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Peter I

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Peter I Alexievich Russian : P - again - again - again - again - again - again - again - again - again - again - again - again - again - again; June 9, 1672 - February 8, 1725), Russia The Romanov Dynasty The fifth Tsar (April 1682-1696) Ivan V Co-governance), Russian Empire the first emperor (2 November 1721-8 February 1725), known in history as Peter I and later as Peter the Great, History of Russia One of only two great men in the world.
Peter I ascended the throne in 1682, became king in 1689, and in 1697, sent a mission Western Europe Learning advanced technology, I was the pseudonym of Corporal Peter Mikhailov with the group visits, successively in Netherlands Of Saldan, Amsterdam and Britain the London He learned shipbuilding and navigation skills in other places, and hired a large number of scientific and technological personnel to work in Russia. After returning to China, he actively set up factories, developed trade, culture, education and scientific research, and reformed the military Europe Formalized army and navy, and then waged war. In 1721, Peter I met with Sweden proceed Northern War After his victory, he was given the title of "Emperor of All Russia" by the Russian Senate. Peter died in St. Petersburg on February 8, 1725.
The reign of Peter I took place in the political, economic, military and scientific fields Westernize The history of modern Russia's politics, economy, culture, education, science and technology all originated from the era of Peter I, making Russia one of the major powers in Europe. [1]
(Summary: Peter the Great by Paul de la Roche, 1838) [25] )
Chinese name
Peter I Alexievich
Foreign name
P. : The p. : : The p. : : The p. : : The p. : : The p. : : The p. : : The P. : : The P
alias
Peter I , Peter the Great
nationality
Russia
Date of birth
June 9, 1672
Date of death
February 8, 1725
occupation
Emperors of the Russian Empire
Major achievement
Westernized and modernized Russia
Establish a capital St. Petersburg , Win Battle of Poltava
win Great Northern War , Seize Baltic Sea outfall
Place of Birth
Moscow
Have faith in
Orthodox Church
Wang dynasty
The Romanov Dynasty
Time in place
April 1682 - February 8, 1725

catalogue

  1. 1biography
  2. ▪exile
  3. ▪Seize power in a coup
  4. ▪Learning reform
  5. ▪Northern War
  6. ▪Eastward expansion
  7. ▪The death of Peter
  8. 2Administrative measures
  9. ▪political
  10. ▪economy
  1. ▪Military affairs
  2. ▪culture
  3. ▪religion
  4. ▪diplomacy
  5. ▪society
  6. 3Historical evaluation
  7. 4Anecdotal allusion
  8. ▪playboy
  9. ▪burlesque
  10. ▪Clever carpenter
  1. ▪Throw at each other
  2. ▪Be blackmailed
  3. ▪Rooftop tour
  4. ▪Attach importance to sea power
  5. ▪Have an eye for talent
  6. ▪Have an eye for fakes
  7. ▪Build a house with one's own hands
  8. 5Interpersonal relationship
  9. ▪elder
  10. ▪wife
  11. ▪Sons and daughters
  1. 6Character dispute
  2. ▪A letter to the Senate
  3. ▪An unfinished will
  4. ▪Political testament
  5. 7memorialize
  6. 8Artistic image
  7. ▪Literary image
  8. ▪Film and television image

biography

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EDITOR

exile

A portrait of Peter the Great by Sir Godfrey Naylor, the British court painter [26]
June 9, 1672 ( Julian calendar The 30th of May [52] Pyotr Alexevich Romanov was born in Moscow. He was a Romanov tsar Alexei the First And his second wife Natalia's only child. Unlike the Tsar's previous children, who were either weak or disabled, Peter was very strong and lively, so rumors circulated in the court about Peter's blood and suspected that his real father was another person. [17] Peter's education followed exactly the pattern of his family's upbringing. His father, Tsar Alexei, took great care of Peter and personally chose his wet nurses, nannies and maids. [2]
In 1676, Alexei I, Peter's eldest half-brother, died Fedor Alexievich Take the throne, weigh Fyodor the Third . [16-17]
Fedor III died in April 1682. Another of Peter's older brothers, Ivan, was born slow, so Peter, with the support of his mother, the Naryshkin family group, was proclaimed Tsar Peter I on 27 April, when he was only ten years old. Peter's half-sister Princess Sophia did not want the throne to be held by the Naryshkin family, so under her secret plan, she became a member of the Tsar's royal guard Gunnery corps The Kremlin was besieged in May, and Peter's uncle Naryshkin was killed. With the support of other nobles, Sophia turned the naturally dull Ivan (i.e Ivan V He was proclaimed First Tsar and ruled as his regent. Peter retained the title of Second Tsar, but was expelled from Moscow and moved with his mother to the suburban village of Preobrarensky. [16-17]
Peter, in exile, could not systematically receive formal education, but his strong intellectual curiosity, to some extent, made up for this deficiency. He often communicated with the nearby foreign nationals, and learned from them sailing knowledge and shipbuilding technology, which made him yearn for Western European culture. He also enjoyed playing military games with his friends near the palace. In the shaded villages, earthen forts are built, military exercises are conducted and offensive and defensive games are played. Later he organized these companions, together with his attendants, into the regiments of Preobrarensky and Semyonovsky; He brought in military instructors, armed them with real guns, conducted strict military training and live-fire exercises, and the two regiments later became his direct Praetorian troops. [17]

Seize power in a coup

In January 1689, Peter married Evdokia Feodorovna Lopkhina, the daughter of a nobleman. [64] Sophia, who aspires to be queen, feels threatened by Peter's side and prepares to stage another gunnery rebellion and a palace coup. Peter learned of the plot of the Sophia Group, and on the night of August 7, 1689, he left the village of Preobrarensky and fled to the Monastery of the Three Saints of Sergeyev. The gunnery also reached the vicinity of the Sergeyev Monastery of the Three Saints, and Peter and his attendants defeated the gunnery. [64] By this time, many nobles and court ministers had joined Peter, and Sophia's plot had failed, and she was imprisoned in a convent by Peter. On October 6, Peter left for Moscow. After Peter seized power, he handed over the affairs of the state to his mother, assisted by the great aristocrat Archbishop Joacin and the Boyar Dumas, and devoted himself to shipbuilding and navigation. [18]
Peter I with his first wife in 1690 Evdokia Feodorovna Lopkhina The son of Alexei Petrovich Born, he grew up under the influence of the monastic forces hostile to Peter I and the Lopkhina family, and the father and son were estranged. [29]
In 1693, Peter I sent Izbrandt Yijes to China to meet the Kangxi Emperor. [16]
In January 1694, Peter's mother Natalia died, and Peter began to rule. [18]
In 1695, in order to open an outlet to the sea, Peter I led 30,000 Russian troops to attack the southern coast of the Black Sea Ottoman Empire The captured city of Azov. However, because Russia had no navy, it could not stop the Ottoman Empire from pouring reinforcements into the city from the sea, and although the Russian army fought bravely, it was defeated. Subsequently, Peter I learned his lesson and began to build his own navy. He built a shipyard at Voronezh on the Don River and soon built a small river fleet, the first in Russian history. [17]
In 1696, Peter I's second expedition to Azov finally forced the Ottoman Empire to Sue for peace, and Russia took possession of Azov, [17] Solved the Russian army in Azov Sea The export problem. However, in an important strategic position Kerch Strait Still controlled by the Ottomans, the Black Sea was still in Ottoman hands. [18]

Learning reform

Peter I
In March 1697, Russia sent a delegation of about 250 people to Europe. Its mission was twofold: first, to further consolidate and expand the anti-Turkish coalition to defeat the Ottoman Empire; Another task was to recruit foreign sailors, captains, ship-building and gun-making experts, artisans, to order cannons, and to procure cables and tools. Peter I personally accompanied the mission abroad, assuming the pseudonym Peter Mikhailov, disguised as a corporal, and traveled incognito. Peter I had a sense of novelty for all new things, he worked as a carpenter in a shipyard in Saldan, the Netherlands, and then in England to watch munitions factories and naval exercises, listen to the British Parliament debates, and investigate the British political system, economic system and cultural education aspects. [18]
In June 1698, Peter I visited Vienna. At this time, the Russian domestic Gunnery once again staged a mutiny and demanded that Sophia be made tsar. After hearing the news, Peter hurried back to the country, brutally suppressed the rebellion, executed thousands of rebel officers and soldiers, and hung more than 100 bodies of rebels in Sophia's window. 18 [19]
Peter I had seen clearly in Western Europe that the extension of the anti-Turkish alliance and the solution of the problem of access to the Black Sea were impossible for the time being. However, there was a new situation in Northern Europe, Saxony, Denmark and other countries and Sweden in the Baltic Sea serious conflict, which for Peter to attack Sweden, to compete for the Baltic Sea access to create favorable conditions. Therefore, he changed his strategic plan, and on 3 August 1698, Peter I was elected Elector of Saxony and King of Poland Augustus the Second Meeting in Lava, Ukraine. The two sides made a verbal agreement to work together against Sweden. Russia, Saxony, and Denmark formed an anti-Swedish union. Northern League ". [19]
In 1699, Peter ordered the establishment of a city hall in Moscow, the creation of autonomous departments in various regions, the abolition of the feudal Duma, which was increasingly dissatisfied with him, the establishment of an office of cronies and a privy Council, and two reforms of local administration, thus establishing an effective centralized state apparatus. [19]

