汉族_百度百科

Han Chinese are both in China and overseas Ethnic Chinese By a majority nation . Xu Zhuoyun It is believed that the Huaxia tribe was in situ from Yin, Shang, Zhou and Qin Central Plains marginal Yi people The other On the basis of Zhu Xia established the "China" headquarters, in Han Dynasty The formation of the self-proclaimed Han "cultural community". ^[2] The name "Zhuxia" has its origin in the Western Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou royal family called itself "Xia", and "Zhuxia" refers to the countries that shared the etiquette and honor of the Zhou chamber. Since then, in the narrative of Zuo Zhuan, the concepts of "Zhuxia", "Zhuhua" and "Huaxia" have appeared again and again, and the concept of differentiation between Hua and Yi has appeared. We can be sure that the Chinese concept of later generations, from this time to open its end. ^[44] The Han nationality is nicknamed "Han people", ^[3] "Chinese", ^[4] "Tang People", ^[4] "Qin People" ^[5] Peach blossom stone ^[6] Let's wait. After the word "nationality" was introduced into China in modern times, "Han" replaced "Han" as the official name of this ethnic group. ^[7] " Chinese "And" Chinese and yellow people "have been Communist Party of China and Chinese Kuomintang Used as a proxy for "Han" or another name, modern has Descendants of the dragon Etc. appellation . ^[1] ^[8] Before national identification, the Han nationality was a unity that integrated several minority ethnic groups, and the expression of this unity was Huaxia Han; Since ethnic identification, as one of the many nationalities or ethnic groups of the Chinese nation, the Han people tend to become a single ethnic group alongside other minority groups. ^[59]

The Zhou people called themselves Xia and had nothing to do with the Xia Dynasty. Zuo Zhuan clearly records that Zhou said he was not of the same race as Xia, and called Xia's descendants "Yi". The Zhou people carried out the system of enfeoffment, and the country that was enfeoffed was also called Xia, and the Book of Songs Zhou Ode called the enfeoffed vassals "Shi Xia". In the Spring and Autumn Period, the literature changed the title of the vassal, called Zhuhua. This is the origin of the Huaxia name. ^[51] The self-identification and naming of the Chinese ethnic group began in the Spring and Autumn "Zhuxia". The mainstream opinion holds that the basic path of the formation of the Chinese community after the Spring and Autumn period is the disintegration of consanguinity ethnic groups to geographical ethnic groups. ^[44] The formation of the Chinese nation should be in the Spring and Autumn period. Originally, the tribes of Huang, Huai, Jiang and Han gradually merged together to form the Huaxia nation. The various clans integrated into this nation originally had their own ancestors. From the point of view of blood relationship alone, the Chinese nation actually has many, many sources. ^[51] The legend of the Yellow Emperor was enshrined as the "original ancestor of humanity", and the legend of the Yellow Emperor reflected the realistic demands of ethnic integration during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. In order to unite the clans and tribes into an integrated nation, it was necessary to trace the common ancestor of all nationalities -- "ethnic idol", from which "Yellow Emperor" and its legend came. ^[83] After Qin unified the six kingdoms, the Huaxia people were named after the dynasty and were called "Qin people". After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, the Han people were called "Han people". In the sixteen kingdoms of Wuhu, the ethnic minorities in the north still called these Han people "Han people". To the Tang Dynasty, in response to the background of the Western regions calling the mainland "Han Land" for a long time after the Han Dynasty, the decree officially called the Tang people "Han", and the Han people were called stereotyped. ^[114]

Han traditional Musical Instruments - flute

The ethnic name of Han nationality was established during the formation and development of a unified multi-ethnic country in China. 206 BC Han Dynasty Following the The qin dynasty And Xing, before and after more than 400 years, the economy, culture and national unity has a new development, the original name Huaxia the Central Plains Residents call The Han Chinese . In the later historical development, the Han people became China Main nationality The ethnic group of the People's Republic of China has accounted for the vast majority of China's population throughout the ages and occupies a dominant position in all aspects of development.

After the coexistence, migration and integration with all ethnic groups, the Han nationality formed in Songliao plain and The Yellow River , Huaihe River , Yangtse River , the Pearl River Such as agricultural developed areas and cities concentrated distribution, in the border and local ethnic groups intermingled distribution characteristics. In addition, in the course of historical development, a considerable number of Han people emigrated overseas, forming a local Ethnic Chinese or Overseas Chinese . Since the 1950s, especially Reform and opening up Since then, the Han and other ethnic minorities have made great contributions to China's prosperity and strength. The Han nationality created splendid culture and art in ancient times, with distinctive characteristics. There are many influential representatives and works. In the natural sciences, astronomy and mathematics are notable achievements. There were more than 370 kinds of agricultural books in ancient agronomy. In the development of ancient Chinese literature, poesy The development of such as The songs of Chu , A surname , Tang poetry , Song Ci There are many writers and works of high artistic achievement; Others such as prose , novel They are also known around the world.

Yellow Emperor

According to the The pre-Qin period The legends recorded in the literature and Xia, Shang, Zhou Lixi range, the ancient ancestors of the Han people generally in the central plains area for the scope of activity; Chiefly distributed in this region Yangshao culture and Longshan culture These two types Neolithic culture It is generally believed that it is the cultural remains of the ancient ancestors of the Han nationality. ^[1]

Ancient legend, also describes the Han ancestors have experienced a long Primitive commune system Times. in Yellow Emperor In the past, through the "know the mother does not know the father" matrilineal clan tribe stage; The legend about the Yellow Emperor marks the transformation of the matriarchal clan tribe into the patrilineal clan tribe, and has entered the stage of tribal alliance. Legend has it that the Yellow Emperor followed abdicate The way of the chief of the Grand Federation of tribes yao , shun , yu Although they are considered to be the descendants of the Yellow Emperor, historical legends also show that the ancient ancestors of the Han nationality actually include those from qiang A surname li People from clans and tribal groups. Therefore, there are Yu Shun Stem from A surname , Xia Yu Stem from qiang The description of the war; There are also some legendary figures, according to different accounts, can be interpreted as Yi Qiang, Yi Miao Li. This contradictory phenomenon of historical legends reflects the gradual integration of clans and tribal groups of different sources into the same ethnic group and the historical process of creating a common ancestor. ^[1] " Shih Chi In addition to the Yellow Emperor, the five emperors and the Xia, Shang and Zhou three royal families were all descendants of the Yellow Emperor. This statement conflicts with the diversity of the origins of ancient Chinese civilization as shown by archaeological excavations, and is obviously not true. ^[70]

Yu the Great

Several "dynasties" before the Qin Dynasty were established by groups of different ethnic origins, and they are regarded as the so-called "one line of succession", which is only the imagination of later generations based on the concept of "great unity of China". However, the "dynasties" established by these "different source" groups were geographically located in the Central Plains, and indeed the latter one replaced the previous one in terms of time series and regional governance, and the subsequent dynasties absorbed and integrated the ancestry and cultural traditions of the previous dynasty to a large extent. ^[54] Xia people originally belonged to Xiqiang Group, businessmen originated from Dongyi Group, and Zhou people belonged to Rongdi Group. There had been a long-term independent coexistence between the three. ^[79] In the 21st century BC, Central Plains The era of primitive commune system in the region has come to the end of history, and class society has appeared in the plains of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. Since the 21st century BC, it has appeared one after another In the summer ^[9] , shang ^[10] , The Western Zhou Dynasty (206 B.C.) ^[11] Several dynasties. The Xia royal family is Yu the Great Later, Xu Zhongshu believed that the main tribe of the Xia Dynasty was the Qiang. ^[61] The ancestors of the Shang king were originally A surname , ^[1] The king of Zhou claimed that his ancestors were a branch of the Xia people, who lived between the Rong and Di, and had a close relationship with the Qiang people. ^[1] The Zhou people were probably a group of Qiang people from Xirong. ^[85] These people from different tribal groups first descended from the Yellow River and its tributaries, Wei, Fen, Yi and Luo, to Heji and between Huaihe River Tributaries Ru, Ying upstream; It then developed to the Huaihe River, Surabaya, Yangtse River The vast area of the Han River. After a long history of close, communication, struggle and integration, and the formation of a common community. The Western Zhou Dynasty (206 B.C.) At that time, the ethnic names of Hua, Xia single or Huaxia combined names had appeared to distinguish them from Man, Yi, Rong and Di. However, at this time The differentiation of Huayi Not very serious. ^[1] Originally, Xia represented the people of the West, and "You Xia" and even "Xiyi Xia" were probably names from merchants. After the establishment of the Western Zhou Dynasty, the word "Xia" almost did not appear again, at this time, the people of the Western soil were already the masters of the world, called Zhou people, and "Xia" was no longer applicable. ^[53]

Spring and Autumn ^[12] A surname Huayi The concept of nobility and inferiority has been very strong, at that time, the standard to distinguish between Hua Xia and barbarians, race and culture are paid attention to, and culture is especially the first factor. ^[1] "The difference of Yi Xia" or "the difference of Yi Xia" is a realistic reflection of the Confucian "view of the world" on the world order, which is embodied in the cultural differences of different races in etiquette, customs, clothing, lifestyle, political system and so on. Therefore, the difference between Yixia is not derived from blood and geographical differences, but based on cultural differences or etiquette differences. ^[48] The reason why China continues to grow from small to large is because "Yidi" continues to change into China, China continues to absorb and digest "Yidi", and China and "Yidi" continue to assimilate the result of integration. ^[43] The original "differentiation of Yi Xia" comes from the "Spring and Autumn Gongyang Biography", "South Yi and North Di, China is endless if the line". "Northern Di" refers to "White Di" and "Southern Yi" refers to Chu State. However, in the Warring States, especially in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the former "Hua" and "Yi" had become "the editor and the people", and all the world practiced the king's law, and there was no difference between ethnic groups. ^[78] Under the historical background at that time, the Huaxia nationality occupies a certain advantage in culture, so the thought of "Huaxia mutual change" is manifested as "using China to change the Yi", which is specifically "from Yi to China" after learning the culture of the Huaxia nationality. "Meng Zi Tengwen Gong Shang" said: "I heard the summer change Yi, did not hear the change in Yi. Chen Liang, a Chu native (that is, a native of Chu), also learned the way of Yue Zhou and Zhong Ni from China." Although Chen Liang was a native of Chu, he could become "Chinese" by learning "Chinese culture". ^[49] Huayi can often translocation with each other because of the factors such as etiquette and customs, clothing and so on. ^[13] For example, the ancestors of the royal family of Chu were sealed in the Jingman area at the beginning of the Western Zhou Dynasty. In the early Spring and Autumn, the king of Chu claimed to be the first king of Manyi, and the princes called them Jingman; Later, when the king of Chu fought for the Central Plains, he took pride in maintaining the Chinese etiquette and was respected as the Chinese. Qin's ancestors were originally Dongyi, and rose in the upper reaches of the Wei River and Rong, Di mixed, customs and Rong, Di the same, later settled in the Wei River in the middle and lower reaches, engaged in farming, became a doctor of the Zhou Dynasty. After King Ping moved to the east, he was named a vassal and established a state in the Haojing area of the Western Zhou Dynasty. During the Spring and Autumn Period, it was generally regarded as Xirong. ^[1] to Warring States ^[14] Qin and Chu were not only called Xia together with Qi, Yan, Han, Zhao and Wei, but also the two most powerful Chinese vassals. ^[1] The seven males were united in longitudinal, horizontal, merging and warfare, but the clan was the same, forming a unified trend in the Xia dynasty. ^[15] Into the Central plains of Rong, Di, Yi, pretty It also gradually melted with Huaxia, so that Huaxia became a stable ethnic body, and its distribution area has reached the middle and lower reaches of the Liao River in the northeast, the Taohe River basin in the northwest, the Bashu and Guizhou in the southwest, and the Huxiang and Wuyue in the southeast. ^[1]

