomphe It also originated in Rome and was built for the victorious return of the emperor. Ancient Roman city There are three existing triumphal arches, one for Titus Built in '71, one is Severus Built in 203, one is Constantine the Great It was built in 315. It's beautifully embossed.

amphitheater

The Arch of Constantine

Science and technology

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EDITOR

Natural science

Pliny the Elder (23-79), author of the book Natural history 37 volumes, covering all aspects of science at the time, including astronomy, geography, biology, medicine, agriculture, minerals, and so on. Natural History is written on the basis of Pliny the elder's notes in many years of reading and seeing, and the book is not classified and more messy. The greatest achievement of Natural History is that it describes more than 20,000 things and extracts more than 2,000 kinds of documents, making many precious scientific records handed down at that time. It is an extremely rare encyclopedic work in ancient times.

Pliny the Elder

agriculture

The Spaniard Collumela, author of the book Theory of agriculture 12 volumes, dealing with agrarian techniques and management, as well as social economy, this work had a great influence on medieval manors.

Medical science

Emperor Tiberius The famous doctor of the period Celsus (30-45 BC), he wrote 8 volumes of the Summa Medica, of which 7-8 volumes recorded many operations and described them in detail. Emperor Marcus Aurelius The famous doctor of the period Galen (129-199), served as the imperial physician for many years, and wrote a lot. Galen use monkey Dissection to predict the human body structure, pioneering anatomy The first of its kind. Galen also put forward the "three Reiki" theory, that is, "dynamic Reiki", "natural Reiki", "soul Reiki", to explain the human body Physiological mechanism . Galen's pharmacological writings describe a wide variety of medicinal materials, approximately 820 species, including animals, plants, and minerals. Galen's doctrine was canonized in the medieval West and became the main reference for Avicenna until it was proposed by Harvey in the 17th century Blood circulation theory .

astronomy

Egyptian astronomers Ptolemy (85-168), author of the 13 volumes of the Celestials. Collected works Ancient Greece The triumph of Roman astronomy. The book uses a geometric system to describe the motions of the celestial bodies and has a star map of 1022 stars, which is extremely complete in ancient times. It also deals with calendar calculations, Eclipse of sun and moon Extrapolation and Astronomical instrument Production and use, etc. But since Ptolemy believed in" Geocentric theory In order to make this theory valid, he designed an extremely complex celestial geometric system to solve some problems that the geocentric calculation does not match the reality, so that the calculation results are roughly similar to the actual observation. in Copernicus Put forward" Heliocentric theory Before that, Ptolemy's teachings were dominant in Europe.

geography

Strabo (64 -23 BC), author of the book geography "Volume 17. It contains a detailed description of the "known world" of the Romans at the time, including Europe Everywhere as well A surname and North Africa , involving everywhere Physical geography with Human geography The book also explores the impact of the environment on economic life everywhere and the study of cities. in Geographical discovery Previously, it was the most detailed geography work in the West.

diplomacy

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EDITOR

Roman At the beginning, it only conducted trade and diplomacy with some small countries around it, and the scope was small.

Eurasia in the early Han Dynasty

Eurasia in the later Han Dynasty

Imperial lineage

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EDITOR

Principate system

The dynasty of Julia Claudius

Gaius Octavian (Augustus) (reigned 27-14 BC)

Tiberius (reigned 14-37)

Caligula (reigned 37-41)

Claudius (reigned 41-54)

Nero (reigned 54-68)

Galba (reigned 8 July 68-15 January 69)

Otto (reigned 15 January 69-16 April 69)

Vitellius (reigned 17 April 69-20 December 69)

Vespasian (reigned 69-79)

Titus (reigned 79-81)

Tomisan (reigned 81-96)

Nerva (reigned 96-98)

Trajan (reigned 98-117)

Hadrian (reigned 117-138)

Antony Pius (reigned 138-161)

Marcus Aurelius (reigned 161-180)

Lucius Verus (reigned 161-169)

Commodus (reigned 180-192)

Pettinax (reigned 1 January 193-28 March 193)

Julianus (reigned 28 March 193 -1 July 193)

Severus (reigned 193-211)

Caracalla (reigned 211-217)

Geta (reigned 4 February 211-26 December 211)

Macrinus (reigned 217-218)

Diadomenian (reigned 217-218)

Elagabalus (reigned 218-222)

Alexandre Severus (reigned 222-235)

Maximinus (reigned 235-238)

Gordian I (reigned 22 March 238-12 April 238)

Gordian II (reigned 22 March 238-12 April 238)

Pupienus (reigned 22 April 238-29 July 238)

Barbinus (reigned 22 April 238-29 July 238)