Northern War

Lose the first battle
In July 1700, Russia signed a 30-year treaty with the Ottoman Empire. Constantinople and the Covenant " [18] [20] . On August 8, a messenger brought news of the peace treaty to Moscow, [65] Peter I learned that the peace treaty had been concluded, immediately declared war on Sweden, his 30,000 troops surrounded the Swedish castle of Narva, and opened the 21-year "war". Northern War "The prologue. [18] [20]
November, King of Sweden Charles XII After a lightning defeat of Russia's ally Denmark, he drove 8,000 of his best men to Narva and attacked a Russian army many times his size in the snow. The Russian army, though vastly superior in numbers, collapsed due to incoherence and disorganization, and was almost completely annihilated, with 15,000 Russian dead compared to 667 Swedish. This war not only caused Russia to suffer almost complete disaster, but also shook the whole of Europe. Peter fled back to Moscow. [21]
Military reform
After the great victory, Karl XII directed his army directly at Poland, giving Russia a breathing space. Peter saw in the defeat the weakness of Russia and the obsolescence of the Russian army, and he took advantage of the Swedish involvement in the Polish war to reinvigorate the military. He gathered new soldiers and trained them in the proper use of muskets. He also sent the children of the nobility abroad to learn foreign military technology and theory, and opened various military schools in China. He attached great importance to the appointment of officers and promoted them according to merit. Peter also personally presided over and participated in the formulation of many rules and regulations and a series of military regulations, with the fastest speed to make this army into the most powerful army in Russian history. To make up for the loss of ordnance in the last war, he ordered every three churches to hand over a brass bell for the casting of guns. A year later, Russia had produced 300 cannons. [21]
Launch a counterattack
In 1702, Peter I took advantage of the main Swedish army expedition to Poland, and the defense of the Baltic coast was empty Neva Finally, they captured Fort Nott and Fort Ningschantz held by the Swiss army. The entire Neva valley fell into the hands of the Russian army, and Russia's dream of opening up the Baltic Sea became a reality. [21]
In May 1703, the Russian army began construction of the forts of Petersburg and Kronstadt at the mouth of the Neva River. [22]
In early 1708, King Carl XII of Sweden led a large army to attack Russia, Peter I avoided a frontal battle, but commanded the Russian army to carry out a strategic retreat, while the wall was cleared, and the Swedish army was constantly harried, worn down and exhausted with small troops. In the fall, Charles XII He made another mistake: in order to win Ukraine over to him, he sent troops south, but left his backup troops only 100km away to the Russians. Peter seized the opportunity, led the Russian army to launch an attack, not only annihilated more than 9,000 people, but also captured almost all of the Swedish artillery and baggage. [23]
The Swedish army, cut off from supplies, was severely short of ammunition, especially in its few remaining guns. However, Charles XII refused the advice of his men to withdraw, and instead besieged the Ukrainian army on the banks of the Khoskala River Poltava The fortress. [23]
Peter I had already organized a large army to defend the fortress and quickly arrived to establish an anti-siege front, luring the Swedish army into a trap between the fortress and the Russian army. On the eve of the decisive battle, in a reconnaissance, Carl XII was shot in the foot and could not command the army in person. [23]
Subject clause Battle of Poltava
At 2 a.m. on June 28, 1709, a fierce battle broke out between Russia and Sweden at Poltava. The Swedish forces involved were about 20,000, while the Russian forces were about twice that, with hundreds of artillery pieces. In the defense against the Swedish army's fierce attack, Peter personally took command of the front line, and finally stabilized the situation. The Russian infantry then counterattacked, and the cavalry surrounded the Swedish wings. By noon, the Swedish army began to retreat and then to flee. The remnants of the Swedish army were chased down by the Russians and forced to surrender, with only a thousand of them fleeing to Turkey under the command of Charles XII. In this battle, the Swedish army was killed more than 9,000 men, captured more than 18,000 men, lost 32 guns and all the baggage, while the Russian army was killed 1,345 men and wounded 3,290. This battle not only decided the end of the long Northern War, but also completely ended Sweden's history as a great power. [23]
Attack Finland
In the summer of 1711, Peter I led a southern expedition to the Ottoman Empire, and the results were Prut River The side fell into the Ottoman army and Crimean Khanate The army closed in. Forced to beg for peace as they ran out of ammunition and food, [23] On 12 July, the Treaty of Prut was signed, providing for the return of Azov and its environs to the Ottoman Empire, the dismantling of the forts at Targanlog and on the Dnieper River, and the safe passage of Karl XII home through Russia. [30]
After the Treaty of Pruit was signed, the Russian army concentrated its main direction of attack on Finland, in an attempt to gradually push the battlefield into Sweden. Between 1712 and 1714, the Russians occupied Helsingfors (present-day Helsinki), Yapo, Vaza, and Neischlotteborg, as well as southern Finland and Finland The Gulf of Bothnia The Swedish army was forced to withdraw from Finland after gaining an important base from which to attack Sweden. [30]
In 1712, St. Petersburg was established. Peter I ordered the capital to be moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg, the court, the Senate, government offices and foreign envoys in Russia moved to St. Petersburg, and ordered 385 nobles to settle in St. Petersburg as the first immigrants. [21]
Russo-swiss talks
Peter I admonished the Crown Prince
In August 1714, Peter I took command of the Russian fleet Battle of Cape Hanko He defeated the Swedish fleet of Ehrenschild, achieving the first victory of the Navy since its establishment, and Peter was promoted to Vice Admiral. [3] In the same year, he sent Lieutenant Colonel Buhoretz to lead an expeditionary force to invade the Junggar region in northwest China. [24]
1715, Crown Prince Alexei Petrovich The relationship with Peter I became more distant, and the conflict between father and son became increasingly acute. A group hostile to reform had gathered around Alexei. Peter I wrote to the Crown Prince, asking him to give an unequivocal answer: "Either you change course and truly make yourself a worthy heir, or you become a monk." In the scheme that affected his future, Alexei chose the latter, and he wrote back that he agreed to cut his head and become a monk, because he had been advised to keep quiet and tell him that "the mitre is not a nail in the head." [29]
In 1716 Peter I visited Western Europe. [24] In November, Alexei took the opportunity to flee to Austria under an assumed name, in an attempt to appeal to the Austrian Emperor Charles VI The shelter of... The Russian government sent someone to find out where Alexei was. [29]
In May 1717, Peter I led Bo Kuragin PI, Shafirov PI, Tolstoy and others to Paris to hold talks with the French government. [31] He was appointed by Peter I on 1 July Tolstoy He and Rumentsev went to Vienna to discuss the Alexei affair with the Emperor of Austria. [29] In August, Russia, France and Prussia signed the Treaty of Amsterdam, which stipulated that France would no longer provide military and other material aid to Sweden. The treaty deprived Sweden of its ally France. Military losses and external isolation forced Sweden to agree to negotiations with Russia. [30] In the same year, Peter I sent an expedition to invade The Khanate of Shiva But it didn't work out. [24] [33]
In January 1718, Alexei accompanied Tolstoy back to Moscow, the old capital. Then began the trial of Alexei's escape. In March, Alexei was sent to Petersburg to continue the case, and Peter ordered the Supreme Special Court of 127 members to be formed to try Alexei. [29] In May, Russia and Switzerland began peace talks in the Aran Islands and drew up a draft peace treaty. On 24 June, Alexei was sentenced to death. On 26 June, Alexei died in his cell. [29] On 30 November, Carl XII was killed during the siege of Frederikham in Norway, by his sister Ulrika Eleanora Inherit the throne. The new Queen, with the support of the British, rejected the peace talks, and the Russian-Swiss negotiations broke off. [30]
Russia's growing influence in the Baltic Sea caused great anxiety in Britain. It wants the Baltic states to maintain a balance of power and maintain its position as the supreme arbiter of the Baltic states. In August 1719 and February 1720, Britain and Sweden signed treaties providing for British economic and military aid to Sweden to help it regain territory occupied by Russia. [30]
End of war
However, because of commercial interests, Britain did not take firm and decisive measures to stop Russian expansion in the Baltic Sea, and did not take any practical and effective military action to help Sweden. Russia saw that Britain was bluffing and pressed harder. In July 1720, 5,000 Russian troops landed at Greenchan, where the British squadron was stationed, and destroyed Swedish coastal installations. On 27 July, the Russian fleet scored another major victory at Klangam Island. The Swedish army captured four three-masted cruisers, 104 guns, and 407 men and women. At the same time, Russia launched a diplomatic offensive to influence Swedish policy towards Russia by openly inviting the Duke of Holstein, the strongest contender for the Swedish throne, to Petersburg and promising Peter I's sister to marry him. The Swedish Government felt that continued "cooperation" with Britain would only prolong the war and the loss of territory. Two of Russia's Allies, the Danish and Polish armies, signed peace treaties with Sweden and withdrew from the war. This international situation, combined with the years of war that had left both countries exhausted, led to the resumption of negotiations that had been suspended several times. [30] In the same year, Peter I sent Izmayilov to China to meet the Kangxi Emperor. [24]
From April to August 1721, the two sides held peace talks in Nystad, Finland. At the beginning of the peace talks, Russia exerted military pressure on Sweden in order to force Sweden to yield to its territorial demands. In the summer of that year, 5,000 Russian troops landed on the Swedish coast, destroying 13 factories, capturing 40 small boats and a large amount of military supplies, resulting in the situation of advancing towards Stockholm. August 30 (say September 10 [28] ), Russia and Switzerland signed the" The Peace of Nistat Russia took it from Sweden Gulf of Finland , Gulf of Riga Land along the coast and access to the Baltic Sea. [23] On October 22, in recognition of Peter I's so-called "heroic achievements" in his foreign expansion, the Russian Senate honored Peter as emperor and awarded him the title of "Great of All Russia" and "Father of the Motherland". Russia was officially renamed the Russian Empire. [30]