The founding emperor of the Han Dynasty -- Liu Bang

In the history of the development of Han society, the long feudal society is a prominent feature. Although the academic discussion on the stages of ancient Chinese society has been going on for almost half a century, there is still no completely consistent conclusion, but Qin Shi Huang has entered the unified China Feudal society Has basically received a unified understanding. About the question of when the Han nationality was formed, there was a wide discussion in Chinese academic circles from 1954 to 1956, and there were generally three viewpoints: (1) The Han nationality had already met the conditions for the formation of the Han nationality in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and after the formation, it continued to develop. In modern times, because the capitalist system did not occupy a dominant position in China, the Han nationality did not form a capitalist nation. (2) Nationality is the product of the rise of the bourgeoisie, and the formation of the Han nationality as a nation should be after 1840. The formation of the Han nationality should coincide with the historical period of the germination of capitalism in China, the late Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty, or as early as the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty should be the period of the formation of the Han nationality. This academic discussion, involving the definition of the nation, the theory of the formation of the nation and the specific history of the formation of the Han nation and other aspects of the discussion, is still in deep development, there is no conclusion. According to the general characteristics of the ethnic group and the records of historical records, the academic community generally holds that the Han nationality is the core of the Huaxia nationality in the pre-Qin Dynasty, formed into a unified ethnic group in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and experienced a development process of more than two thousand years under the feudal absolute monarchy until 1840. From 1840 to 1949, new developments were made in the struggle against imperialism and feudalism. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, it has gradually developed into a socialist nation together with the people of all ethnic groups in China. ^[1]

First of all, the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Chu and Yue nationalities rose successively in pre-Qin period, then the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Chu and Yue nationalities and some men, Yi, Rong and Di merged into the Huaxia nationality in the Spring and Autumn period, and finally, the Huaxia nationality developed and transformed into the Han nationality in the "great unity" of the Qin and Han Dynasties. ^[84] 221 BC First Emperor of Qin Annexation of six countries, in the "Great unity", Huaxia nation And from decentralization to unity. ^[16] Qin Dynasty After its establishment, the First Emperor of Qin adopted the implementation The system of prefectures and counties It stipulates that "the book is the same as the word", and the currency, weights and measures are unified. Track sharing "," Homotopy of rows And a series of measures such as building the Great Wall unified and stabilized the Chinese nation. For the first time in Chinese history, a unified, authoritarian, centralized feudal state was established. Under the condition of national unification, the Han nationality formed a unified nation. ^[1]

After the unification of Qin Dynasty, the ethnic name of Huaxia was still used. But the people who used to belong to the six States in Shandong (east of the Xiaoshan Mountains) have passed through the Qin Dynasty together. A surname ". Although the Qin state fell short, yet The western regions (including today's Xinjiang) ethnic groups, Xiongnu to the Han Dynasty still called the Central Plains Qin people. ^{17 - [20]} And the Han dynasty from The Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.) to The Eastern Han Dynasty (206 B.C.) For more than 400 years, it provided historical conditions for the name of the Han Dynasty and the name of the Chinese nation. In 206 BC, the Han Dynasty followed the Qin Dynasty and for more than 400 years, it communicated with the Western regions, settled Tian Huangzhong, established a military lieutenant of Wuhuan, subdued the Xiongnu, conquered Southwest Yi and set up prefectures and counties, and put down Zhao's South Yue, East Ou and Minyue. ^[1] After Emperor Wudi unified South Vietnam and Minyue, the Baiyue were gradually assimilated by the Han people, becoming an important source of local Han people, and some of them developed into modern ethnic minorities. ^[55] So the unification of multi-ethnic China has a new development. After the Han Dynasty, Huayi lived together in China, especially during the Sixteen States of Eastern Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties, "Five Hu" established the name of the country in the north of China and became the ruling nation. On the clan, although they are outspoken as Yi Di, on the country is based on the two capitals (Chang 'an, Luoyang) and consider themselves as Chinese orthodoxy. Therefore, because the residents of the Central Plains, formerly called "Huaxia", practiced Han etiquette and wore Han clothes, they gradually called them "Han people". ^[1] The survivors of the Western Jin Dynasty were pejoratively called "men" by the Hu nationality. ^[86] In the sense of ethnic group, "Han" was originally an informal name for the Huaxia people in the Central Plains in order to distinguish them from the residents in the Southern Dynasty. As for Xianbei and other minorities who grew up in the Central Plains, they are called "Han", which has obvious regional discrimination. ^[57]

The Han Dynasty was so powerful that in foreign exchanges, other nationalities called the Han army "Han soldiers", the Han envoys "Han ambassadors", and the Han people "Han ambassadors". The Han Chinese ". So, in the Han dynasty The western regions A surname Xiongnu, an ancient nationality in China flat Sichaung sign North Korea , Fu Western A surname collect Fujian and Guangdong The name of Han Dynasty was then called the name of Huaxia nationality by other ethnic groups in various exchanges with the surrounding ethnic groups. ^[21-22] In the early Western Han Dynasty, there were no "Han people", only "people of the seven Kingdoms". After Emperor Wudi of Han Dynasty, "Han people" became the self-proclaimed "people of Han Dynasty". During the reign of Emperor Wudi of Han Dynasty, the "unified Han system" was formed. Since then, those who recognized the civilization of this system became "Han people". It can be said that "Han people" is the earliest practice of constructing "national nation" with political system. ^[77] After the Qin and Han dynasties, Huaxicization did not pay special attention to blood ties or culture, but paid attention to political identity, such as in the household registration system that was not in the government, whether it was people or barbarians, whether it was subjugate barbarians or return to the barbarians. It is the general situation that the editor is the "people" equal to the Chinese people, but sometimes there is a transitional stage, that is, into the editor, but the previous non-Chinese identity will be remembered by everyone, after several generations, this memory is slowly smoothed, and eventually becomes a normal people. ^[53]

Overthrowing the Mongol rule and restoring Zhu Yuanzhang to the Han family

After the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Central Plains was in great chaos, the centralized feudal state was divided, feudal divisions were everywhere, and conflicts and wars were everywhere. After the Western Jin Dynasty, the north fell into disunity again. ^[111] In the midst of the Great Schism, the Great strife, the great upheavals, nations and tribes moved from place to place in the North Xiongnu, an ancient nationality in China , Xianbei (a county in Shanxi Province) , Aconite pill , di , qiang One after another entered the Central Plains, known as" Five wild flowers ", ^[23] During the war, the total population of the north was 15 million, one-third of which were Han Chinese. The number of Han people in the north dropped to six to seven million, the population was greatly reduced, and the land was largely deserted. ^[112] The Wuhu ethnic group in the north not only had superior military power, but also superior population, but they took the initiative to choose a "Sinicization road". ^[76] Some barbarians from Jianghan region also poured into the Central Plains, forming a situation in the Central Plains where Han people lived together with Xiongnu, Xianbei, Wuwan, Di, Qiang and barbarians. Northerners moved south in large numbers; Known historically as" Dress to cross the south The formation of the Han and barbarian, lithic, Liao and other southern ethnic or tribal intermingling situation. But most of them have been Han assimilation , ^[23] They lost their national characteristics and became part of the Han nationality. ^[1]

While accepting the influence of Han culture, ethnic minorities also bring their own cultural influence to Han. In the great integration of ethnic groups, Xiongnu, Di, Qiang and Xianbei gradually melted into the Han people and became members of the Han nationality. While accepting these ethnic minorities, the Han people also accepted their living habits and psychological factors. According to historical records, Yang Zhong, father of the Sui Emperor Wen, and Li Hu, grandfather of the Tang Emperor Gaozu, both reiterated that they were Han Chinese in order to enhance their appeal. In fact, the Han nationality they speak of is no longer the Han nationality in the original sense. Many members of the supreme ruling clique of Sui and Tang Dynasties were Haoqiang nationality who had lived in Guanzhong Longshang area. They belonged to the Han nationality who lived in northwest China and experienced the great integration of nationalities during the Northern Dynasty. After they entered the Central Plains, on the one hand, they admired the Han culture and absorbed it heartily; On the other hand, it also brought to the Han people a rough and bold way of life and an aesthetic mentality of advocating bravery. ^[102] "Han 'er" is the self-proclaimed name of North Chinese people in Liao and Jin dynasties, and also the name of Song people to them. The people in the Song ruled areas were called "south" and "barbarians" by the northern people, and were called "South people" after Yuan unification. ^[87] In the early Yuan Dynasty, there was a deep gap between Han and South people, and the concept of "Han" in Yuan Dynasty did not include South people. ^[88] The division of "four classes" was not only the recognition of the Yuan rulers to the achievements of ethnic integration in the five dynasties, but also created more favorable conditions for the Ming Dynasty to integrate "Han" and "South". ^[89] Zhu Yuanzhang After the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, the main ethnic group was gathered by restoring the "Hua style" after the succession, and the titles such as "Ming People", "Han people" and "Chinese people" were all found in the "Ming Shilu", which became the names of the main ethnic groups in the Ming Dynasty. ^[89] In the context of population classification in Qing Dynasty, "min" or "Min Ren" obviously has the connotation of "Han" or "Han people". ^[58]

Sun Yat-sen's military uniform showing the overthrow of the Manchu Dynasty

The Han have always been a rich people revolution The traditional nation, the feudal landlord class and the absolute monarchy cruel oppression and exploitation, since the end of the Qin Dynasty Chen Sheng , Wu Guang Thousands of peasant uprisings were held in ancient China, some of which were dominated by the Han nationality or a certain minority nationality with the participation of many other nationalities. The late Ming Dynasty Li Zicheng Uprising, once proposed" Equalize the land and free the grain "The slogan; Qing Dynasty Taiping Heavenly Kingdom During the campaign, the" The Tian mu system By the end of the feudal society, farmers had tried to use egalitarianism to change the feudal land inequality and hierarchical feudal oppression. Although these uprisings ultimately failed due to the limitations of history and class, they had a significant impact on the development of Chinese history. ^[1]

The Han people have a historical record of heroic resistance to national oppression, especially against foreign invaders, and the Han people often unite with other ethnic groups in the country to fight bravely for the defense of the motherland. After the middle of the Ming Dynasty, Western colonists came to the east and Dutch colonialists occupied Taiwan, China. Zheng Chenggong led the anti-Qing team to expel the Dutch colonialists at one stroke, and this struggle won the support of the people of all ethnic groups in Taiwan. In the early Qing Dynasty, the Tsarist Russian colonists invaded the Heilongjiang valley, and the people of all ethnic groups in Heilongjiang jointly rose up and resolutely resisted. Later, in the battle of Yaksa, which was decided by the Kangxi Emperor to expel the Tsarist Russian colonists, the Han army and the people of all ethnic groups closely united and fought bloody battles, and finally won the victory of the Yaksa counterattack. It shows that in ancient China, when the foreign colonizers invaded, the people of all ethnic groups had shown the heroic struggle spirit of common hatred and unity. ^[1]

The Han people have a historical record of heroic resistance to national oppression. In 1840, Britain launched the Opium War against China, and since then China gradually became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society until the founding of the People's Republic of China, which went through a century. Britain launched two attacks on China Opium Wars The French invasion of China, Sino-japanese War of 1894-1895 , The eight-nation Allied War against China And even the "September 18" Incident in 1931 War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression The outbreak and so on all show that the contradiction between imperialism and the Chinese nation is the main contradiction in modern Chinese society. ^[42] All the anti-aggression wars and other forms of anti-aggression struggle that took place after 1840 were jointly participated by the Han people and the people of other ethnic groups in China. It was initiated by the "Tongmeng Hui" led by Sun Yat-sen Guangzhou uprising , Zhennanguan uprising , Yunnan Hekou Uprising and Xinhai Revolution All were bourgeois old democratic revolutions with the Han nationality as the mainstay and members of minority nationalities participating. The "nationalism" put forward by Sun Yat-sen in the "Tongmeng Hui" drew a clear line with those political factions that simply advocated the full ranks. After the Revolution of 1911, the Republic of China was established, with the five ethnic republics of Han, Manchu, Mongolian, Hui and Tibetan as the political system. Although usurped by imperialist warlords, it played a positive role in the awakening of the Han and other ethnic groups in China.

再一次实现中国大陆统一的毛泽东

1919 "May Fourth" movement, marking proletariat leading The new Democratic Revolution The beginning of... The development and victory of the new democratic revolution in China generally arose first in the Han nationality areas and gradually developed to the border ethnic areas. Under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, the Han and other ethnic groups united in the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal revolutionary struggle. After a long struggle, it was finally jointly created in 1949 People's Republic of China .