Gordian III (reigned 238-244)

Philip I (reigned 244-249)

Philip II (reigned 247-249)

Dekius (reigned 249-251)

Herenius (reigned from early 251 to July 251)

Hostilian (reigned from July 251 to the end of 251)

Gallus (reigned 251-253)

Volusianus (reigned 251-253)

Emilianus (August 253 - October 253)

Valerian (reigned 253-260)

Galenus (reigned 253-268)

Saloninus (reigned July 260)

Claudius II (reigned 268-270)

Quintilus (reigned from January 270 to the end of 270)

Aurelian (reigned 270-275)

Tacitus (reigned 275-276)

Florianus (reigned from July 276 to the end of 276)

Probus (reigned 276-282)

Carus (reigned 282-283)

Numerian (reigned 283-284)

Carinus (reigned 283-285)

reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
The first 27-14 years	Augustus	Octavian	-
14 years - 37 years	Tiberius	Tiberius	-
'37 -' 41	Caligula	Caligula	Born Gaius Caesar, Caligula is nicknamed "Little boots." Began the custom of Roman emperors making themselves gods Be assassinated
'41 -' 54	Claudius	Claudius	Possibly by the queen Little Agrippina Kill with poison
'54 -' 68	Nero	Nero	Commit suicide

Four Emperors Civil Unrest period ( The Year of the Four Emperors )

reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
'68 -' 69	Galba	Garba	Murdered by Otto.
69 years	Otho	Octo	Defeat, suicide
69 years	Vitellius	Vitellius	Defeated, put to death

The Dynasty of Flavius

reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
'69 -' 79	Vespasian	Vypasian	-
'79 -' 81	Titus	Titus	In '79, Mount Vesuvius Explode, bury Pompeii
'79 -' 81	Titus	Titus	In '79, Mount Vesuvius Explode, bury Pompeii
From '81 to' 96	Domitian	Tumithane	Be assassinated

The Dynasty of Antony

reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
'96 -' 98	Nerva	Nerva	-
'98 -' 117	Trajan	Trajan	-
117-138 years	Hadrian	Hadrian	-
138-161 years	Antoninus Pius	Antony Pius	-
138-161 years	Antoninus Pius	Antony Pius	-
161-180 years	Marcus Aurelius	Marcus Aurelius	As co-emperor with Verus
161-169 years	Lucius Verus	Lucius Verus	Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius
175 years	Avidius Cassius	Avidius Cassius	Usurper, rule Egypt and Syria ectopic centurion killed
177-180 years	Commodus	Commodus	Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius
180-192 years	Commodus	Commodus	Poisoned and strangled by a wrestler

193 years of civil strife

reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
193 years	Pertinax	Pettinax	Killed by soldiers
193 years	Didius Julianus	Julianus	be Impera Brigade Guard kill

The Severus Dynasty

The Severus Dynasty
reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
193-211	Septimius Severus	Severus	-
193-194/195	Pescennius Niger	Nigel	Syria The candidate for the position
193/195-197	Clodius Albinus	Albainus	Britain The candidate for the position
From 198 to 217	Caracalla	Caracara	As co-emperor with Geta
209-211	Geta	Geita	Co-emperor with Caracalla Killed by Caracalla
217-218	Macrinus	Macrinus	Co-emperor with Diadomenian Be put to death
217-218	Diadumenian	Diadomenian	Co-emperor with Macrinus Be put to death
218-222 years	Elagabalus	Elagabalus	Be assassinated
From 222 to 235	Alexander Severus	Alexandre Severus	Killed by rebel soldiers