Eastward expansion

In 1722, in view of the treason of Crown Prince Alexei, Peter I promulgated the Law of Succession on February 25, abolishing the traditional principle of succession to the throne, stipulating that the reigning emperor could choose his own heir to the throne according to his own consideration, and could also change the already designated heir to the throne. [29] In the same year, Peter I sent Onkowski to the Dzunggar region in northwest China to buy off the Dzunggar Khan Zephyalabutan . [24]
While the Northern War was still going on, Peter I was paying great attention to Persia. On 13 May 1722, Peter I set out from Moscow with his army. Russia has more than 50,000 troops deployed along the Caspian coast and a Caspian squadron of more than 80 ships. In August, the Russian army occupied Gerbent Peter I thus returned to Russia, and the Russian army successively captured the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea in the province of Kiryan and other places. [32]
In July 1723, the Russians took it Baku . On September 12, Persia and Russia signed the Petersburg Alliance Treaty, in which Persia granted Russia the entire western and southern shores of the Caspian Sea. Gerbent and Baku were also ceded to Russia; Russia would help Persia drive out the Afghans and put down all insurgencies as a "quid pro quo" for taking these territories. The Ottoman Empire protested, and with the support of Britain, France and other countries, threatened Russia with war. [32] That same year, in southern Siberia, Peter I sent an army to occupy it The Irtysh River All the land upstream, and sent an expedition all the way east to reach it The Bering Strait . By this time Russia had become a vast empire spanning Europe and Asia. [23]
On 7 May 1724, Peter I crowned his wife. On June 12, Russia and the Ottomans signed a treaty in Constantinople, which stipulated: Yerevan (Erevan) , Tabriz The southwestern parts of the Caucasus, such as Kazvinsk and Shemaha, were assigned to the Ottomans; Russia still occupied the western and southern shores of the Caspian Sea as defined by the Treaty of Petersburg. [32] Shortly thereafter, due to a leak at court, Peter learns that his wife has been engaged in an unfaithful affair with William Mons, a senior court attendant. Mons was also charged with corruption and theft of state property. These questions infuriated Peter. On November 14, William Mons was beheaded and executed. Subsequently, in a royal decree to his ministers, Peter instructed them not to carry out any further instructions or suggestions from the Queen. He has further closed the institutions that govern the wealth of unfaithful wives. [34]

The death of Peter

Peter, in his later years, suffered uremia But he's still a workaholic and doesn't care much about his body. [67] One autumn day in 1724, Peter I was in Gulf of Finland Seeing a ship stranded on a sandbank and several soldiers in danger of drowning, his unique personality made him plunge into the icy water to save them (St. Petersburg was located at 60 degrees north latitude). Peter caught a cold and a high fever, and became very ill in the winter. [66-67]
Although it improved for a time, due to Peter's continuous work, in January 1725, the disease took a turn for the worse, and the pain often made him miserable, and at the same time his feet also appeared abscess and began to fester. February 8, 1725 (January 28, Julian calendar) [63] Peter died in St. Petersburg at the age of 52 from a urinary tract infection caused by surgery for urinary calculi. His last words were: "May God forgive me for my many SINS, because I am doing good for the country and the people." [27]