People's Republic of China Since the founding, in Communist Party of China Under the leadership of the people's government and with the development of the socialist revolution and construction, not only has the face of the Han nationality itself undergone great changes, but it has also established socialist ethnic relations with all ethnic groups characterized by equality, unity and mutual assistance.

1978 Communist Party of China The Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee Since then, with the rapid development of China's socialist construction undertakings, the life of the Han people has been continuously improved, and the cultural level has been raised day by day, and they are making great strides together with other ethnic groups for the construction of socialist modernization of China. The socialist national relations between the Han and other nationalities are also developing rapidly.

About 1.3 billion Han Chinese make up 19% of the world's population and are the largest ethnic group in the world, ^[24] Distributed throughout the world, the Han ethnic group forms the majority of several modern countries or regions Ethnic group . ^{[24 to 25]} Account for Singapore 74% of the population, accounting for Malaysia 24.5% of the population of China Taiwan 98% of the population.

As of 2009, the Han population is about 1.3 billion, accounting for about 19% of the world's total population, distributed around the world.

By 2021, the Han population will be 1,286.31 million, an increase of 4.93% compared with 2010; In Taiwan, Han Chinese make up 98% of the population; In Hong Kong and Macau, Han Chinese make up 95% and 97% of the population respectively.

On May 11, 2021, Ning Jizhe, Director of the National Bureau of Statistics, reported that China's Han population was 1,286.31 million, an increase of 4.93% compared with 2010. ^[41]

According to the China Statistical Yearbook -2021 The Han population in China is 128,444,389. ^[81]

With the ancient Huaxia as the main body, the Han nationality came from the integration of many ethnic groups in history. ^[90] The population of the Han nationality, if counted from the origin of the Xia nationality, was about 2 million people, after the three generations of Xia, Shang and Zhou, to about 20 million people at the peak of the Warring States period. At the time of the formation of the Han Dynasty, the Han population had reached more than 50 million. ^[27] From the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the Han nationality absorbed the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Wuwan, Ji, Di, Qiang and some barbarians in the north, and some barbarians, Li, Liao and other tribes in the south, developing into the Sui and Tang Han nationality with 80 to 90 million people in the early Tang Dynasty. ^[91] During the Song, Liao, Xia, Jin and Yuan dynasties, the Han absorbed Khitan, Dangxiang, Jurchen and other ethnic minorities in the north, and some ethnic minorities in the south, exceeding 100 million. ^[106] In the Northern Song Dynasty, the number reached 104.41 million. ^[27] After the Yuan Dynasty, under the general trend of the unification of China, the Han population snowball bigger and bigger. Ming Wanli 28 years (1601) population reached 150 million. ^[28] By the Qing Daoguang thirty years (1851), more than 400 million, by the founding of the People's Republic of China, its population of about 600 million, by the end of the 20th century has reached more than 1 billion. Geographically, it develops from the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin to the south, the Pearl River basin to the Taiwan Island and Hainan Island, the northeast to the Heilongjiang basin, the northwest to the north and south of the Tianshan Mountains, and the southwest to the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau Tibetan plateau . ^[1] As the single most populous ethnic group in the world, the Han nationality is often regarded as a model of national assimilation. According to the popular saying, the reason why the Han population is so large is mainly achieved by assimilating many other ethnic groups. Some have likened the process to "snowballing". ^[92]

According to 1990 statistics, China's 1.039 billion Han population accounted for about 91.92% of the total population of the country, of which Han people accounted for the proportion of the local population, Jiangsu and Zhejiang were 99.77%, 99.49%, while Xinjiang and Tibet were 37.58% and 2.05%, respectively. ^[1]

According to the seventh national census in 2020, as of midnight on November 1, 2020, the Han population was 128,311,334, accounting for 91.11%; The population of ethnic minorities was 125,467,390, accounting for 8.89%. Compared with the sixth national census in 2010, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 people, an increase of 4.93%; The population of all ethnic minorities increased by 1,675,179 people, an increase of 10.26 percent. ^[63]

There are many differences among the Han people in terms of genetic, linguistic, cultural and social diversity Han nationality . ^[26] The Guangfu people, the Hakka people and the Chaoshan people are called the three major people of the Han nationality in Lingnan. ^[50] ^[113] Guangfu people are not simply Lingnan Aborigines or South Vietnamese Aborigines, but a people system formed by the long-term communication and integration between the Central Plains immigrants and Lingnan (South Vietnam) Aborigines. ^[93] "Sandu, wooden guest" is distributed in the southern mountainous area of the original inhabitants. Later, the Moke and other southern nationalities and even with the southern migration of Han fusion, became one of the Hakka source. ^[74] In 1905, Huang Jie, a native of Shunde, Guangdong Province, excluded the Hakka from the Han nationality in his textbook Guangdong Local Geography Textbook, saying that "the ethnic groups in Guangdong are Hakka and Fuluo, neither Cantonese nor Han," and were classified as "foreign species" together with Fuluo and Tanka. This caused dissatisfaction among the guests at the time. ^[94] By combing the genealogies, especially the non-Hakka genealogies, and comparing with the Hakka genealogies, we can think that the Hakka folk system is formed by the fusion of different folk systems in the south. ^[116] The so-called "Hakka" identity and its identity can only come into being after the "She people" and "Yao people" who originally existed in large numbers have been transformed into "editors and people." ^[65] The Hakka entered northeast Guangdong with little resistance, but as they moved southwest they encountered fierce friction with the local population, who disparaged these outsiders as "guest people", at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. ^[116]

When Qin unified the six States, a large number of Guandong Qiangzong moved into Guanzhong, and similar immigration activities were also carried out in the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC ~ 8 AD), but the economic development at that time determined that the counties in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River were the most densely populated areas in the country. If the Qinling Mountains and the Huaihe River are divided into two counties and regions, the northern part of the Han Dynasty accounted for about 80% of the total number of accounts at that time, and the southern part accounted for about 20%. From the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 ~ 220 AD), the people began to move south, and the Western Jin Dynasty (265 ~ 316) at the end of the "Yongjia rebellion", the people of the Yellow River basin moved south to the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and the middle and upper reaches of the Yangtze River and the Han River basin. Through the northern and southern Dynasties, the population continued to move southward, which made the population of the Yangtze River basin increase continuously, but it still did not change the distribution of the population in the north more than the south. However, if we compare the total population of the southern counties in the late Sui Dynasty and the Western Jin Dynasty, the population of the Yangtze River basin and Lingnan area has more than doubled. ^[1] At that time, the non-Han ethnic group was the overwhelming majority in southern China. ^[62] The Han people south of 30 degrees north latitude are mainly from the indigenous peoples of the south. Although the northern immigrants have a significant impact on the formation of the Han culture in the South, they do not occupy a dominant position in numbers. ^[109] As Rusic puts it: "During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the number of barbarian hukou in and around the middle reaches of the Yangtze River far exceeded the number of Huaxia hukou in the same area." The Huaxia ethnic group uses Chinese, and the ethnic groups that do not use Chinese (such as the Miaoyao ethnic group) are not Huaxia ethnic group. However, the population that uses Chinese is not necessarily the Huaxia ethnic group, some non-Huaxia ethnic groups are or have just abandoned their original language, and the direction of change is to integrate into Chinese society and become the Huaxia ethnic group. ^[110]

During the five Dynasties (907-960), the northern population once again moved south. At the end of the Northern Song Dynasty, Jin Bing invaded the south, and there was a second upsurge of population migration to the south. The population in the south has soared, mainly in the Sichuan Basin and around the great lakes of Dongting, Poyang and Taihu, as well as the Yangtze and Pearl River deltas. These became densely populated areas, with a higher population density than in the northern states. In addition to the above two large-scale population migrations to the south, there were several other migrations of considerable scale to the south. The southern economy developed rapidly since the Eastern Jin Dynasty. In the Song Dynasty, China's economic center of gravity shifted to the south, and the population density in the south was not only higher than that in the north, but also the total number of Han population exceeded that in the north by the Ming and Qing Dynasties. ^[1] Since the Tang and Song dynasties, with the gradual integration of Yue people into the southern migration of the Han nationality, the formation of Guangfu, Chaozhou, The Hakkas The Yue people, who were not integrated into the Han nationality, gradually developed into Zhuang, Li, Yao, She and other border groups. ^[43] ^[115] The physical characteristics of the Han nationality in the ancient Central Plains are different from those of the local Han nationality today. From the pre-Qin period to the Han Dynasty, the inhabitants of the Central Plains all belonged to the ancient Central Plains type. However, starting from the Song Dynasty, the physical characteristics of the local Han nationality began to deviate from this type, showing more mixed physical traits. ^[90]

From the Qin and Han dynasties to the Qing dynasties, many Han people migrated to the border areas by means of settlement, immigration, plunder, exile, etc., and intermingled with the border minorities to jointly develop the border areas. For more than two thousand years, many of the Han people who migrated to the border areas were integrated into the local ethnic minorities, among which the Bohai people in the northeast of the Tang Dynasty, the Nanzhao people in the southwest, the Khitan people in the Liao Dynasty, and the Manchu people in the early Qing Dynasty all became strong and prosperous by melting a large number of Han people. In the process of development, other ethnic minorities also absorbed elements of the Han nationality, and the border ethnic groups moved inside and mixed with the Han nationality, often integrated into the majority of the Han. The large population of the Han nationality is inseparable from the continuous absorption of other minority ethnic components to grow and prosper. ^[1]

The origin and spread of immigrant legends about ancestral origin is the sign of regional identity formation and the folk foundation of national construction. The legend of Nanxiong Zhuguxiang is widely spread in the Pearl River Delta region, and many places believe that their ancestors migrated from Nanxiong Zhuguxiang. This is related to the naturalization of the Cantonese in the early Ming Dynasty. In order to obtain legal status, the local indigenous people and untouchables hoped that the government would include them in the household registration, and they adopted the saying that they moved from Nanxiong Zhuji Lane to prove their Central Plains identity and legitimacy. ^[116] In addition to the legend of Nanxiong Zhuguxiang in the Pearl River Delta, there are many legends of ancestors from Nanjing Zhuguxiang in the western region. The Cantonese, who claim to be from Zhuji Lane in Nanxiong, are both early naturalized people to distinguish themselves from Yao, Dan and She people, and some developed Sha Tin Yao, Dan and She people to transform their ethnic identity into Han. ^[116] Thus, people (or ethnic groups) with different historical and cultural traditions gradually share the same ancestral immigrant legend, thus forming the regional identity of the Pearl River Delta region. ^[116] During the period of migration and restoration in the reign of Kangxi, there were people who spoke Fu-lao dialect in the coastal areas who moved into the Hakka mountains, and then people with different dialects moved into the plain and coastal areas, and then a large number of clan construction occurred. Before the late Ming Dynasty, there was no such ethnic group as "visitors" or "Hakka" in the local area, and this group, later called "Hakka", was the indigenous people living in the Nanling Mountains. ^[116] The Hakka legend of Ninghua Shibi Village also has a premise of Central Plains identity, thus forming the regional identity of various mountain development groups around Nanling Mountain area. ^[116] Although scholars in the Republic of China have a series of debates on whether She and Hakka are homologous, the linguistic research in recent years has provided the possibility to solve this problem. ^[66]