Third century crisis High water time The Emperor of

Emperor at the height of the crisis in the third century
reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
235-238 years	Maximinus Thrax	Thrace people Maximinus	Killed by the army
238 years	Gordian I	Gordian the First	Co-emperor with Gordian II Commit suicide
238 years	Gordian II	Gordian the Second	Co-emperor with Gordian I Defeated
238 years	Pupienus Maximus	Pupienus	Co-emperor with Barbinus be Impera Brigade Guard kill
238 years	Balbinus	Balbinus	Co-emperor with Pupienus Killed by the Guards
From 238 to 244	Gordian III	Gordian III	Be murdered
240 years	Sabinianus	Sabinianus	Declare oneself emperor Be defeated
244-249 years	Philip the Arab	Philip the Arab	Killed by Decius
248 years	Pacatianus	Pacatianus	Declare oneself emperor Killed by soldiers
248 years	Iotapianus	Iotapianus	contender
248 years	Silbannacus	Hilbanakus	usurper
From 249 to 251	Decius	Dekius	Defeated
From 249 to 252	Priscus	Priscus	Declare yourself emperor in the east
250 years	Licinianus	Licinianus	contender
251 years	Herennius Etruscus	The Etruscans the Herenius	Defeated
251 years	Hostilian	Hostilian	Co-emperor with Gallus Die of plague
Year 251 - Year 253	Gallus	Gallus	Killed by soldiers
Year 251 - Year 253	Volusianus	Volusianus	Co-emperor with Gallus Killed by soldiers
253 years	Aemilianus	Emilianus	Killed by soldiers
253-260 years	Valerian	Valleran	Co-emperor with Gallienus Go out to battle Persia Sassanid dynasty Defeated, captured
253-260 years	Gallienus	Galenus	As co-emperor with Valerian
260-268 years	Gallienus	Galenus	Be murdered
260 years	Saloninus	Saloninus	Co-emperor with Gallienus Be murdered
From 258 to 260	Ingenuus	Ingnuus	self-reliant
260 years	Regalianus	Regarianus	self-reliant
260-261 years	Macrianus Major	The Great Macrianus	self-reliant Defeated
260-261 years	Macrianus Minor	Krianus the little Horse	self-reliant Defeated
260-261 years	Quietus	Kuytus	contender
261 years	Mussius Aemilianus	Mosius Emilianus	self-reliant
268 years	Aureolus	Aurelius	self-reliant to Claudius the Second Forfeit Game

Gallic Empire

Persidumus (Emperor of Gallic Empire, 260-269)

Marius (Emperor of Gallic Empire, reigned 269)

Victorinus (Emperor of Gallic Empire, 269-271)

Tetrikus I (Emperor of Gallic Empire, 271-274)

Tetrikus II (Emperor of Gallic Empire, 273-274)

reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
260-269 years	Postumus	Persidumus	The establishment of the Gallic Empire
269 years	Laelianus	Lelianus	Declare yourself Emperor of the Gallic Empire
269 years	Marius	Marius	-
From 269 to 271	Victorinus	Victorinus	-
270-271 years	Domitianus	Domitianus	Declare yourself Emperor of the Gallic Empire
From 271 to 274	Tetricus I	Tetrykus I	to Aurelian Surrender, the end of the Gallic Empire
273-274 years	Tetricus II	Tetrykus II	As co-emperor with Tetrykus I

Illyria Various emperors

The Illyrian emperors
reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
268-270	Claudius II	Claudius the Second	Die of plague
270 years	Quintillus	Quintilus	Co-emperor with Aurelian Commit suicide
270-275 years	Aurelian	Aurelian	be Impera Brigade Guard kill
271 years	Septimius	Septimius	in Dalmatia Declare oneself emperor Killed by soldiers
275-276	Claudius Tacitus	Claudius Tacitus	Die of illness or be killed
276 years	Florianus	Florianus	Be murdered
276-282 years	Probus	Probus	Killed by soldiers
280 years	Saturninus	Saturninus	Declare oneself emperor Killed by soldiers
280 years	Proculus	Procourus	contender Killed by Probus
280 years	Bonosus	Bonosus	Declare oneself emperor Defeated by Probus, killed himself
From 282 to 283	Marcus Aurelius Carus	Marcus Aurelius Carus	Cause of death unknown
From 283 to 285	Carinus	Carinus	Co-emperor with Nummerian Be murdered
From 283 to 284	Numerian	Nummerian	Co-emperor with Carinus

Oh, Maximian

Galerius

Constantius the First

Constantine I (Constantine)

Constantine II

Constantius the Second

Valentinian the First

monarchy

The Tetrarchy

The Tetrarchy
reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
From 284 to 305	Diocletian	Diocletian	Same as Maximian Oh, Augustus Take charge of the East
From 286 to 305	Maximian	Oh, Maximian	A fellow Augustus with Diocletian, he ruled the West Forced suicide
From 305 to 311	Galerius	Galerius	Same as Constantius I Cesar In 305, he became Augustus and took control of the east Co-emperor with Severus
From 305 to 306	Constantius I Chlorus	Constantius the First	Caesar with Galerius In 305, he became Augustus in charge of the West As co-emperor with Galerius
306-307	Severus II	Severus (Severus II)	In 305, he became Caesar In 306, he became Augustus and ruled the West As co-emperor with Galerius
From 306 to 312	Maxentius	Maxentius	In 306, he declared himself emperor be Constantine the First Defeat and depose
308-324	Licinius	Licini	In 308, he became Augustus In 324, he was defeated by Constantine I, forced to abdicate and killed
308 years	Domitius Alexander	Domitius Alexander	Declare oneself emperor
Year 310-313	Maximinus Daia	Maximinus Dea	In 305, he became Caesar and took control of the East In 310, he declared himself Augustus and divided the east with Licinius Commit suicide
From 316 to 317	Valerius Valens	Valerius Valens	As co-emperor with Licinius He was executed by Constantine I
324 years	Martinianus	Martinianus	In 324, he became Augustus and ruled the West As co-emperor with Licinius Be murdered