Administrative measures

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EDITOR

political

Administrative system reform
Peter I
The central to local administrative system inherited from the 17th century showed the weakness of state institutions. As early as January 1699, Peter I issued an Edict on municipal reform, establishing city halls in Moscow and local self-government bureaus in the provincial cities to regulate the commercial and industrial inhabitants of the cities. [62]
From 1708 to 1710, Russia carried out a reform of local administration. Its essence lies in the establishment of intermediate administrative units - provinces and capitals - between the counties and the government offices, which were formerly directly subordinate to the central government. The country is divided into eight provinces, [62] They are: Moscow Province , Saint Petersburg Province , Kyievskiy Rayon , Smolensk Governorate , Irkutsk Province , Kazan , Azovskiy Rayon Siberia Province. [14] The governor-general is in charge of the army and all administrative and judicial powers in the province. There are four assistants under the Governor, each of whom manages certain administrative matters. The commander of the Guard was in charge of the military, the commissary of Finance and the Chief of provisions were in charge of the collection of money and provisions, and one was in charge of justice. The governor was appointed by the Tsar. The establishment of provincial authorities strengthened local power. In 1719, along with the reform of the central administration, another reform of the local administration was carried out. The prefectures became the main units of local administration instead of the provinces, which numbered about fifty. The division of the provinces remained, but the governor-general's powers were reserved only for the administration of provincial cities and the command of provincial garrisons. The rest of the administrative work is done by the governor in direct contact with the central ministries or the Senate. [62]
In 1711, Peter I ordered the creation of a Senate, composed of nine ministers appointed by him. The Senate, which handled affairs of state while the Tsar was away from the capital, became the permanent new highest government body. The Senate was answerable only to the Tsar, it assigned the work of the ministries and local bodies, and it was subject to the Tsar's instructions to review decrees. Its members were appointed by the Tsar, and they were not exactly famous families, but people who were loyal and meritorious to the Tsar. The Senate was completely replaced Seigneur Duma . Peter I thereafter issued edicts only in his own name. The establishment of the Senate played an important role in consolidating the autocracy and strengthening the Tsar's unlimited power. [62]
Set up supervisory organs
In Peter I's administrative reform, the establishment of supervisory functions of the organs played an important role. In 1711, Peter I established a network of administrative supervisors in the central and local authorities, subordinate to the Senate, whose task was "to exercise secret supervision over all persons, even the most senior officials." They reported to the Senate and, in particularly important cases, to the Tsar himself. The Inspector General, no matter how high his position, must inform the Senate of the embezzlers. Any defendant shall be fined, half of the fine shall be made an official, and half shall be awarded to the administrative supervisor. Administrative supervisors receive no salary and live entirely on half of the fine. Therefore, administrative supervisors often abuse their power and engage in personal malpractice. In 1722, Peter I, in order to improve the supervision of the activities of the state organs, established procurators in the ministries and offices, subordinate to the Attorney-General of the Senate, who became the "eyes and ears of the Emperor". Since then, the administrative supervisor system has been replaced. Russia established an "inspectorate system" that it had never had before, with spies all over the country. The creation of the Senate and the establishment of the Prosecutor opened the prelude to the reform of the central institutions. [62]
Peter I drew extensively on the experience of Western countries in his reforms. In 1712, the Tsar ordered the Senate to organize manpower for the translation of "foreign codes" and directed that "scholars and experts in jurisprudence" be recruited from abroad to direct the work of the ministries. Peter asked diplomats in Denmark to collect information on the structure of the Danish central government, as well as the Swedish experience as a belligerent. However, when Peter I applied the experience of Western countries, he did not blindly imitate their policies and organizations, but "took into account the characteristics of his own national development" and adapted it to the situation of Russia itself. [62]
In 1718-1721, Peter I ordered the creation of a new central administration, the Ministry, to replace the old Council. At first there were nine ministries, soon increased to twelve, responsible for foreign affairs, army, navy, finance, taxation, spending, justice, commerce, mining, etc. [62] Replace the original about 50 yamen with overlapping agencies and unclear responsibilities. [13] The ministries were subordinate to the Senate, whose authority extended throughout the Empire and was the link between the Senate and the provincial administrations. The advantage of the ministry over the government office is that there is a clear division of functions among the ministries, and their affairs should be discussed by colleagues and shared responsibility, so as to prevent individuals from acting unilaterally. [62]
Also at the end of the 17th century, an armed police force, the Preobrazhensky Administration (equivalent to the Supreme Court), was established [61] It occupies a special place in the central organs; it conducts political investigations, and its courts try all opponents of the established order. It punished those who took part in the uprising and those who said "vulgar words." The "vulgar words" here refer to comments and rebuking the reform, the Tsar's moral conduct, the Tsar's family life, and so on. In addition, Peter I, like other despots, was convinced that the police were "the masterminds of the citizens, the pillars of all good order, human security and comfort." He established police stations in Petersburg and Moscow, and at the local level delegated police duties to local authorities. [62]
Regulation and legislation
Setting up a new agency is only half the story. Peter was also involved in the formulation of regulations and legislation. In the Corpus Juris of the Russian Empire there are five volumes of legal documents from the time of Peter, including 3,314 instructions, rules and regulations. Manuscripts of many edicts, drafted by Peter myself or added or modified by him, survive. Each Ministry has a constitution stating the scope of its jurisdiction and the rights and obligations associated with it. The General Regulations, which were followed by all the ministries, were of great importance; they were prepared with the participation of Peter I, and they were revised twelve times, six of which were decided and amended by Peter. It defines the rights and duties of public officials from ministers down to handymen. In 1722, the instructions concerning the office of the Procurator-General were completed after six revisions, also with the participation of Peter I. [62]
Break the barriers of pedigree and seniority
With the strengthening of the centralization of state organs, state organs are becoming increasingly bureaucratic. In the society gradually formed a new class - bureaucracy. Due to the increase in the number of state organs and the complexity of their functions, the number of officials increased significantly. In the 17th century, the office was presided over by the Clerk, the governor and his colleagues, and in the 18th century, the Ministry was assumed by the Minister, and the governor and the governor. Peter I expanded the staff of the "Office", which was chaired by a secretary. Official ranks were established among the officials of the organs and promoted according to merit of service, which depended entirely on individual merit and experience. It was possible for low-ranking officials to be promoted to senior positions on their own merits, and aristocrats were also expected to start as clerkships and gradually move up the official ranks. Thus a bureaucratic class was formed. The composition of the bureaucracy was first made up of aristocrats, but it did not exclude other classes of personnel from joining it. [62]
In the second half of the 17th century, the government began to appoint officers not only for pedigree, but also for merit, knowledge, and combat experience. Peter I firmly enforced the principle that officers should be appointed on merit and merit. In order to make a personal example of the nobility, Peter himself served as an officer, first as a gunner, and later as a new officer. During the Northern War, Peter used his combat exploits to promote non-privileged men to the rank of officer. Peter also decreed that the sons of nobles and officers could not become any officers unless they had served in the Guards. Although Peter I fought against the rank of privileged officials, he was sometimes forced to recognize family ties among the nobility, and in appointing officers, he put the "dignitaries" in a favorable position. [62]
Absolute monarchy is primarily for the benefit of the aristocracy. In 1714, Peter I issued a decree of "one son succession", which avoided the fragmentation of the land of the nobility, in order to consolidate the land ownership of the nobility. The principle of promotion on merit was gradually expanded. In 1720, Peter wrote a decree on the dangers of "seniority service" to the country. In 1722, Peter I issued the "official rank Table", which abolished the old regulation of promotion based on family origin, and replaced it with the principle of "merit". The "Table of Ranks" divided the ranks into three parallel series of civil, military, and court offices, each of which was divided into fourteen levels, from the lowest of the poor registrars (civil affairs), standard-bearers (army), and servants (court) to the highest of the Imperial premiers, field marshals, and chambermaids. As long as he rose to the top eight ranks (equivalent to a major in the army), no matter how low his birth, he could be made a noble family. Thus, a new ruling clique was formed around Peter I. Peter I, imitating Europe, abolished the old title of privileged aristocrats and gave himself dozens of earls and barons. At the time of his accession, there were only about two thousand noble families in the country, which soon increased to nine thousand. [62]

economy

revenue
Before the reform, the Russian government issued many orders on taxes, both direct and indirect taxes, excessive and miscellaneous taxes. At that time, the taxation unit was the peasant household, and the landlords combined several families with kinship ties into one household to avoid taxation. Peter I decided to pay for the men instead." Poll tax To this end, the general population registration began in 1718. According to the first census (1722), the population of Russia was approximately 14 million (male and female). In 1724, the first poll tax was levied, and the poll tax for city residents was 1 per man rouble 20 Kopi The levy was 74 kopecks per landowner and farmer, and 40 kopecks more for national farmers. In 1701 the Russian state revenue was only 2.5 million rubles, in 1725 it was more than 9 million rubles. [29]
industry
Peter I
In terms of the development of industry and trade, the economic policies of Peter I achieved great success. "Russian Industrial history" handshop It was during the reign of Peter I that the period began. [29]
In order to supply the army and strengthen the national defense needs, Peter I vigorously supported the Russian handicraft industry. By the end of Peter I's reign, there were more than 200 large industrial enterprises in Russia, of which the gold industry was the most successful. At the end of the 17th century, Russia needed to import iron from Sweden to make weapons, and by 1725, Russia was exporting metal abroad, with more than 55,000 iron exports in 1726 Port . Russia built many weapons factories, metallurgical factories, textile factories, etc., did not need to import metals and weapons, and sewed military uniforms with their own wool. The development of the metallurgical and other industries in Russia is inseparable from the introduction of technical equipment from Western Europe, the use of the experience of foreign technicians and the absorption of investment by foreign entrepreneurs. When Peter first traveled through Western Europe, he hired many foreigners to work in various sectors of industry. Later, in accordance with the regulations of the Ministry of Workshop and Handicraft, foreign craftsmen could be hired, their freedom to leave was guaranteed, they were provided with houses and loans, they were exempted from taxes and military service, and active measures were taken for the training of Russian craftsmen by the examination of apprentices. [29]
Peter's government rewarded the activities of artisan farmers by granting them tax exemptions, subsidies, patents, and other privileges. The workers had access to the country's forests and mines and were not at the mercy of local authorities. Some artisan farmers were granted patent rights to produce and sell certain goods. In 1717, for example, Apraksin's company obtained a patent for the production of silk goods. Peter's government, in order to foster the workshop industry, appropriated funds from the Treasury to support the artisan farmers. In order to ensure the supply of industrial labor due to the shortage of hired workers, a royal decree was issued in January 1721 allowing "merchants" to "purchase villages at will" for their existing factories, and artisanal workshops using state land and serfs appeared. In this kind of workshop, the workers form a whole with the enterprise, "fixed" to the enterprise, rather than attached to the factory owner. The factory owner can neither sell the enterprise but keep the employees, nor ask them to work outside the enterprise. [29]
trade
Peter I pursued a mercantilist policy in foreign trade. He took steps to encourage foreign trade, allowing Russian businessmen to organize trading companies to establish commercial contacts with foreign countries. In 1715, Russian consulates were established in Amsterdam, London and Lisbon to facilitate business. Concluded treaties with many countries. The Baltic ports of Vyborg, Narva, Revere and Riga became Russian trade ports. In order to develop trade in Petersburg, the capital, craftsmen and merchants were forced to move there, and the rich merchants of Arkhangelsk were also moved there. The order of 1716 stipulated that one-sixth of the country's "export" products must be exported from the port of Petersburg. In 1720 it was decreed that the export of goods through the port of Petersburg was completely duty-free, and the import duty was reduced from 5 to 3 per cent. "Certificates of privilege" were issued to foreigners who came to trade in Russia, guaranteeing them various privileges. The sons of merchants were sent to Holland and Italy at official expense in order to discover the secrets of the goods. In order to prevent the influx of foreign goods, high tariffs were imposed on imported goods, and by the end of Peter's reign, the annual import of goods in Russia was about 2.1 million rubles and the export of goods reached 4.2 million rubles, increasing the surplus in foreign trade and accumulating funds for the country. [29]