The genealogies in Fujian and Taiwan generally claim that their ancestors came from Gushi, Guangzhou, Henan, but since the famous scholars Zheng Qiao and Fang Dazong in Song Dynasty, many scholars have questioned and analyzed them. The origin of the Gushi legend is not only influenced by the political and economic privileges of the emperor's hometown and the orthodoxy of Central Plains, but also closely related to the construction of geographical relations and the psychology of worship of sages. ^[56] Scholars have refuted the "four family names into Min" or "eight family names into Min", "Kaiyuan Record" said: "Fujian, Yue Di, that is, ancient East Ou. Today, Jianzhou is also its place, all snake species, there are five family names, that Lin Huang is its descent." The Kaiyuan Record belongs to the compilation of political data in the Kaiyuan period. At the latest in the late Han Dynasty, there were Zhang, Zhan, He, Hong, Wu, Hua, Zou, Sui, Huang, Weng, Tang, Xu, Zheng and Lin among the Mindi indigenous people. In the Southern Dynasty, there were Chen and Jiang. Tang, Huang, Wu and Lin may come from the first character of the indigenous transliteration. The process of huaxification in Mindi was slow, and the mass registration of Mindi people had to wait until the middle and late Tang Dynasty. ^[64] In fact, the narrative of eight family names in Fujian implies a national history discourse: Minyue indigenous ethnic groups, in order to improve their tribal status, competed to change the Han family name, hiding the ethnic memory and tribal culture in this narrative. ^[117] Such a local society corresponds to a problem of how to establish "Han" identity. People have reconstructed the "history" of their ancestors and carried out a series of cultural practices (such as ancestor sacrifice, god worship, etc.). The ethnic origin legend with the heroic ancestor of "Nanlai - Zhengman" as the narrative core was created and widely spread under this background. ^[67] For example, Chen Yuanguang, who is regarded as the "holy King of Kaizhang". The person and events of Chen Yuanguang can not be found in the old and new Tang Books, but the details of his deeds are initially reported in the middle of the Ming Dynasty in the Bamin Tongzhi, and later recorded in more detail. ^[68] The legend of large locust tree immigrants in Hongdong, Shanxi is mostly distributed in today's Beijing, Henan, Hebei, Shandong and other northern areas, and in Jiaodong Denglai area, it is mostly said that the ancestors came from "small Yunnan", and some say that they came from Sichuan "iron Tuizhu". The legends of ancestral immigrants in the border areas mostly say that they come from the Central Plains and have a long history; The legend of ancestral migration in the inner region only talks about from place A to place B, and these places are even anonymous and difficult to check. ^[116]

After thousands of years of coexistence and migration with various ethnic groups in China, the Han nationality was concentrated in the most agriculturally-developed areas and cities in the Songliao Plain, the Yellow River, the Huaihe River, the Yangtze River, the Pearl River and other great rivers, and the distribution features of intermingling with local ethnic groups in the border areas. ^[1]

In the long historical development process, a considerable number of Han people emigrated overseas. Some of them took root and developed in their adopted countries and became local Chinese, while others maintained their Chinese nationality and became overseas Chinese scattered around the world. ^[1]

See also: Central Plains dynasty

The Han Chinese established most dynasties in China and dominated Chinese politics for a long time, but they also had a history of being ruled by other ethnic groups, for example The Western Jin Dynasty (536-597) It was founded by the Huns Zhao Han , The Northern Song Dynasty (960-907) It was founded by Jurchens gold , The Southern Song Dynasty It was founded by the Mongols yuan , Nan Ming Dynasty , A surname Die of Manchuria human-established qing . The Manchurian regime was finally overthrown by the Han majority on October 10, 1911 Republic of China At the same time the Han was also established People's Republic of China The main force.

The main body of traditional political culture is the feudal political culture with Confucianism as the core formed over a long period of time in feudal society, including the unidirectional radiating political ideology starting from a central point (the monarch), the political cognition that heaven, king, state and family are integrated into one, the political evaluation model with "loyalty" and "filial piety" as the core, and the loss of subjective political attachment emotion. well-to-do ," Datong The millennium political ideal, the political thinking core of the famous spirit, and so on. ^[52]

In terms of ancient military theory, as early as the end of the spring and Autumn period, the Han Nationality had a military masterpiece Sun Tzu's Art of war "Came out. In the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, 182 military arts were compiled, especially the "Martial Arts" which had been a compulsory reading since the Song Dynasty. Seven books of Martial arts A collection of the essence of ancient military writings.

The Han people have always been known for their diligence, frugality and creative spirit. The economy is based on agriculture, and the family side business, this kind of natural economy of "male ploughing and female weaving" has always been an absolute advantage in ancient China.

Agriculture is Ancient Chinese civilization The main material basis of the agricultural production in history known as developed, especially for the developed water irrigation and intensive cultivation known in the world. All dynasties built a lot of water conservancy projects, Qin Shu county governor Li Bing Leading the construction Dujiang Weir And not only in ancient times Chengdu plain Become a national famous granary, enjoy" The land of abundance "The good name. Dujiangyan can be regarded as a typical representative of ancient water conservancy and irrigation projects.

In terms of farming technology, the Han nationality and its ancestors have always paid attention to farming time, soil improvement, rotation of cultivated land, fertilization, moisture conservation, seed selection, cultivation of new varieties, and improvement of farming tools since ancient times, and have also constantly absorbed new crop varieties and learned farming techniques from various ethnic groups in China and even from abroad. Therefore, it not only created a very high level of production in ancient times, but also the richness of crop varieties is rare in the world.

Handicraft industry There is also a fairly high level of development. On the basis of highly developed agriculture and handicraft production, ancient science and technology such as astronomy, mathematics, agronomy, medicine, smelting, architecture, etc. have given full play in the history of world civilization. The invention of paper and printing, gunpowder for warfare, compass for navigation, silkworm rearing, silk weaving, porcelain making, tea making, etc. It has made outstanding contributions to the development of world culture and science and technology. Commerce also developed to a certain extent in ancient times.

In addition to the farming ethnic areas represented by the Han nationality, China also has a vast number of ethnic groups in grazing areas, hunting areas and fishing and hunting areas. The exchange of agricultural and handicraft products, animal husbandry and hunting products and other native products between these two major ethnic groups not only meets the needs of life, but also promotes the production and development of the people of all ethnic groups. Formed since Tang and Song Dynasties Tea horse market "Is the Han with each Brother The main form of national economic relations of mutual complement and exchange.

The development of commerce, in turn, is conducive to the development of agriculture and handicrafts. to Ming Dynasty In the late stage, it has been produced Germination of capitalism Especially in Areas south of the Yangtze River In the handicraft workshops and commerce of some towns in the region, the germination of capitalism has developed to a certain extent. From the mid-to-late 19th century to the 1930s, Modern Chinese industry There has also been a certain degree of development, again mainly in the coastal and more developed transportation of large and medium-sized cities in the mainland Han populated areas.

In ancient times, the Han nationality created a splendid culture and art with distinctive characteristics. No matter what political , Military affairs , philosophy , economy , history , Natural science , literature , ART In various fields, there are many representatives and works with far-reaching influence.

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States period, there appeared a lively situation in which a hundred schools of thought contended with each other, and the achievements of various schools of thought and scholarship were reflected in the ancient Greek civilization at the same time. ^[1] In the Western Zhou Dynasty, a complete cultural system was formed, that is Rites and music culture Zhou rites are very elaborate, according to the The rites of Zhou There are auspicious, ominous, military, guest, Jia five rites, music in the Western Zhou Dynasty is very important, there are special official management, Jin Wen also recorded music officer. Zhou Dynasty Dance and dance like Tawu It was written by King Wu of Zhou. The Zhou Dynasty has a relatively perfect education system, such as "rites", "music", "shooting", "imperial", "book", "number" six arts are the Zhou Dynasty Nobleman The cultural and educational content of the earliest Chinese classics such as" The Book of Changes "" A surname "" The Book of Songs "" The rites of Zhou "Music Classic" (has been lost) "Spring and Autumn" all produced this period. to Emperor Wu of Han When he was in power (141-87 BC), he pursued a policy of "ousting hundreds of schools and respecting Confucianism" Confucius , Mencius representative Confucianism It became the dominant thought, dominating Han ancient thought and culture for nearly 2000 years, while influencing others to varying degrees Minority nationality And even affected China's neighboring countries ^[1] .

The Han totem is made up of one dragon With one phoenix Composition, meaning Yin and Yang, that is, men and women, because of the large Han population, occupied Chinese history Most developed, so the continuation of China's oldest animal dragon, as a symbol of their own nation. The dragon flies and the phoenix dances, is the central plains area and the south area National symbol . ^{[30] 29 -}

Ethnic totem (2 photos)

As for the provenance of the dragon, Wen Yiduo In his three works" Fuxi examination ", "Dragon and Phoenix"," Dragon Boat Festival examination It is pointed out that the Chinese people are called "descendants of the dragon" from the legend of the Yellow Emperor era. According to legend, Yellow Emperor Before the unification of the Central Plains, the symbol of the "bear". Be defeated Chiyou-warrior After the unification of the Central Plains, its symbols were adopted and merged with others that were annexed clan , the tribe's iconic pattern. Such as bird logo pattern, horse logo pattern, deer logo pattern, snake logo pattern, cow logo pattern, fish logo pattern, etc. Finally, the image "dragon", which is worshipped by the Chinese people, is a kind of virtual comprehensive god. This peculiar image implies the development of the Chinese nation, the integration and unity of all ethnic groups, and has become the iconic pattern of the ancestor of the Chinese nation. Later, the image of "dragon" began to appear in various patterns, and gradually became imperial A surname . According to legend, Emperor Yan is a woman named Deng feeling heaven "divine dragon" born, Yellow Emperor is attached treasure feeling. Big Dipper "Born, Emperor Yao is Qingdu sense" red dragon "born, the ancestor is the offspring of the dragon reproduction, therefore, the descendants of the Chinese nation is the" dragon descendant ". ^{[30] 29 -}

The spirit of the dragon: it is the spiritual realm that all things are integrated and compatible with each other. It is the pursuit of harmony, group-oriented attitude towards life; It is the complex of the great unification of China. ^{[30] 29 -}

Phoenix character: Phoenix Nirvana for light, symbolizing the rebirth and the awakening of the Chinese nation; It is a sense of crisis that integrates the public's sense of responsibility and the sense of historical mission. It is the idealism of ceaselessly striving for self-improvement and sacrificing one's own life. It is an attitude of diligence, frugality and hard work. ^{[30] 29 -}

The ancient concept of the country of the Han nationality is connected with the concept of the family. The so-called world of one family name is actually the unlimited expansion of the concept of the paternal family. Kings and emperors were worshipped as" A son of heaven "," A surname "The people are seen as" Subjects of a people ". In this system, the moral code believes that "filial piety" is the basis of "loyalty", and "loyalty" is the highest requirement for "filial piety". At the same time, all theories of human relations are based on" View of destiny On the basis of the philosophy, the maintenance of imperial power and all the order of wealth and inferiority are the embodiment of the destiny of heaven. Dong Zhongshu (179 BC ~ 104 BC), a thinker in the Han Dynasty, based on the theological view of "heaven and man are in harmony", gave play to the Confucian theories of Confucius and Meng, and summed up the "human ethics". The three cardinal principles "," Normal motion of the five elements It became an important basis for ethics and legislation in ancient Han society. Religion has a great influence on many ethnic groups, and in the Han there is no religion in the full sense that the whole nation must believe in. Since ancient times, the Han people have adopted an inclusive attitude towards various religions. Since the Han Dynasty and into modern times, many foreign religions, such as Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Catholicism and Christianity, have been practiced by some Han people. No matter what kind of foreign religion, its teachings are not inconsistent with the inherent concept of destiny and ancestor worship of the Han people, or some of its teachings are adapted to the inherent religious concepts of the Han people, so it is possible to spread. Although Taoism is a religion formed in the history of the Han nationality, not every member of the whole nation believes in it. In the whole of Chinese history, especially in the history of the Han nationality, except for a few emperors who were particularly devoted to a certain religion and thus gained certain political privileges, there has never been a" State religion ". In the Song Dynasty, Confucianism developed into Neo-Confucianism, which absorbed Buddhist philosophy. ^[1]

The "three religions", collectively known as Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, began in the Northern Zhou Dynasty of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, about the middle and late 6th century; By the Tang Dynasty, the term "three religions" was widely used. In the Middle Tang Dynasty, the three religions were described as the three legs of the "tripod". Since then, the structure of Chinese culture has gradually been regarded as the three pillars of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, and even today's "national studies fever" still takes Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism as its main body. Confucianism suppressed or integrated Buddhism and Taoism in the form of "rites" and provided a set of moral and ethical norms that dominated Chinese life. Both Buddhism and Taoism, therefore, cooperate with the practice of Confucian ethics. Buddhism, in particular, has also assumed many practical functions of charity relief in civil society. The integration of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism has formed a religious and cultural system of "harmony without diversity". This phenomenon is rare in the history of world civilization. ^[107]

The first ancestor of China - Yellow Emperor (2 photos)