Britain empire

Carausius (British emperor, 286-293)

Alectus (British Emperor, 293-296)

reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
From 286 to 293	Carausius	Carausius	Founding the British Empire Killed by Alectus
From 293 to 296	Allectus	Alectus	be Constantius the First defeat

The Dynasty of Constantine

The Dynasty of Constantine
reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
From 306 to 337	Constantine I the Great	Constantine the First	Originally the Western Emperor of the Four Emperors, he defeated the other emperors and became the sole ruler of the empire First faith Christianity The Emperor of ^[11]
337-340 years	Constantine II	Constantine II	After the death of Constantine I, the kingdom was divided into three, with control of the west Defeated
From 337 to 361	Constantius II	Constantius the Second	After the death of Constantine I, the kingdom was divided into three and ruled the east
337-350 years	Constans	Constance the First	After the death of Constantine I, the kingdom was divided into three, ruling the central part Killed by Magnentius
From 350 to 353 years	Magnentius	Magnentius	usurper Commit suicide
350 years	Vetriano	Vitriano	Declare oneself emperor
350 years	Nepotianus	Nepotianus	Declare oneself emperor
From 361 to 363	Julian the Apostate	apostate Jullian	Go out to battle Persia Sassanid dynasty Defeated The last one believed in Rome polytheism The Emperor of ^[12]
From 363 to 364	Jovian	Jovian	Meet with a sudden death

The Valentinian Dynasty

The Valentinian Dynasty
reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
364-375 years	Valentinian I	Valentinian the First	Siddy He was co-emperor with Valens and Gratian
364-375 years	Valens	Valens	Eastern Emperor He was co-emperor with Valentinian I and Gratian
The year 375-378	Valens	Valens	He was co-emperor with Gratian and Valentinian II He fought the Goths and was killed
365-366	Procopius	Procopius	usurper Executed by Valens
From 367 to 379	Gratian	Gratian	He was co-emperor with Valentinian I, Valens, and Valentinian II
From 379 to 383	Gratian	Gratian	with Theodosius I Valentinian II was co-emperor Killed by the rebels
From 375 to 379	Valentinian II	Valentinian II	He was co-emperor with Valens and Gratian
From 379 to 392	Valentinian II	Valentinian II	He was co-emperor with Gratian and Theodosius I Commit suicide or be killed
From 383 to 388	Magnus Maximus	Magnus Maximus	Usurper of the West be Theodosius I kill
From 386 to 388	Flavius Victor	Flavius Victor	Son of Magnus Maximus Killed by Theodosius I
From 392 to 394	Eugenius	Eugenius	Usurper of the West Defeated

The Theodosian dynasty

The Theodosian dynasty
reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
From 379 to 392	Theodosius I	Theodosius I	with Gratian , Valentinian II For the co-ruling emperor
From 392 to 395	Theodosius I	Theodosius I	Unified empire

Honorius

Priscus Attalus

Constantine the Third

Jovinus

Sebastiannus

Constantius the Third

Valentinian the Third

Western Roman Empire

reign	English name	Chinese name	remark
395-423	Honorius	Honorius	As co-emperor with Constantius III
From 409 to 415	Priscus Attalus	Priscus Attalus	Declare oneself emperor
From 407 to 411	Constantine III	Constantine the Third	contender
From 409 to 411	Constans II	Constance the Second	contender
From 411 to 413	Jovinus	Jovinus	contender
412-413	Sebastianus	Sebastiannus	contender
421 years	Constantius III	Constantius the Third	Co-emperor with Honorius
From 423 to 425	Joannes	Iohannis	contender
425-455	Valentinian III	Valentinian the Third	Be murdered
455 years	Petronius Maximus	Petronius Maximus	Be murdered
From 455 to 456	Avitus	Avitus	Go out of use
From 457-461	Majorian	Mayorian	Go out of use
From 461-465	Libius Severus	Libius Severus	Go out of use
From 467 to 472	Anthemius	Anthemius	Be put to death
472 years	Olybrius	Olibrius	-
From 473 to 474	Glycerius	Glichelius	abdicate
From 474 to 475	Julius Nepos	Julius Nepos	abdicate
475-480 years	Julius Nepos	Julius Nepos	in Dalmatia imperially Be murdered
From 475 to 476	Romulus Augustulus	Romulus Augustus	By the head of the barbarian army Odovaca depose

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