Military affairs

In the 15th to 18th centuries, Western European countries prevailed mercenary system, mercenary is not a real national armed force, often with the nature of private armed, not only the combat effectiveness is not strong, but also easy to defect in battle, Peter I in view of the shortcomings of mercenary system, decided to establish a regular army completely organized and controlled by the state. [56]
Compulsory conscription
In the spring of 1699, Peter I began to call up a regular army, in addition to the uniform issue of arms, equipment, and food, each soldier was paid 11 rubles a year, when a large number of slaves enlisted to rid themselves of serf status. After the beginning of the Northern War, the supply of soldiers dried up, and the government decree of Peter I in 1705 explicitly stipulated the recruitment of conscripts from the taxpaying class (peasants and citizens) for the first time. In 1710, this uniform system of compulsory conscription was formalized, thus finally abolishing mercenary service. The new conscription system stipulates that all members of the tax class up to the age of 32 are required to perform military service, with an average of one person in every 25 households for a lifetime of military service. From 1699 to 1725, Peter I conscripted a total of 284,187 soldiers on 53 occasions. [56]
Rearranging the old army
The Russian army before Peter I was not yet a standing army in the true sense of the word, whether it was the noble militia, the gunnery corps or the new regiments. In order to meet the needs of the war, Peter I fought and reorganized the new corps, which was the basis for the formation of a new regular army, and the gunnery Corps was mainly reorganized into local police forces. The cavalry, which had previously been filled entirely by the nobility, was drawn from the taxpaying class from 1708. The reorganization of the regular army was officially completed in 1709, and the regular army consisted of four branches of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers, with infantry replacing cavalry as the main arm. By 1725, the regular army consisted of 105 infantry regiments and 37 dragoons. There were 131,400 soldiers in the infantry, 38,406 in the cavalry, a total of 170,000 men, in addition to 198,500 non-combatants, and in addition to the regular army, there were tens of thousands of non-regular Cossacks. By adapting, Peter I built the largest army in Europe, with the continent's major military powers, France and Austria, each having 150,000 troops, while Prussia had just over 80,000. [56]
In terms of military organization, Peter I designated the highest tactical unit as a division, under which there were brigades, regiments, battalions, companies and platoons. Infantry divisions usually consist of 3 brigades, 2-3 infantry or cavalry regiments form a brigade, regiments are the basic tactical units, and a regiment consists of 2-3 battalions. Each regiment had 40 ensign officers, 80 Ncos, 1,120 combatants, and 247 non-combatants, for a total of about 1,480 men. The cavalry regiment had a smaller number, about 1,300. The artillery corps was even smaller, consisting of eight companies, in addition to one engineer Corps and one bridge Corps. However, the army of Peter I was not completely unified and fixed, there were many chaotic phenomena, and the strength of the regiments as the basic tactical unit was very weak. [56]
Establish a unified central military leading organ
Until the 17th century, there was no unified central military leadership in Russia, and the subordination of the army was scattered and chaotic, and almost all the departments of the entire state apparatus were subordinate to the army, and all participated in the leadership of the army to varying degrees. With the establishment of the regular army, Peter I gradually centralized the leadership of the army. In 1719, two central military leadership organs, the Army Academy and the Navy Academy, were established to supervise the army and the Navy respectively. Peter I also set up a military director in the army, responsible for reconnaissance, terrain, roads, deployment and other work, which is the predecessor of the Russian General Staff. [56]
Establish uniform rules and regulations
The establishment of the regular army required a fundamental reform of the previous regulations and rules, and in 1700 the "Company Ceremony" was promulgated, which was a regulation on the management of the internal affairs of the army, requiring strict discipline among officers at all levels, and that junior officers should obey their superiors unconditionally, regardless of whether they were noblemen or not. In the same year, the "Military Code" was issued, requiring soldiers to serve with dedication and prescribing many mental and physical punishments for soldiers. In 1714, Peter I gave the order Menshikov The "Marching Regulations" were drafted, which stipulated the tactics, marching organization and guarding of cavalry. The "Military Statutes" enacted in 1716 was a relatively comprehensive statute, which stipulated the organization, management, field operations, service, training and other aspects of the army, and was supplemented and modified in 1722. In 1720, a "Naval Charter" was created specifically for the Navy. [56]
Reform the officer system
The origin of the officers of the former Russian army was not clearly defined, the nobility was appointed to serve in the noble regiments when they assembled for war, the senior officers were made up of the Boyars, the junior officers of the gunnery corps were made up of the middle and small nobles, and many of the officers of the new regiments were paid foreigners. In 1705, Peter I made it clear that officers should be held by men of noble origin (no less than two thirds of the nobles should serve in the army, and the remaining third should serve as civil servants), and that people of other class origins could only be promoted to officers if they had outstanding talent and war achievements, and they could become nobility by obtaining the rank of lieutenant colonel. Peter also promoted some talented men from non-noble backgrounds, such as the first army commander Menshikov, who was the son of a court horse keeper. In order to improve the quality of officers, Peter I asked the children of the nobility to serve in the team from the age of 15, "starting as soldiers", and let these future officers first serve as soldiers or Ncos for a few years before they can be promoted to officers. Many children of the nobility began to join the regiments of the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky guards, which could be said to have been the first schools for the training of cavalry officers. Peter also established military schools to train specialized officers, including the Moscow Nautical School (1701), the Petersburg Artillery School (1714), the Moscow Engineering School (1712), and the Moscow Naval School (1701). Petersburg Naval Academy (Originally the Moscow Nautical School, it was moved to Petersburg in 1715 and renamed [12] Petersburg Engineering School (1719). In addition, Peter I also sent the children of the nobility to Western European countries to study military, after returning to serve as officers. [56]
Peter I's system of military ranks began in 1699, with the first three general ranks, each of which had jurisdiction over 9-11 regiments. In 1722, the military rank system was formally promulgated, with a total of 14 ranks, emphasizing the appointment of officers according to military merit. [56]
Improve the armaments of the army
The infantry is equipped with a tunnel gun, this gun was invented in France, Western Europe was used as a shotgun, this gun range is not far, only 300 steps, can shoot 1-2 rounds per minute, but the main advantage is light weight, more convenient to use, until the late age of Peter I, the entire army was equipped with bayonets and grenades, and the cavalry is equipped with a large saber and short gun. The artillery developed more slowly, and by 1723 it had 120 siege guns, 40 mortar guns, and 21 field guns, some of which were designed by Peter myself. [56]
Peter I also unified the army dress, soldiers are all wearing thick cloth short coats, infantry is green, cavalry is blue, wearing felt hats, and also equipped with raincoats and rain shoes. [56]
Reform tactical thought
Western European armies were in vogue Line play The troops are configured according to the flower plate format: the central is two or three columns of infantry, the flanks are cavalry, the average use of forces, and the superior forces are not concentrated in the main direction of attack, and the mobility of the battle is very poor, and the battle usually has the nature of fire competition. Although Peter I also followed this tactic, he paid more attention to the simplicity of the formation in order to facilitate mobility and concentrate more troops in the main direction of attack. Peter I attached great importance to regulations, but he emphasized that the army should take the initiative and not blindly copy regulations. He advocated the use of bayonets in decisive battles, ending the battle in hand-to-hand combat. The teams were named after the major cities in the areas where the soldiers were recruited to play the role of "hometown associations". Peter I demanded that cavalry be able to carry out war tasks independently, and was the first to use horse-drawn artillery, which was the first European country. [56]
In parallel with the military reform, Peter I devoted great effort to the creation of a navy, using a quarter of the Treasury to build a fleet. In response to the needs of the Northern war, Peter I gradually built up a fleet of sailing OARS in the Baltic Sea, these ships with both sails and OARS, were not affected by the wind, and later in the battle of the rocky islands on the south and southwest coasts of Finland, the sailing fleet was flexible and defeated the heavy and inconvenient Swedish ships. By 1725, the Russian Baltic fleet had developed to have 35 large warships, 10 cruise ships, 200 sailing ships and 28,000 sailors, as well as 25 shipyards and Petersburg, Levi and other naval bases, became a naval power on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, he was known as Russia's "father of the Navy." [56]