For the Han Chinese, Yan Huang Identity is one of the symbols and representatives of a nation's spiritual tradition. The word Yanhuang originally came from Guoyu. "Guoyu · Zhou Yu Xia" : "Although the summer is fading, barbari, Kuai still exists; Although Shen and Lu are declining, Qi and Xu are still in... All yellow, inflammation after also." "Guoyu · Jin Yu" said: "In the past Shaodian married to d «, born yellow emperor, Yan ^[95] What is the relationship between Yanhuang in the end, in the historical records are more confused, and scholars are not clear. Sima Qian did not specifically write Yan Emperor in the Records of the Grand Historian, and only listed Yellow Emperor as the first of the five emperors. ^[96] "Emperor" originally refers to the emperor of heaven, the word "five emperors" on earth did not appear in Menzi's time, the five elements theory was gradually established in the late Warring States period, and there were five kinds of five emperors theory. ^[69] Under the observation of the idea of great unity, the ancestors of Xia, Shang and Wednesday were incorporated into the Yellow Emperor system, and the rulers of all ethnic groups and vassal states became relatives with the Yellow Emperor as their common ancestor, and the Yellow Emperor became the first God worshipped by the Son of Heaven and the vassal. ^[91]

"Records of the Grand Historian. Five Emperors Benji" : "Emperor Yan wanted to invade the Mausoleum princes, Xuanyuan was fighting with Emperor Yan in the field of Hanquan, and then got its ambition in three battles. Chiyou made a rebellion, so the Yellow Emperor and Chiyou fought in the Zhuolu field, then fowl killed Chiyou, and became the Yellow Emperor on behalf of Shennong." Some people think that the rotation of the second emperor Yanhuang is a myth invented by Tian Qi to create a generation of public opinion. ^[97] Before the Sui and Tang dynasties, both the regimes established by the Han nationality and the ethnic minorities took "respecting the summer and degrading the Yi" as their core values to varying degrees, and even the ethnic minority regimes established during this period declared themselves to be descendants of the Yellow Emperor and boasted of their orthodox status as descendants of "Hua Xia". ^[98]

Huangdi, Yandi and Jiuli were the three most influential tribes in the Central Plains during the heroic era. After conquers, Huangdi was the main tribe, which merged with each other to form the later Huaxia nation. ^[96] The more reliable time for the Yellow Emperor to appear in Chinese documentary memory is about the Warring States period. In the "pre-Qin literature" written from the Warring States to the early Han Dynasty, the Yellow Emperor was gradually widely mentioned, but at first he was only with Fu Xi, Gonggong, Shennong, Shaohobart and other ancient emperors, and there was no sense of the common ancestor of clans or tribes. However, in the early Han Dynasty, Sima Qian wrote the book Shih Chi At that time, the Yellow Emperor had become the first primitive emperor who believed in history in his mind, and was the common ancestor of the Xia, Shang and Zhou three generations of imperial families. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there was a "Yellow Emperor fever" in China: newspapers and magazines were everywhere about the Yellow Emperor, and the deeds of the Yellow Emperor were composed as songs and used as teaching subjects for children to read... Under the impact of Western nationalism, intellectuals in the late Qing Dynasty tried to construct cultural symbols of national identity in their own country, so they chose a mythic figure from ancient legends -- Yellow Emperor, emphasizing that he was the "ancestor" of the Chinese nation. The concept of "Chinese descendants" also became a generally accepted self-appellation at this time, affecting until today. ^[99]

Ancestor worship and filial piety are the common psychology of the Han nationality. ^[60] Gods, ghosts and ancestors have always been regarded as the core system of the folk religion of the Han people. Among them, the worship and worship of ancestors, as well as the protection of ancestors for future generations, are considered to be the relationship between human beings and ancestors in a typical sense. ^[73] In order to close the relationship with the Central Plains group and establish the legitimacy of intervention and entry into the Central Plains, the marginal ethnic groups have appeared the phenomenon of "clinging" with different contents. Such as the spring and autumn Wu, Qin, Chu claimed to be "descendants of the Yellow Emperor", this "yellow emperor attachment" has continued to the modern southwest Tusi head people's "Han origin". ^[54] Most of the She people were assimilated into the Hakka, while the few who were not assimilated either retreated deeper into the mountains or were forced to move elsewhere. ^[75] In the process of ethnic identification, most of the She people are classified into the Han nationality because of their ethnic characteristics. The ancestral lands of the She people are separated between the Central Plains with Henan Runan and Shaanxi Feng Yi as the center and the western Fujian with Ninghua Stone wall as the center. "Henan said" and "Central Plains said" is She people in the process of "Sinicization" a way to contact China, "Ninghua Shibi said" is She people to adapt to the needs of the social environment results. ^[100]

The general family tree has to find a prominent ancestor, not emperors, sages, senior officials, celebrities, and even back to the three emperors and five emperors. Since these ancient noble people basically came out of the Yellow River valley in the north, in order to connect the family, especially the family that is not in the Yellow River valley, with these ancestors, we can only fabricate a migration history. ^[108] Luo Xianglin and many Hakka scholars later sorted out the historical origins of the Hakka people mainly according to the Hakka family tree. In their view, what is recorded in the Hakka family tree is "historical facts". In fact, these contents are highly fictitious. The family tree of Ming and Qing dynasties (including the family tree of Hakka family) is a kind of cultural creation of local society since Ming and Qing Dynasties, with rich social and cultural connotation. ^[80] In various parts of the south, the claim that "the most authentic descendants of the ancient Central Plains, the most authentic ancient Central Plains language" has emerged in various local media. Taiwan has interpreted the outsiders' name "Fu Lao" as "Heluo", as evidence that the Min people originated from the Heluo region in the Central Plains. This is a common phenomenon in the cultural circle of Chinese characters, as well as the widespread creation of false nobles in the Central Plains in the southern genealogy. ^[105]

Zhu Zi deep clothes

The term "Hanfu" is a sociological concept put forward by traditional culture lovers since the 21st century. The narrow sense of Hanfu refers to Han Dynasty clothing. Hanfu refers to the clothing system represented by Guanzhong Jinggi Province, which is different from the dress tradition of Jingchu region. As a broad sociological category, Hanfu generally refers to the Chinese clothing system, which takes the traditional clothing of the Han nationality as the main body and gradually forms after absorbing the characteristics of other ethnic costumes in the social evolution. ^[71] There are two lineages of Chinese historical clothing: one is the upper aristocratic class robe system, and the other is the working clothing system under the worker's coat. ^[72] " Hanfu movement The activists are mainly young people, and most of them are "netizens" and "netizens". ^[104]

On the basis of absorbing the style of Hu clothing, the men's clothing of Tang Dynasty changed the style of wide clothes and belt in Han and Wei dynasties. ^[101] Hu clothing can evoke the beautiful longing and memories hidden in their subconscious. ^[102] Hu clothing with tight body, lapel, leather belt, leather boots as the characteristics of suit to the Tang Dynasty people's appreciation of the beauty of the body. ^[102] The scattering in Ming Dynasty may be influenced by the waist line jacket in the sun clothing of the Yuan Dynasty. ^[103] In the "Hanfu Movement" about "Hanfu", there was a pure "Hanfu" in history, only because of the national oppression of the Manchu Dynasty, "Hanfu" was forced to "abnormal" disappear, and now naturally should be restored. ^[104] During the Qing Dynasty, robes and other robes began to spread among the Han people, and the style of clothing developed to the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China, men were generally dressed in front of each other and trousers, wearing a front gown outside, and paying attention to a little plus a jacket, which was called" Long gown and mandarin jacket ". The pants have an eight-inch waist. Later, Zhongshan suits became popular, but rural areas still wore long gowns, short jackets and trousers, and there are still elderly people wearing long gowns in remote mountainous areas. Women at the end of the Qing Dynasty wear a trumpet knee-length long shirt and pants, after the Republic of China to wear "axe mouth shirt", there are opposite front, big front, pipa-front, under the skirt, there are fengtail skirt, pleated skirt. After the 1930s, cheongsam was popular, but rural women mostly wore short shirts and trousers. Modern Han clothing, many xing Western clothing .

Hanfu (23 photos)

Among them, the characteristics of the right skirt (front) of the top are always retained. From the jade carving, stone carving and pottery sculptures unearthed in Anyang, Henan Province, you can see the appearance of the right skirt with a high neck. After the introduction of Hu clothing, there are short clothes and shorts, but whether it is the "deep clothes" of the Western Han Dynasty, or the "collar robe" of the Tang and Song dynasties, even including the "robe" of the Qing Dynasty, the top is always characterized by the right skirt. Modern men's robes or modern women's cheongsam inherited the characteristics of the right skirt of the top.

Thousand-layer sole cloth shoes, round mouth low top, light, breathable, comfortable, is also one of the Han nationality characteristics of wearing.

Hair style, ancient Han men do not shave hair, hair in the top and crown; The Manchu rulers in Qing Dynasty forced the Han people to shave their hair and tie braids. After the Republic of China cut braids with short hair, more western style, flat top or bald. Han women have more hairstyles, more high buns in ancient times, modern girls have flowing seas, single braids, or double buns, middle-aged women have more long buns, and old people comb their brains. After the Republic of China, many women changed their hair to short hair and left their ears. Modern Han men's hair style has no characteristics, and women still use long braids as their national characteristics.

Modification, the ancient Han men to a certain age are bearded, women at 15 years old hairpin ceremony, commonly known as "open face". The popularity of women's foot binding began in the Song Dynasty, which is a general consensus. Tao Zongyi's book "Stopping the Cultivation" argued that women's feet were bound in order to distinguish themselves from Mongolians. ^[47] The Qing Dynasty's official attitude towards foot binding was always negative. Foot binding was regarded as "Chinese law" by Ming people and became a cultural symbol to distinguish Yixia. In contrast to men, who shave their hair and dress easily, Han women maintain the old custom of foot binding. Folk therefore appeared "men banned women can not help but", "men down and women do not fall" praise voice. ^[45]

Wear, the ancient Han popular jade, both men and women wear a belly, meaning landing peace, one to five years old to wear "Tianguan lock", also known as "longevity lock". ^[1]

Chinese character - "dragon" in traditional Chinese

The general name of the Han language Chinese , belong to Sino-tibetan family It is one of the oldest and richest languages in the world. The main dialects are divided into seven major dialects, namely Northern dialect , Wu dialect , Hunan dialect , Gan dialect , Hakka dialect , Min dialect , Cantonese dialect . The modern common language of Han nationality is based on the northern dialect and takes Beijing pronunciation as the standard pronunciation. The Chinese language originated in ancient times, and the common square characters evolved from the oracle bone characters of the Yin and Shang dynasties and the Jin characters of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Qin Shihuang unified the six countries and implemented the "book with the same text", so the small seal style made by Qin was popular throughout the country. The success of the Qin unified script in a short period of time shows that the original six countries script is only the written expression of the same language with local characteristics. Qin Dynasty in addition to the small seal, there are official script, at the end of the Han Dynasty and there was a change in the general Chinese characters, namely regular script, to the Wei, Jin, Southern and northern dynasties, has been popular until now. Although the Han nationality is widely distributed in different regions, the unification of the Chinese characters has been formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties. This unification of written language has played an important role in the development of Han culture and the exchange of different ethnic cultures, as well as in the unification of the country. Since the 1950s, the Communist Party of China and the people's government have carried out systematic writing reform and formulated the "Chinese Pinyin Program" to promote Mandarin and simplify Chinese characters, and Chinese characters will gradually develop in the direction of pinyin. ^[1]

tea (6 photos)

At first, the family name and family name of the Han nationality were different. The original surname was the clan number of the matrilineal commune. The word "surname" is a combination of the words "female" and "sheng". Many ancient family names have a "female" side, such as Jiang, Yao, Ji and so on. The family name is a branch of the family name. Because of the multiplication of descendants, the people were divided into several branches, scattered everywhere, each branch has a special sign as a sign, which is the family. Later, there was not much difference between surname and family name.

The origin of surnames is generally as follows: official title as the family name, occupation and skill as the family name, ancestor's name and title as the family name, kingdom and fiefdom as the family name, the original idol as the family name, the characteristics of the place of residence as the family name, the number as the family name, in addition, there are some compound surnames such as Changsun, Helan, Huyan, which are translated by ethnic minorities. In Han society, the concept of clan is deeply rooted, and until 1949, the same surname and the same lineage were still a strong bond in the concept of Han people. According to Qian Daxin, a famous scholar in the Qing Dynasty, the Xia, Shang and Zhou generations, "men did not have their family name in the name", "three generations ago, the family name was divided with the family name, and after the Han and Wei dynasties, the family name was combined with the family name." In fact, since the Han and Wei Dynasties, some of the thousands of surnames of the Han nationality originated from ancient clans, some originated from the pre-Qin Dynasty, or ancestral residence, official positions and names, and a considerable part came from the integration of ethnic minorities and increased surnames. Even if the family name is the same, there are cases where the Han family name is adopted because of the family name or the integration of other ethnic minorities, and so on, it does not mean that the blood is of the same origin. Under the patriarchal system, the kinship of the Han nationality is centered on the paternal line. The continuation of the patrilineal line was considered essential.

There are 408 single family names and 76 compound family names in the Hundred Family names written by Song Dynasty people. Recently published The Great Dictionary of Chinese names ", has received a total of 4129 single compound surname. There are only about 200 common family names, and the most common single family name is only 100.

The names of ancient Chinese people are more complicated than those of modern people. They generally have four items: surname, given name, character and number. Modern people are not so particular about naming, except for a few people have characters, numbers, ordinary people generally have only one name, and most of them are one word or two words. The name reflects the cultural and psychological characteristics of the Han nationality.

Curved train

The cultural psychology of Han nationality is gradually formed after thousands of years of accumulation. Although the input of various modern cultural thoughts in the past hundred years has greatly impacted this traditional cultural psychology, its influence is still deeply rooted. This is formed in the process of people's verbal communication Chinese The specific pragmatic characteristics. ^[1]

First of all, the feudal society based on the natural economy of agriculture ruled China for thousands of years Patriarchal clan system Society has created two characteristics in the national psychology: one is right Blood relation Of great importance, the second is on Lv. Emphasis on difference. Therefore, a prominent feature in verbal communication is to pay attention to the use of kinship appellation, the strict distinction between seniority and seniority. ^[1]

In the West, it can be seen that the younger generation calls the elder by his or her name, which is not allowed in Chinese communication, and must be used when talking with the elder relatives appellation This is polite and cultured performance. Moreover, as a kind of honorific title, a large number of relatives are used in non-relative interlocutors, such as uncle, uncle, grandma, aunt, which is considered to respect each other and express the closeness of the relationship. ^[1]

Valuing the old and the young Patriarchal concept When applied to social relationships, it becomes Hierarchical concept . Thousands of years of feudal society has been advocating orderliness , Order of precedence . Therefore, people have always had the habit of matching their positions with those who have official positions, which was considered a salutation in ancient times. In order to elevate the status of the other party in communication, they often lower themselves, so there are a number of humble names relative to respect, such as your surname - my name, your family - humble house, wise brother - foolish brother, masterpiece - humble work, high opinion - humble opinion, simple opinion. ^[1]

Secondly, it emphasizes the harmony of interpersonal relations, emphasizes the sociality of people, emphasizes the constraints of society and groups on individuals, and does not highlight the relationship between individuals and groups individuality Instead emphasize colony . This is also related to the patriarchal relationship of feudal society, which is in sharp contrast to the West's self-centered, independent personality, personality, and respect for individual achievements and honors. ^[1]

The conservative traditions of the Han nationality on sex and gender also lead to the differences between male and female language in verbal communication. Generally speaking, the male language is more blunt and casual, and the female language is more subtle and solemn. Swearing in sexual terms is far more common among men than women. Because although the traditional concept also believes that the use of these words by men is not civilized, it seems to be generally understood, and the use of women is very inappropriate, and it seems to be taken for granted that the public opinion should be blamed. ^[1]

Paying attention to historiography is also a prominent feature of Han cultural history. Written by Sima Qian Shih Chi All dynasties have biographical history books, to the Qing Dynasty has formed the famous "Twenty-four Histories"; The chronology is represented by Spring and Autumn Annals, Zuo Zhuan and Zhi Zhi Tongjian. Various other historical records of endgame, ancient history, miscellaneous history, local history, historical theory and other official writings make China the country with the most abundant ancient historical documents in the world, most of which are written by Han scholars.

In the development of ancient Chinese literature, the development of poetry occupies a prominent position, such as Chu Ci, Yuefu, Tang poetry, Song Ci, etc., there are many writers and works with high artistic achievements. The names and works of Qu Yuan (c. 340 ~ 278 BC), Li Bai (701 ~ 762 BC), Du Fu (712 ~ 770 BC), Liu Yong (unknown date of birth and death), Su Shi (1037 ~ 1101), Lu You (1125 ~ 1210), Xin Qiji (1140 ~ 1207), etc., not only shine in the history of Chinese literature, He is also recognized as a famous writer in the history of world literature. The prose is famous in the Qin and Han dynasties. Until the middle and late Tang Dynasties, Han Yu (768 ~ 824) and Liu Zongyuan (773 ~ 819) advocated the restoration of the Qin and Han Dynasties. By the time of Ouyang Xiu (1007 ~ 1072), Su Xun (1009 ~ 1066), Zeng Gong (1019 ~ 1083), Wang Anshi (1021 ~ 1086), Su Shi and Su Zhe (1039 ~ 1112), the ancient writing movement had won a great victory, and the title was "Eight Masters of Tang and Song Dynasties". The novel creation, to the Ming and Qing dynasties achieved great development, such as: "Romance of The Three Kingdoms", "Journey to the West", "Water Margin", "The History of the Confucian Scholars"; Short collections such as Tales of Liaozhai are well known. There are also many ethnic minority writers who use Chinese to create, producing many famous writers and masterpieces, and "Dream of Red Mansions" is the most outstanding representative work.

Excellent works of Han nationality

In the compilation of some great books, the Han nationality has a long history. Tang and Song North hall book bill "," The arts and literature come together "," Taiping imperial view "," Shifu Yuan turtle Especially in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Yongle Grand Festival "Book Integration" can be called the world's famous ancient encyclopedia, not only shows the glorious achievements of ancient Chinese culture with Han culture as the main body, but also shows the spirit of cooperation and mutual learning between ancient Han scholars and minority scholars. ^[1]

The achievements of the Han nationality in natural sciences, astronomy and mathematics, have always attracted the attention of the world, such as Zhang Heng (78 ~ 139), Zu Chongzhi (429 ~ 500), Nhat Hanh (popular name Zhang Sui, 683-727), Guo Shoujing (1231 ~ 1316) and so on have been recognized as world cultural celebrities.

The Han have a long tradition of astronomical observation. As far back as the legendary times, there were hereditary astronomical officials in charge of observation Celestial phenomena . In subsequent dynasties, a star viewing platform was set up, observatory , Roof of roof , superintendency , The imperial Board of Astronomy And other institutions, responsible for observing the sky and calculating the calendar. Therefore, in the Han literature Solar eclipse , Lunar eclipse , star , comet , sunspot The observations and records of such celestial phenomena are the earliest and most complete in the world. Han ancient times astronomer The manufacture of astronomical observation instruments has many advantages, which Key component The principle of sum is still used in modern large-scale astronomical observation instruments. And to show the movement of celestial bodies as an opportunity to invent the first time Mechanical clock . In addition, the Han Chinese independently invented their own calendar. ^[30]

The earliest recorded solar eclipse occurred during the Xia Dynasty, about 4,000 years ago. About 3,000 years ago in the Shang Dynasty Oracle bones There are exact records of solar and lunar eclipses. Zhou Dynasty and Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period Since then, there have been many records of solar and lunar eclipses. ^[30]

Armillary globe

Observations of stars were also recorded in the Shang Dynasty Inscriptions on tortoise shells and bones Medium. " The rites of Zhou There is Feng Xiang's "Ten hands have two years, ten have February, ten have two hours, ten days, and twenty have eight stars." Warring States Period Gand Write" Cast a horoscope "Eight volumes, A surname He wrote eight volumes of Astronomy, collectively known as Astronomy. Calamine star Sutra ", which records the position of 120 stars, is the world's earliest star table. Ancient astronomers put the week Mikaki and Twenty-eight nights This regional division is used to determine the location of celestial bodies and celestial events. Pre-qin period Drawn by the Han ancestors Star chart The earliest objects that have survived to this day are The Five Dynasties Two pieces of 28 star map carved stone unearthed in the period, other famous are Song Dynasty Suzhou stone astronomical map and Dunhuang Star map of Tang Dynasty. ^[30]

towards Halley's comet From 613 BC to the beginning of the 20th century, a total of 31 records were recorded in Chinese, the earliest one in 1057 BC. Sunspots were first observed in Gander's Astrology around the 4th century BC. Written history The first record of sunspots in China began in 28 BC. By 1638, there were about 100 sunspots recorded in official history, and there may be more scattered in other Chinese books. These precious materials still have important scientific research value. ^[30]

Having accumulated a wealth of knowledge of astronomical observations throughout the ages, Han Dynasty Astronomers definitively propose a theory of the structure of the universe." spherotianism ". Negate the "pre-Qin" Canopic theory ". In order to accurately observe the positions of celestial bodies and celestial phenomena, astronomers of the Han Dynasty Geng Shouchang , Jia Kui Until the invention of equator The coordinate system of astronomical observation instrument is called "armillary sphere" or "armillary sphere" in Chinese. Armillary globe ". ^[30]

Astronomer of the Han Dynasty Zhang Heng The "armillary sphere" (also called the armillary sphere) is an instrument used to display the sky, similar to the modern "armillary sphere". Celestial globe ". ^[30]

The invention of the mechanical clock began by showing the rotation of the celestial sphere (i.e Earth rotation and Earth revolution ) of Astronomical instrument First made for the Han nationality. In 725, a group of Tang Dynasty astronomers ( Zhang Sui ) and Liang Lingchan On the basis of "armillary sphere" and "muddy image", "Huntian copper sphere" is made. ^[30]

1092, the Song Dynasty astronomer Su Song Made more advanced" Water transport instrument image table ". Susong Bell is the most remarkable mechanical manufacture of mankind in the Middle Ages, and its principles were introduced to Europe two centuries later, leading to Mechanical clock Development in the West. In addition, before the spring and Autumn period was commonly used to measure the length of the sun's shadow. gnomon "Is also a big invention of the Han ancestors. Table for pole, kei for lying ruler, measure the length of the shadow, set Winter Solstice Festival and Summer solstice The date of Tropical year The length of. Tang Dynasty and others first measured the length of the meridian. The ancestors of the Han nationality were the first to discover natural magnets and magnet guides, and made" A surname and Compass . ^[30]

The ancestors of the Han nationality invented the calendar very early. According to legend, it was in the early Qin Dynasty Yellow Emperor calendar , Rui Xu Calendar, The lunar calendar , A surname , Weekly calendar , Lu calendar . Collectively" Old sixth calendar ". Xia calendar also known as" Natsuma , in order to The first month of the lunar year The beginning of the year. Yin Li is also known as" Yin Zheng ", led by Dec. The Zhou calendar is also known as "Zhou Zheng", with November as the beginning of the year. Qin used Ruixu calendar, beginning with October. Since the Han Dynasty, there have been Lunar calendar , Triad calendar , Quarter calendar , ephemeris Tai Ming Calendar, Shu Yin Yuan calendar, Grand calendar , Twelve-qi calendar , Meteorological almanac , Shoushi calendar , Chronological calendar , almanac Let's wait. Among these calendars, except the Northern Song Dynasty Shen Kuo The "Twelve Qi Calendar" created and the "Heavenly calendar" issued by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom are Solar calendar In addition, other calendars are yin-yang calendar. To this day, the Han people are still accustomed to using the traditional yin-yang calendar, while using the common one in most countries in the world Gregorian calendar . ^[30]

Geomancy has a long history in China, known as geomancy in ancient times. It refers to people's choice and treatment of the living or burial environment to achieve the purpose of seeking good luck and avoiding evil. Its core idea is the harmony between people and nature, which is mainly related to the location, orientation, construction and layout of palaces, residences, villages and graveyards. Organizers said that many people associate feng shui with superstition, but in fact, feng shui is a subject of discovering and using nature.

In ancient times, the Han people were very interested in Geomancy theory Is attached great importance. Like weddings, funerals, and the opening of easy homes, we should welcome easy feng shui masters to perform divination predictions and break disasters in advance. To understand in modern people's words, it is a good place for feng shui, where people live, can help personnel prosper and make money, and can make future generations rich and prominent. In ancient times, it met the standard of Feng Shui treasure land: back, left Azure dragon , right has White tiger , precede Ansan In the Ming hall, the water twists and turns. Feng Shui tells people to follow the laws of nature and optimize the natural environment. ^[32]

Living in a place with good feng shui, people will be healthy and happy, and they will be energetic to work. Living in a room that never sees the sun, live The quality is not high, the mood is not comfortable, and the work will be affected.