culture

Peter I carried out various reforms and innovations in the field of culture:
Send students abroad and strengthen their management
In order to accelerate the training of talents to meet the needs of the reform cause, Peter I sent an expedition in 1697 and continued to send nobles and their children abroad to learn advanced Western science and technology and cultural education. However, due to the poor living conditions of studying abroad, it was a difficult chore for the Russian aristocracy. Therefore, most of them do not want to study abroad, and try to escape through various doors.
In order to strengthen the management of overseas students, Peter I introduced various measures: First, he sent ministers to inspect the situation of overseas students and put an end to all kinds of violations of regulations and non-efforts to study. Secondly, establish an assessment system for international students. When students returned to China after graduation, they had to undergo strict assessment, and Peter I often set questions to interview students in person. The topics of the examination are very broad, including the professional content of studying abroad and the purpose of studying abroad. Peter I did not discriminate against foreign students. When Crown Prince Alexei returned from studying abroad for three years, Peter also interviewed him personally. Thanks to Peter's attention and efforts, the measures of sending and managing international students were carried out and achieved remarkable results. At first, the scope of students studying abroad was mainly navigation, shipbuilding and military, and later expanded to architecture, drawing, garden architecture, Oriental languages and so on. Successful foreign students have brought vitality and honor to various reform causes in Russia. Some became prominent officials of the Tsar, such as Menshikov and Gorov, as well as famous scholars and experts in Europe. [60]
Abolish religious education and set up secular schools
Before the reform, there were no secular schools in Russia, and the power of education was controlled in the hands of the church, resulting in the backward culture and ignorance of the Russian people. In order to transform the church into an instrument for the benefit of the state, Peter I issued edict forcing the clergy to study in Greek-Latin schools and forbidding them to keep ink and paper in monasteries. It is stipulated that monks and nuns should learn a "craft", such as woodworking, painting ICONS, spinning, sewing, etc., and monasteries should provide funds for schools from their own income and shoulder the obligation to support the elderly, weak and disabled officers and soldiers. At the same time, Peter ordered the creation of various secular schools, and in 1714 issued a royal decree establishing elementary arithmetical schools in provincial towns throughout the country for children between the ages of 10 and 15, and by the 1720s arithmetical schools were open in 42 cities, with a total of 2,000 students enrolled. [29] In addition, mining schools were set up in the Urals and other places, and specialized schools in navigation, artillery, medicine, engineering, and navy were set up in Moscow and Petersburg. Peter became the first Russian monarch to advocate secular education. In spite of his busy state, he personally taught the military code to the officers and required them to study law, improving their political and legal qualities. [60]
In order to ensure the smooth progress of school education, Peter also formulated corresponding systems and measures:
First, it stipulates that learning scientific knowledge is an obligation for the children of famous families to serve the country. Peter also issued a royal decree: "Those who do not want to go to school, make them go to school." In other systems, there were also rules to encourage the children of the nobility to go to school. For example, the Decree of Succession of One Son issued in 1714 and its supplementary provisions stipulated that sons other than the eldest son should not be idle, and must go to school or serve, trade, etc. A noble son who had not learned arithmetic and geometry could not marry. In 1722, Peter's List of Official Ranks abolished the old rule of promotion in the organs of state according to birth, and stipulated that the selection of officials at each level should be based on their ability, knowledge, and diligence. Peter I not only decreed that the nobles and their children must learn scientific knowledge, but also checked their enrollment many times, and found that the children of the nobles who did not go to school were sent to domestic schools or sent abroad to study. As a result, more and more students are studying in all kinds of schools. [60]
Secondly, school discipline should be strengthened to encourage young people to learn. In order to maintain the order of school education, Peter I took various measures to combat the violation of discipline. For example, in 1715, the constitution of the Naval Academy stipulated that in order to stop noisy behavior, some outstanding soldiers from the guards could be selected to go to the school. With whips in hand, they can whip rowdy students, no matter how noble their birth. If there is favoritism and indulgence, severe punishment. At the same time, Peter actively encourages the young people who study hard. [60]
Due to the establishment of a large number of schools, the training and creation of a number of groups of talents in various aspects, initially changed the phenomenon of talent shortage, basically met the need for comprehensive reform at that time. [60]
Start the News
Before Peter I's reform, there were no newspapers and magazines in Russia, and only one hand-copied newspaper was published in the court, the Bell of the Bell Tower, which was only published once per issue, and the content was limited to the collection of foreign news, and the people who could see it were limited to the Tsar and his cronies, which played no propaganda role. In order to establish a position for the propaganda of the reform, Peter I founded the "News" in 1703, and was himself appointed editor. The newspaper deals with political, military and economic news, as well as reports on important events in international life. The newspaper played an important role in the dissemination of science and culture, the development of the economy, and the morale of the war against Sweden. [60]
The writing was reformed, the printing industry developed, secular books were published, and the calendar was reformed
The Russian alphabet used to be the old Church Slavonic script, which was more complex and difficult to popularize. In order to develop culture and education, spread science and technology, and promote reform, it is necessary to innovate the old characters. Peter was personally involved in the simplification of the text, simplifying the strokes of the letters, eliminating certain complicated letters, reducing the abbreviations, and finally revising the type and ordering "the printing of historical books and accounts in a new font." In 1708 the first books in Russia were printed in a new type. [60]
After the reform of the writing, Peter I began to develop the printing industry, before the reform, there was only one printing house in Moscow, printing mostly church books. Peter I founded six printing houses for secular books in Moscow and Petersburg. Between 1708 and 1725, some 320 illustrated books were printed, including military, historical, legal, literary and artistic works, and reports on the operations of the Russian army. At the same time, Peter also attached great importance to the translation and publication of foreign works, and put forward strict requirements for translation work. In 1708, he proposed that we must "understand" the meaning of the original text, and then "write a clear and understandable translation in our own language", opposing sloppy work and shoddy production. [60]
Adopt the new calendar. In December 1699, Peter I issued a royal decree declaring the adoption of the Julian calendar January 1 is the beginning of the New Year, consistent with the calendar used by Western European countries, in order to facilitate economic and cultural exchanges with Western European countries. [60]
Create new scientific and cultural institutions
In order to popularize scientific knowledge and improve people's cultural literacy, Peter I founded many scientific and cultural institutions, the most prominent of which are the Academy of Sciences, museums, public libraries and drama palaces. [60]
As early as during his first trip to Western Europe, Peter I had the idea of creating a museum. He visited many foreign museums, especially the anatomical collection of the anatomist Louis, and exchanged exhibits with him. Louis later sold Peter the anatomical specimens he had collected over the course of fifty years. After much fund-raising, the first Russian museum was inaugurated in Petersburg in 1718. [60]
Along with the museum, Peter founded Russia's first public library and theatre Palace. The library has a considerable collection of books, and has a variety of excellent works and a lot of valuable historical materials, which is not inferior to the libraries of European countries. By the time of Peter's death, the library had a total collection of eleven thousand volumes. Peter I ordered museums and libraries to be open to the public "so that people can broaden their horizons and learn with their hearts." At that time, it was suggested that the public be charged for the visit. Peter did not take this advice, and said, "I will make an order not only to receive everyone free of charge, but also... I also entertain them in these showrooms for a cup of coffee, a cup of shochu, or whatever, and I pay for it." Peter I did just that, spending four hundred rubles a year on entertainment. This is a clear indication of Peter's purpose in setting up a cultural institution. [60]
Peter I sought to expand the scope of scientific knowledge and improve the understanding of Western European culture, and the idea of founding the academy became increasingly strong. In 1714 Fedor Saltikov proposed the establishment of an academy of sciences in each province, and Peter I immediately marked his proposal with a sign of the cross. In June 1718, Peter wrote in the report of one of the scholars that the Academy of Sciences must be established, and that we should now seek out from among the Russian figures some learned men who are interested in it. On January 22, 1724, at a meeting of the Senate, Peter approved the draft of the Academy of Sciences, drawn up according to his will, with a number of modifications and additions. In 1725, the year of Peter's death, the first scientific research institution in Russian history - Petersburg Academy of Sciences It was born. It brought together into one whole three unrelated institutions in Western Europe: the university, whose task was to teach law, medicine and philosophy to young people; Second, secondary schools, whose task is to train university students; The third is the Academy itself, which is "the place where scholars gather together." [60]