Papermaking, printing, gunpowder and the compass are Chinese Four great inventions .

In 1550, the Italian mathematician Jerome Cardin first identified the magnetic compass, printing, and gunpowder as the three great inventions of China, and considered them "unequalled in all antiquity." Later, Jane Bodine repeated the same claim. In 1620, Francis Bacon wrote in New Instruments: "We should take note of the power, the efficiency, and the consequences of every invention." The most obvious examples are printing, gunpowder, and the compass. These three inventions have changed the face and condition of the whole world of things, the first academically, the second militarily, the third nautical, and countless changes have followed. The change has been so great that no empire, no sect, no eminent figure has ever exerted a greater force and influence in the cause of mankind than these three mechanical inventions." In China at the latest in the 1920s, there was a proposal to expand the "four Great inventions" by adding paper to the "three Great inventions", and by the 1940s and 1950s, this proposal had been widely recognized. ^[30] ^[33]

Ever since Han Dynasty initiate Only respect Confucianism After that, China began more than 2,000 years of Confucian education. Sui Dynasty Emperor Yang of Sui Dynasty established it Imperial examination system , Song Dynasty Start construction Academy of learning . Qing Dynasty The imperial examination system was abolished in the last years. ^[31]

Chinese medicine is the traditional medicine based on the medical practice of Han nationality. Traditional Chinese medicine takes yin-yang and five elements as the theoretical basis and regards the human body as the unity of qi, form and God. Through the methods of looking, smelling, inquiring, cutting and combining the four diagnoses, it explores the etiology, disease nature, disease location, analyzes the pathogenesis and the changes of the viscera, meridians and joints in the human body as well as the changes of qi, blood and body fluid, determines the rise and fall of evil and positive, and then obtains the name of the disease, summarizes the syndrome type, and treats it according to the principle of syndrome differentiation. Formulation of "sweating, vomiting, hypoxia, harmony, warming, qing, tonifying, eliminating" and other treatment, use Chinese prescription , Acupuncture and moxibustion , massage , massage , Cupping glass , Breathing exercises (Qigong) , Diet therapy A variety of treatment means, such as guidance, so that the human body to achieve Yin and Yang harmony and rehabilitation.

In the narrow sense, Chinese medicine refers to Chinese medicine. Before 1949, the term Chinese medicine was relatively common. Japonic Chinese medicine Korean Korean medicine Goryeo medicine, as North Korea calls it, and Dong Medicine, as Vietnam calls it, were developed on the basis of traditional Chinese medicine.

Counting the ten books (7 photos)

The development of mathematics in the Han nationality has a long history. In the process of engaging in social labor production, the people gradually acquired the concept of quantity and the understanding of various simple geometric figures. In particular, the gradual development of agriculture requires the corresponding astronomical calendar, the need to know the seasonal arrangement suitable for agriculture, and the simplest astronomy is also separated from mathematics. The measurement of land area, the size of granaries, the length and orientation of building materials, and so on all require mathematics. Pottery unearthed at the Banpo site in Xi 'an is marked with some pottery inscriptions, some of which are clearly symbols for numbers. ^[34]

Legend has it that Xia Yu used yardstick, rules, and hook measurement when he controlled the water. The oracle bone inscriptions of the late Shang Dynasty show that the notation used by the Shang Dynasty was very complete. The principle of counting is to follow the decimal system. The use of a complete decimal system from the beginning had a significant advantage over the numbering methods used by the Barbarians and ancient Egyptians. In the Western Zhou Dynasty, the numbering method in the Jin text was exactly the same as that in the Shang Dynasty, and it has been used until today. After that, Han mathematics began to form in the" Nine chapters on Arithmetic As the center of the system. There are only two kinds of mathematics books recorded in the Book of Han · Yiwen Zhi, the Book of Sui · Jing Ji Zhi has increased to 19, and the Book of New Tang · Yiwen Zhi has increased to 35. Among them, Li Chunfeng, a mathematician in the Tang Dynasty, was ordered to annotate the "Ten books of calculation". In 1606, Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi jointly translated the first six volumes of the famous ancient Greek mathematical work "Elements". ^[34]

In addition to the whole number, the Han nationality also had a relatively early understanding of fractions. At the same time, he also mastered the four operations of integers and fractions. Duke Huan of Qi in the Spring and Autumn Period once invited those who could recite the Multiplication song of "Ninety-nine" to the "Recruiting Hall" as distinguished guests, although this was no longer a great knowledge at that time. In Guanzi, Xunzi and other ancient books, there are also individual sentences in "ninety-nine". ^[34]

In the early Han dynasty, the actual calculation was carried out by calculating chips. Since the middle of the Tang Dynasty, especially because of the rapid economic development since the Song Dynasty, it is necessary to improve the calculation tools. After a long period of evolution, to the Yuan and Ming dynasties, it completed the transformation from planning to calculation. By the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the abacus had been widely used throughout the country. The abacus is convenient to carry and can be calculated quickly when combined with the formula. In the world of similar computing tools, can be said to be the best abacus. Due to the popularity of the abacus calculation, calculation was almost extinct, and the ancient mathematical tradition based on calculation was gradually lost. In particular, the imperial examination system of the Ming Dynasty and the long-term spread of subjective idealism philosophy thought thought that all specialized knowledge is "strange skills". By the time Western mathematics began to be introduced into China at the turn of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, few people in the state's Sitiantai could master the preparation of the calendar. ^[34]

Ancient agronomy often includes many achievements of ancient science and technology. According to incomplete statistics, over the past 2000 years, more than 370 kinds of agricultural books have been lost and passed down to the present day, among which "The Book of Si Sheng", "Qi Min Yao Shu", "Wang Zhen Nong Shu" and "The Book of Agricultural Administration" are the representative works of ancient agronomy.

There are many books about China encyclopedia, the main ones are" The Classic of Mountains and Rivers "," Dream stream pen talk "," The work of nature opens things "," Yongle Grand Festival ", etc.

" The Classic of Mountains and Rivers Yes The pre-Qin period Ancient books, is a rich Myth and legend The oldest geography book. It mainly describes ancient geography, products, myths, witchcraft, religion, etc., but also includes Ancient history , medicine , Folk custom , nation And so on. The exact date and author of the book are unknown.

" Dream stream pen talk He is a scientist of the Northern Song Dynasty Shen Kuo A book written in notebook form. The book was written about 1086 to 1093, and contains Shen Kuo's views and opinions in his life. Known by Western scholars as the encyclopedia of ancient China, it has been translated into many foreign languages.

" The work of nature opens things "Is a comprehensive scientific and technological work in ancient China, and is the world's first comprehensive work on agriculture and handicraft production, known as the" encyclopedia of technology "by European scholars. It systematically summarizes various technologies in ancient China and constitutes a complete system of science and technology. The rich experience in agriculture is summarized and the achievements of process technology are fully reflected. Many of the production techniques described in the book remained in use until modern times. ^[35]

" Yongle Grand Festival It is the largest book in ancient China and the largest encyclopedia in ancient China. The book consists of 22,937 volumes, about 370 million words, in 11,095 volumes. The collection of ancient important classics to 7000 or 8000 kinds, up to the pre-Qin Dynasty, the early Ming Dynasty, can be said to be "including the vast universe, unifying the similarities and differences between ancient and modern." The lost lexis before Song and Yuan dynasties were mostly preserved and circulated. "Yongle Dadian" "Classics and history subsets, and where the Taoist interpretation, medical Bu, miscellaneous books, can not be collected." ^[39] It is not easy to compile the books according to the original works in whole, whole, or whole paragraph, which improves the documentary value of the preservation of materials.

It is said to be around the 21st century BC Xia Yu At that time, floods all over China reached the sky and there was a vast ocean everywhere. At this time, a man named Yu led everyone to channel the river and smooth the water and soil. He was out for 13 years, but he did not enter his home three times, and finally made the river return to the road and the world was peaceful. A passage from the ancient Chinese book of Shang Shu Yugon ", is considered to be an ancient document describing the achievements of the Great Yu Ping control of soil and water at that time. ^[36]

The geographical vision of China during the Han Dynasty was already quite broad. The Book of Han · Geography records the shipping routes from Guangdong to Indonesia, Burma, India and Sri Lanka.

In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Yongchang Road, an overland transportation route from Yunnan to India via Burma, was opened. The book of the Later Han Dynasty, Dongyi Biography describes the situation of Japan "living on the mountain island, where more than 100 countries".

At the age of 65, Faxian, a senior monk in the Jin Dynasty, set out from Chang 'an to India through Yumen, and then went south to Ceylon and Sumatra to circle the South China Sea to return home, after 12 years. After returning to China, he wrote the book "Buddhist Kingdom Records", which described the natural, social and economic conditions of the Western regions, India and Southeast Asian countries.

Xuanzang, a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, traveled to the west in 627. It took him 18 years to visit more than 110 countries and travel more than 50,000 li. After returning to China, according to his oral compilation of" The Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty ", a comprehensive introduction to the area, capital, climate, terrain, water resources, products, transportation and customs of the states, can be said to be "push the table mountains and rivers, study the soil, detail the hardness and softness of the national customs, the climate of water and soil", not only in the history of Chinese geography, is in the history of world geography also occupies an important position.

The "Map of Guangzhou through the Sea" recorded in the "New Book of Tang · Geography" details the sea voyage from China to the Persian Gulf. Regarding the situation in the north, in the New Book of Tang · Uighur, there is a statement that "its land is far from the sea in the north, the furthest to the capital, and the North Sea is long day and short night, the day is cooking sheep, the East has been clear, and the cover has recently come from", the sea in mind refers to Lake Baikal, "the day is cooking sheep," the day is bright and the night is short, the extent of the day is far from the Arctic Circle near Lake Baikal.

In the Song Dynasty, the compass was used for navigation, and maritime traffic and trade were more developed. Voyages between the Song Dynasty and Japan were frequent and lasted almost a year without interruption. At the same time, the voyage to the South Ocean and the west of India was also extremely developed. Zhou Qufei and Zhao Rushi collected the geographical data at that time and wrote them respectively. Lingwai answered "And" All kinds of records Its scope involves the South China Sea, Southeast Asia, South Asia Islands, South Asia, West Asia, Africa and Spain and other vast areas. In the Yuan Dynasty, Genghis Khan's expeditions made the transportation between China and the West more convenient.

Earlier than the Western geographical discovery half a century, the Ming Dynasty Sanbao eunuch Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western seas He visited dozens of countries such as the South Ocean Islands, India, Arabia and East Africa, with a crew of more than 27,000 people. Accompanying Ma Huan, Fei Xin and Gong Zhen described the magnificent events and experiences of these seven voyages. Ma Huan's" Yingya conquers the scenery "Records 19 countries, Fisher's" A surname "Recorded 40 countries (including 22 personally), Gong Zhen's" Western Fanguo Record "recorded the customs of 20 countries. Produced by the Last Voyage Zheng He's nautical charts It is based on Nanjing as the starting point and reaches Mombasa on the east coast of Africa, with more than 500 place names in the figure, which is considered to be second to none in the world at that time.

The philosophical thought of Han nationality has a long history and is broad and profound. The earliest ancient philosophy sputtered in Yin and Zhou dynasties. Hongfan, the book of Shangshu in the early Western Zhou Dynasty, put forward the theory of five elements, which took metal, wood, water, fire and earth as the most basic things that constituted the world. "Yin and Zhou Dynasties" The Book of Changes The Book of Changes selects eight things from the natural world that people often come into contact with, namely, heaven (dry), earth (Kun), thunder (earthquake), mountain (gen), fire (away), water (kan), ze (Dui), and wind (Xun), as the source of explaining other things in the world, reflecting simple materialism. It also uses the above-mentioned gossip to explain natural phenomena and social relations, reflecting the thought of simple dialectics. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, a hundred schools of thought contended, which became the most glorious period in the history of Chinese philosophy. On this basis, many philosophers and schools of philosophy emerged in the development of Chinese philosophy for more than two thousand years, each of which embodied the spiritual outlook of The Times and became the different genes of the spiritual culture of the Chinese nation, and still have a wide and profound influence today. ^[37] Ancient Chinese philosophy, as a complete history of philosophy, can be generally summarized as the change of several forms of pre-Qin Zhuzi studies, Han Dynasty classics, Wei and Jin metaphysics, Sinicized Buddhism, Song and Ming theory, and early Qing simple studies. ^[40]

The Han nationality has a long history and sports have existed since ancient times. As early as the time of the Yellow Emperor, young people were trained with sports such as Jiaoyi, fencing, shooting, cu踘, Chuiwan, etc Yao , Yu Shun , In the summer , shang , weeks The five dynasties also used boxing, throwing pot, swordplay, bow arrow, soil attack and other sports to strengthen the Chinese people's physique. By the time of the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the ancient sports had entered an unprecedented state, and there were new things, such as wrestling, tug-of-war, and swing, and the most prosperous were polo and football, and women also participated, both of which were introduced to Japan in the Tang Dynasty. These sports activities still developed until the Ming and Qing Dynasties. However, after a series of wars and westernization campaigns from the late Qing Dynasty to the early Republic of China, most of these activities have been lost. As for activities such as tug-of-war and swing, they have been around for a long time, while activities such as Kakuchi have been passed down from Japan to today. Martial arts is a treasure in a splendid culture. It is a traditional fitness sport with a long history of thousands of years. Horse riding, archery, wrestling, fishing, Dragon boat Sports such as chess and chess are also widely spread. However, like the whole of China, the development of modern sports of the Han nationality was relatively late, and it was not introduced until the end of the 19th century. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the sports of the Han nationality basically kept the same development trend with the sports of the whole country.

Han people in other areas such as painting, calligraphy, arts and crafts, music, Dance , drama There are many famous artists at home and abroad, and they have obtained amazing artistic achievements. In the development of these arts, in particular, it shows that the Han people are good at learning and absorbing the strengths of other nationalities to develop their art and form a unique style.

The earliest artistic creation of the Han nationality in China can be traced back to about 8,000 years ago, even if earlier ornaments are not included. The beginning of 4000 years is China's Neolithic Age, its basic characteristics in addition to the grinding of stone tools, but also include the emergence of pottery and textiles. The fabric is perishable and difficult to preserve, but the jade stone tools and pottery show the outstanding artistic talent of the Han ancestors. In view of the existence of rock paintings whose age is often unknown, it is now difficult to identify arts and crafts as having given birth to art, but it is still certain that in China's primitive society, arts and crafts were more mature and more brilliant than art, and primitive paintings and sculptures were often attached to arts and crafts. People outside the industry often misunderstand this. According to the understanding that will not lead to different theories, according to the material, the arts and crafts can be roughly divided into silk and other fabrics, ceramics, jade, metal, lacquer wood and bamboo tooth corner glass and other six categories. ^[38]

Han architectural form (11 photos)

Because of the large distribution area of the Han nationality, its traditional housing has different styles depending on the region. Reside in North China Plain The traditional housing of the Han nationality is mostly brick and wood structure One-storey house The courtyard is mostly siheyuan style, to Beijing Siheyuan Be represented by; The traditional houses of the Han people living in the northeast are basically similar to those in North China, the difference is in the walls and roofs, where the houses are generally thick, mainly for warmth; Reside in Northern Shaanxi The Han nationality, then according to Loess plateau The characteristics of thick soil layer and low groundwater level are digging caves for housing, and the caves are not only Warm in winter and cool in summer And do not occupy Cultivated area ; The Han nationality living in the south, their traditional houses are mainly built of wood, pay attention to the eaves heavy pavilion and the structure of law. As all over the South custom Different from natural conditions, there are also differences in the layout of housing buildings. Such as hill Mountainous region The buildings are built on the mountains, Jiangsu and Zhejiang Waterside area Focus on the front streets and back rivers, Fujian (Province) The tulou is large and beautiful, Suzhou The pavilion is small and beautiful. ^[1]

Whether the south or the north of the Han, its tradition Folk house The common characteristics are Sit north and face south Pay attention to indoor lighting; Wooden beams bearing weight, brick, stone, earth wall; In order to Central room As the center Carve beams and paint buildings And decorative roof, cornice famous. ^[1]

Han nationality is a nation with musical tradition, and Han nationality music has a long history and unique creation. Before the Qin Dynasty, the ancestors of the Han nationality had created Musical instrument And music, invented the rhythm. Han and Tang dynasties Han music to Song and dance Good at music; After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, then Opera music Main. Today's world recognized musical rules, such as The law of five degrees (the Han people called the three-point profit and loss law), the pure law and the average law, the Han people are independently invented, and the results are like the convergence of the car bars World music The axis of theory.

The drinking of tea by the Han people is said to have begun Shennong Times, at least 4,700 years ago. Until now, Chinese Han compatriots still have the custom of substituting tea for gifts. The preparation of tea by the Han Nationality is varied. China is the hometown of tea. It has been making and drinking tea for thousands of years. Chinese tea art Well known in the world, in Tang Dynasty It was introduced to Japan, forming the Japanese tea ceremony.

Traditional Han Chinese coming-of-age ceremony

Seating Gift: Sitting is a sitting posture passed down from the ancient Han nationality. The movement is the hips on the ankles, the upper body is straight, the hands are properly placed on the knees, the body temperament is dignified, and the eyes are fixed. The modern sitting method of sitting on a stool with feet lengthways down, in fact, was not regarded as a formal sitting method before the Southern and Northern Dynasties, which was from the Western countries at that time, and was called Sit idly .

Gift: The social relation of Han nationality is a typical reciprocal social relation. Often differences in social relations are expressed through similar family names. The connection between the individual and society is called "guanxi", the connection of feelings. Chinese social relations are usually carried out through the exchange of gifts. Since ancient times, there has been a saying that "thousands of miles to send goose feathers, gifts light love heavy", indicating that the value of gifts lies in the goodwill and intentions of the giver, rather than the value of the gift itself. Especially a token of affection.

Funeral: The main color of traditional Chinese funerals is white, so there are also Funeral affairs Said, and red things (happy things) opposite. Depending on the faith and financial situation of the deceased, the whole process is often mixed with related Buddhist, Taoist or feng shui rituals.

Zhou system, Tang system, Ming system wedding dress

Han traditional wedding is an important part of Chinese culture. The ancients believed that dusk was a good time, so they would marry a wife at dusk; For this reason, the rites of marriage between husband and wife are called "faint rites". The Faint Ceremony belongs to the Jia Ceremony among the five rites, and is the second milestone of life after the crown ceremony for men or the hair-pinning ceremony for women. A Chinese wedding can be divided into three stages. Ceremony, that is, "engagement". Formal wedding, that is, "marriage" or "marriage" etiquette, is the meaning of husband and wife union. The wedding ceremony is the ceremony of "becoming a wife", "becoming a woman" or "becoming a son-in-law", which indicates the role of men and women after marriage. In traditional Chinese marriage customs, the pre-wedding ceremony and the wedding ceremony are the main procedures, which are derived from the six rites of the Duke of Zhou. ^[1]

Wine culture (8 photos)

In China, the traditional concept of generations of the Han nationality has long existed, centered on itself, there are four generations of elders and four generations of younger generations, forming the "nine families" blood relationship of "great-grandfather, great-grandfather, grandfather, father, myself, son, grandson, great-grandson, great-grandson", which is nine levels. If the collateral blood relation and in-law relation are linked together, a huge kinship system is formed. ^[1]

Kinship terms are based on seniority, regardless of age. Kinship is also used in society between neighbors or strangers to show kindness and respect. Generally speaking, pay attention to the level, grasp the Angle, in the use of appellation is very important, different age levels, appellation is also different, especially the appellation on the envelope. ^[1]

In life, in order to show respect for people, there are also special phenomena that do not pay attention to the level. For example: a family has a respected elder, the younger generation of the family called grandpa, grandma, master, grandma, etc., the neighborhood regardless of men and women old and young, may call it grandpa, grandma, master, grandma, but the title is often named before the name. Such as "a dream of Red Mansions" in the Liu grandma, "camel Xiangzi" in the Liu fourth master. Sometimes "he (she)" is added before the title, such as: his uncle, her second aunt, his grandmother, her Li second brother and so on. Similar terms are still widely used today. ^[1]

Traditional dress of Han nationality

Funerals used to be earth burials, but now most use cremation. ^[1] The old tradition of the Han nationality burial is to pay attention to heavy burial, and mixed with many superstitious customs. Since ancient times, coffin burial has been popular among the Han people, and the funeral is grand, divided into three stages: encoffining, funeral and burial. In ancient times, there was the custom of burying people, gradually replaced by pottery figurines, and in modern times, paper portraits were buried with them. ^[1]

After the funeral, yes Do seven , Even in seven , The hundredth day after one's death , anniversary Such as the memorial ceremony, and the memorial tablet is sent to the ancestral hall, which has changed from the funeral ceremony for people to the "ghost spirit" and "ancestral spirit" of the ceremony. In addition, the Han people also have the custom of "reburial", that is, burying the body of the dead in the country of origin. ^[1]

During the funeral, the relatives of the deceased wear mourning clothes and keep vigil in the funeral hall. According to the ancient Chinese ritual system, filial clothing is divided into five levels according to the blood relationship with the deceased. In modern Chinese, there is also the word "Wufu", indicating the distance of blood relationship. The dress is made of white cloth, which is very different from the custom of wearing white dress in Western nations. During the Qing Dynasty, when an Englishman came to China for the first time, he found it very strange that everyone in the funeral procession wore white clothes and looked sad. In ancient times, an elegy was sung at the funeral. The elegiac couplets and elegies of later generations are evolved from the ancient elegies. ^[1]

The size of the funeral ceremony is closely related to the status and identity of the deceased. In feudal society, there are strict regulations on the funeral rites of people with different status and identity. Princes, nobles and rich people often show off their power with grand funeral ceremonies. ^[1]

After the death of the elder, the grandchildren to stay at home for 27 months, during which to stop communication and entertainment, officials must also leave home to observe filial piety, to express condolences to the elder relatives, called "guard." ^[1]

diet (8 photos)

The Han nationality is mainly engaged in agriculture , staple food to Wheat , Corn , rice Etc., supplemented vegetable , Soybean products and chicken , fish , The pig , The cow , Mutton Wait for non-staple food, tea and wine It's a traditional drink. With rice as the staple food, it is customary to make rice rice , porridge or Rice flour , Rice cake , Glutinous Rice Ball , Glutinous Rice Wrapped in Bamboo Leaves , Rice cake And all kinds of different foods; With wheat as the staple food, it is customary to make wheat noodles Steamed bun , Noodles , steamed twisted roll , Steamed stuffed bun , Dumplings , wonton , Deep-Fried Dough Stick , Spring roll , Fried cake , pancake Let's wait. Paying attention to and being good at cooking is a major dietary feature of the Han nationality. The Han people in different regions have formed different local flavors through long-term practice by frying, roasting, decocting, steaming, roasting and cold mixing. The Han nationality of Guangdong, Fujian, Hui, Lu, Sichuan, Hunan, Zhejiang, Su and so on Eight major cuisines Famous both at sea and beyond. ^[1]

There are many festivals of the Han nationality, mainly Spring Festival, Qingming Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Lantern Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and so on. The "Spring Festival", also known as the Spring Festival, is a traditional festival of the Han people for thousands of years, and is also the most solemn festival of the year. New Year's Day, the New Year's Eve to vigil, the first day to pay New Year's call. ^[1]

Han traditional festivals, mainly Sacrificial rites , Offer sacrifices to the kitchen god , Spring Festival , Lantern Festival , Seshi , Qingming Festival , Dragon Boat Festival , Qixi Festival , Mid-Autumn Festival , Double Ninth Festival Let's wait. Among all festivals, the Spring Festival is the most solemn. The Spring Festival comes from the lunar New Year, Han Wudi Taichu first year (104 BC) issued the "Taichu calendar" to determine the first month of the New Year. From the Han Dynasty to the northern and Southern Dynasties, the custom of celebrating the New Year on the first day of the first month intensified, burning firecrackers, exchanging peach symbols, drinking Tusu wine, keeping the year, amusement lanterns and other activities have appeared. The early years of the Republic of China are called Spring Festival. ^[46]

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