religion

Before Peter I's Reform, the church administration system practiced by the Russian Orthodox Church was patriarchate . The Patriarch is the supreme leader of the Russian Orthodox Church, responsible for all church affairs, and has considerable power in the political and economic fields. to Nikon When he served as patriarch, he carried out religious reform, and he used his religious power to intervene in politics, putting forward the proposition that "religious power is higher than imperial power" and "divine world is higher than kingdom". Peter's father, Alexei I, tried to weaken the power of the church, which had been expanding since the Nikon Church reform, but the power of the church was still not small during the reign of Peter I. With the reform of Peter I, the contradiction between church and state intensified, and there were more and more political cases of the Orthodox Church against the government. In response to the contradictions and conflicts between the government and the church, Peter I took many measures to strengthen political rights and reduce the power of the church: [55] 54 -
Abolish the patriarchate
The first step in Peter's reform of the Church was to abolish the patriarchate. By the end of 1700, the most influential leader of the reform opposition in Russia, Patriarch Adelion, had died. Peter I was in Navar at the time conducting the war against Sweden. Believing that the time had come to reform the ecclesiastical institutions, he decided, in conjunction with the Governor Andrei Kurbatov, to postpone the election of a new patriarch from time to time while the patriarchate was in place Ryazan Bishop Stefan Javorski was appointed as "provisional agent" and was responsible for daily religious affairs. Later, Peter found that Yavolski was a good ecclesiastical speaker and writer, but lacked practical ability, so in 1701 he restored the monastery Praetorium and gave it the authority to administer all ecclesiastical lands, leaving only religious matters to Yavolski. [54]
At the beginning of the restoration of the monasteries, in January 1701, an order was issued: "All complaints against ecclesiastical persons, monastic agents, servants and peasants must be brought before the monasteries." At the same time, it was decreed that the monks and nuns of the monasteries should be registered, and that once registered, the monks and nuns should reside in the monasteries to which they belonged, and that no other monasteries should receive them. [54]
In order to further control the Church and make it part of the state apparatus, Peter I issued the Religious Statutes signed by his own hand in 1721, formally deciding to abolish the patriarchate and declaring the Tsar himself "Supreme Patriarch". In accordance with this Statute, a religious Council was also established, attached to the Council of Councillors and parallel to the other committees. Peter ordered the religious Council to "act strictly in accordance with the Religious Statutes." According to the Constitution, "Members of the Religious Council, in addition to taking the general oath in the name of the Church, shall take a special oath of allegiance to the Tsar in accordance with their official position in the Council." The last sentence of the Constitution states more explicitly that the Religious Council is to "swear to believe that the sovereign of all Russia, our most merciful Tsar, is the final arbiter of this religious council." The members of the Religious Council, which was later renamed the Religious Council, were also to swear allegiance to the Tsar. The monks of the Church were in a position of subordination and dependence to the autocratic state in all matters except those relating to doctrine and canons. [54]
Deprivation of economic privilege
In order to deprive the church of its economic privileges, Peter I gave the office of presiding over the monastery palace to lay officials from the time of its restoration in 1701. After the restoration of the monastic government, in order to maintain strict control over the church and monastic economy, the amount of land in the monastic and ecclesiastical territories, the amount of rent payable, and the list of peasants were registered. The monastic office divided the monastic and ecclesiastical estates into two categories: one was the regulated territory, the income of which was used for the monastic and ecclesiastical consumption; The other category is the excess of the territory, the revenue of this part of the territory to the monastery. In this way, the state recaptured a large amount of land and money from the church and monastery through the monastic yamen, the so-called "ecclesiastical property". According to statistics, "from 1701 to 1711, the state received more than a million rubles from the monastic territory". At the same time, the state imposed a high tax on the monastic estates of the church that had not yet been converted. In addition to the normal national taxes, the state often imposed special taxes on church property, such as the canal tax, exemption from military service, and so on. At the same time, various corvee services were recruited from church territories. While increasing taxes on the church's territories, Peter I also forbade the monks from living a life of luxury and luxury, demanding that they live simply. [54]

diplomacy

With European countries
The situation in Russia before the Great Northern War
Peter I established Russia's foreign policy after his accession to the throne, with Denmark, Saxony Formed an alliance against Sweden, and later formed the so-called" Northern League ". In order to concentrate on fighting Sweden, Russia signed a 30-year treaty with the Ottoman Empire. Constantinople and the Covenant With this series of preparations, the three countries officially declared war on Sweden in 1700. In 1704, Russia finally captured the city of Ivan on the Baltic Sea, thus opening the way to the West. In 1721, Russia and Switzerland signed the treaty The Peace of Nishtat Russia gained a dominant position in Northern Europe and from then on began to join the ranks of European powers. [15]
As the War in the North raged, Russia's military superiority in Northern Europe worried Britain, France, and the Netherlands, who, along with Sweden, encouraged the Ottoman Empire against Russia. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in 1710. Peter personally invaded the Ottomans for this purpose, but was defeated by the superior forces of the Ottoman Empire. In July 1710, the treaty between the two countries resulted in a certain loss of Russian interests, but at a modest cost ensured a Russian victory in the North. In 1722, Peter I led an army into Persia, and in 1723 the Ottoman army entered the Persian hinterland. In the face of several enemy situations, Persia decided to make peace with Russia first, and in September 1723, the two countries signed a treaty in St. Petersburg, in which Persia promised to cede to Russia the entire region southwest and south of the Caspian Sea. The Russian gains on the Caspian coast were met with strong resentment by the Ottoman Empire, which was also preparing to expand its power in the Caspian Caucasus. In early 1724, with the support of Britain, France and other countries, the Ottoman Empire threatened Russia with war. In this situation, Peter I was forced to break off the war with Persia, and Russia signed a treaty with the Ottoman Empire in Constantinople, agreeing to divide the occupied part of the Caucasus territories to the Ottoman Empire on the condition that Russia would retain possession of the western and southern shores of the Caspian Sea. [15]
With China
On September 7, 1689, China and Russia signed the treaty The Treaty of Nerchinsk ". After the signing of the treaty, the two countries carried out trade activities such as the Capital Stock Exchange, Kulun Stock Exchange and Qiqihar Stock Exchange. The Kangxi Emperor held a positive attitude towards peace diplomacy and visited China and Russia twice Jacar War Some of the Yaksa POWs who had defected to the Qing Dynasty went to live in Beijing, and the Kangxi Emperor, in order to accommodate the religious beliefs of these Russians, assigned them a Buddhist temple near the POW camp as a temporary place of prayer, which was called St. Nicholas Church, the first Orthodox church to appear in Beijing. In 1704, he issued a decree allowing the Russians to enter China via Mongolia. On April 30, 1715, the first Russian Orthodox Mission in Beijing arrived in Beijing, which is a special historical phenomenon in the history of Sino-Russian relations - the Russian Orthodox mission in Beijing. [9] However, Peter I had ambitions for the East and especially for China. Around 1714, he tried to make a military expedition to China, but because of the strength of China, his attempt was not successful. In his missions to China, he intended to install officials who were knowledgeable about the military and could assess China's military capabilities. In addition, Peter I also took care to woo foreign priests in China, as well as religious figures from various ethnic minorities in China, to serve his political interests. [53]
other
Under Peter I, Russia had already begun to take an interest in the Indian Ocean, and he instructed diplomats to explore the road to India. In December 1723, he appointed Vice Admiral Willster to lead two ships on a "visit" to Madagascar in an attempt to persuade Madagascar to establish commercial relations with Russia. Wellster's ship was unable to reach its final destination because of a water leak. Shortly before his death, Peter ordered the Danish captain Bering Explore the waterways between Asia and America. [53]

society

During his reforms, Peter sought to modernize Russian social mores and pursued a policy of "Europeanizing Russia." [29]
In 1698, Peter personally cut off the beards of the nobles who came to court, abolished the old kneeling ceremony, and issued a royal decree prohibiting the wearing of long beards: [60] Cutting beard is the obligation of residents all over the country, to grow a beard to get money to buy the right to grow a beard. Rich merchants were to be taxed at 100 rubles a year, lords and officials at 60 rubles a year, and peasants at one kopit each time they entered and left the city. Most nobles and merchants later shaved their beards because they were too taxed. [29]
In 1699, at a banquet, Peter I began to cut the robes of the nobility, and immediately ordered the prohibition of wearing the old robes that hindered the action, advocated the wearing of Western European style shorts and shoes, and ordered the royal wives and princesses to wear Dutch clothing, wear short jackets and skirts and wear hats. He also personally lectured court officials on social etiquette and rules of conduct. [60] On January 4, 1700, Peter I issued a royal decree on the clothing of the privileged nobles, court officials, and officials in Moscow and other cities: "Whoever wears a Hungarian robe, the length of the outer garment shall be the length of the garter, and the underwear shall be shorter than the outer garment..." To replace the traditional Russian ornate, fat, totally unsuitable for work robes. [29]
Peter I issued the "Youth Mirror" document as a code of conduct for young people. Teaching the youth to be humble and industrious requires that people speak and act with great politeness, and that public health and social ethics be observed. Cultivate civilized behavior. [60]
The big ball was also an innovative move by Peter I to change the social atmosphere. In the past, Russian women were confined to boudoirs, without proper social activities, and aristocratic men spent all day drinking. In 1718, Peter ordered a ball to be organized, and personally drew up the regulations for the organization of the great ball and the code of conduct for the guests to attend the ball. Ball participants can dance Polish or English dance according to their interests and hobbies, as well as play chess, talk and other activities. Make the ball become a place to improve people's cultural upbringing. [60] From then on, women could leave their homes and attend social gatherings. [29]
These reforms touched on all aspects of social life, aimed at Europeanizing the Russian state and raising it to the level of a modern state. [29]

Historical evaluation

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EDITOR
Peter I
Russian political activists Fiofan Prokopovich Eulogy: Russians! What happened to us? What are we looking at right now? What are we doing here? We're burying Peter the Great! ... He has left us, but we are no longer beggars and poor children, we have endless power and glory. What he transformed our Russia into, it will always be; He made Russia a lovely country for good people, and it will always be a lovely country; He made the enemy fear Russia, and the enemy always fear it; He has won glory all over the world, and glory shines forever. His legacy is a spiritual, civil and military transformation. [27]
Russian noble revolutionary Radyshev Peter was an extraordinary man who deserved to be called a great Emperor. Peter did not affirm "individual freedom," but the oppression of the people and the complete serfdom of the peasants. [4]
Russian philosophers Chardayev Peter's reforms removed the danger of Russia becoming a Swedish state. [4]
Russian revolutionary Democrats Belinsky Peter the Great was the greatest figure not only in the history of our country, but also in the history of mankind. He is the God who calls us to life and infuses the spirit of life in the vast, sleepy body of ancient Russia. [4]
German thinker Marx Peter the Great subdued Russian barbarism with barbarism. [5] ② Russia began to rise in Europe after Peter I. [18] Peter the Great was indeed the founder of modern Russian policy. [51]
German thinker Friedrich Engels Peter the Great was a "truly great man". [5]
Russian materialist philosopher Chernyshevsky Russians should be patriots like Peter the Great. [4]
The significance of Peter is that he was able to recognize two centuries before his time the importance of westernizing and modernizing the country. Thanks to Peter's foresight, Russia, while still very backward before his accession, was able to far surpass most of the nations of the world. ... Peter the Great was not just a fashionable monarch, but a man ahead of his time. There is every reason to think that it was his prescience that caused history to change, to change direction, to follow a path that could not have been followed without him. [27]
Contemporary Russian historian Dmitry Likhachev Did not Peter the Great's gift come at a high price to the Russian people? Yes, it costs too much! No one knows that Peter the Great filled the marshes with countless corpses and built the city of Petersburg on the mountain of bones. Perhaps there was no need for such haste, perhaps the pace of reform could have been slowed down, perhaps such reform could have taken the whole of the eighteenth century and achieved the same goal that Peter the Great had set out to achieve. Although we view the problem from a modern point of view, our rich historical experience has made us wiser. In fact, if history did not have this "impatient" Peter the Great, other historical activists are very easy to appear, and they may not be genius, and may not make much contribution to the country. Therefore, we should not always blame Peter the Great, we should understand him correctly and understand the needs of the Russian state in his time and at the turn of the century. Can Peter the Great be considered a typical figure in Russian history? In fact, all the reforms and all the historical changes that have taken place in Greater Russia have required people to make arduous efforts, overcome numerous difficulties and make great sacrifices. Only under this premise can we consider Peter the Great as a typical figure with historical significance. [50]
President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin Peter the Great was a great state activist, strategist and patriot who devoted his whole body and mind to his country. Peter the Great's massive reforms in governance, economy, science, culture, and education raised Russia's international prestige and largely charted the course of Russia's development as a powerful and sovereign state for centuries to come. [49]
Associate Professor, Taizhou University Tang Xiaoli During his reign, Peter I, a famous historical figure in modern Russia, adopted a wide range of strengths, worked hard to govern, actively expanded to the outside world, and tried his best to develop the economy, which brought enormous practical benefits to Russia, improved its international reputation and created conditions for Russia to act as a "world gendarmerie" in the international arena. There is no doubt that Peter I was the founder of modern Russian policy and an epoch-making figure in Russian history. [51]

Anecdotal allusion

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EDITOR

playboy

Little Peter was an active boy, and his room was full of woodworking and masonry tools, and blacksmithing tools, and it was his hobby to learn crafts. Of course, he was most interested in military games. In the field, the hillside, little Peter often led a group of children, killing, chasing each other. Some were the descendants of nobles, some were the children of stablemen and servants. Sometimes, little Peter had people carry out war games with knives, axes, and even wooden guns... The drums beat, the pennant waved, the enemy and I did not give in to each other, fighting. On one occasion, Peter and his friends built a military "fortress" by the river near the village, with a fortress inside and a wooden fence around it. Peter had his men attack the fortress. The fighting was fierce. In this way, a large group of game soldiers formed around Peter. [35]

burlesque

As a teenager, Peter I and others around him formed the "Peter Gang", in which the title "Tsar" was forbidden. The members of the Peter Gang, in addition to Apraksin, are Menshikov , Golovin , Golovkin, Kytin, Prince Fedor Yuriyevich Romodanovsky, etc. [37]
Peter devoted a lot of time and energy to playing games with the members of Peter's Gang. As for Peter, who has a strong sense of participation, he is not happy with games in which he can only be a spectator or sit on the sidelines as a supporting role. He likes various entertainment activities that he can participate in personally. To this end, he created a game "Duke Emperor", "Duke Emperor" served by Romodanovsky. Once Peter did not take off his hat when the "Duke Emperor" passed by, the "Duke Emperor" immediately called him to his own quarters, and after sitting down on his butt, scolded Peter standing in front of him: "You have nothing to be proud of, nothing to be proud of! How dare Pyotr Mikhailov not take off his hat to the Emperor now!" After Peter apologized again and again, the "Duke Emperor" finally did not make trouble, let him go. [36] [38]

Clever carpenter

In 1697, when Peter I accompanied the mission abroad to Amsterdam in the Netherlands under an assumed name, he and other members of the mission learned shipbuilding techniques. Peter and the international students to learn the skills of shipbuilder Paul, because of his concentration and eagerness to learn, the master praised him a few months later, the master issued him a diploma, which says Peter is a "hard-working and intelligent carpenter." [35]

Throw at each other

When Peter I was in Holland, any interesting detail caught people's attention. On the one hand he was at ease and at ease with the Dutch artisans, merchants, and sailors, but on the other hand he could be very shy and flustered by the impertinent pestering of the curious Saldanes. One day Peter the Great disguised himself as a common man and went to Holland to learn the skills of shipbuilding, and because the curious Saldanites often joked with him, one day the residents of Saldanites heard the brass basin being knocked, and shouted along the street: "The mayor of this city is very sorry to learn that some urchin dared to throw stones and filthiness at foreign dignities." This is strictly prohibited, and if similar incidents occur again, they will be severely punished." The "man" who was catapulted by the urchin with a stone and a rotten apple was Peter. The tsar sometimes shook his fist and sometimes threw empty bottles into the crowd. [40]

Be blackmailed

Peter was also blackmailed on a trip in disguise, in the Netherlands. One evening, as night fell, the birds returned to the forest. Peter and his party had to put up at a hotel. They walked into the store, the owner of the store with candlelight with a sly glance at the tall Peter, the heart did not feel a startled, if there is an understanding. He hurriedly pretended as if nothing had happened and got busy as usual. Soon the shopkeeper brought eleven eggs, some cheese, and two bottles of wine to the guests. Peter and his men were very hungry, and they ate with gusto. At the checkout, one of Peter's ministers asked the shopkeeper how much he should pay, and the shopkeeper told him confidently, "A hundred gold pieces." When Peter knew this, he was furious and immediately went to the owner in Dutch and asked him, "Why do you want so much money?" Unexpectedly, the landlord answered calmly, "What is a hundred gold pieces? If I were the Emperor of Russia, I would give him a thousand gold pieces." Peter, knowing that the owner of the shop had realized that he was the Emperor of Russia, paid a hundred gold pieces and returned displeased. [35]

Rooftop tour

When Peter I went abroad to London under an assumed name, he was curious about the bourgeois parliament in England, but he did not want to visit the Parliament directly, so he watched the activities of members of Parliament through the skylight of the Parliament building. For this reason, some people ridiculed Peter by saying that there are "emperors on thrones and emperors on rooftops." [35]

Attach importance to sea power

He who owns the sea owns the world. Peter I, who studied in the Netherlands and England, which dominated the seas, knew this well. He famously said: "If a king in the world has only an army, he has only one hand; if he has a navy, he has both arms." He often prided himself not on being a tsar but on his highest rank, vice Admiral. [39]

Have an eye for talent

Someone brought back to Peter from abroad a fine pistol made in Germany, but it did not take long for the handle to break. Peter wanted to find a craftsman to fix it, but he looked for a long time without finding one. One day he was advised to go to Nikita Demidov, the blacksmith of the city of Tula, whom they described as almost omnipotent. Peter was doubtful, but at last he decided to try his luck.
Once, on the way to Voronezh, Peter made a special turn to Tula, found Demidov, and gave him the pistol to be repaired. On his return to Moscow about two months later, Peter returned to Tula, where Demidov handed him a pistol in good condition. Peter examined it carefully, was very satisfied, and praised him greatly. "What a fine pistol!" he exclaimed. If only I could live to see the day when my country can make something as good as that!"
"I'm afraid we're better than the Germans!" Demidov replied.
Peter thought the craftsman was bragging, and hit him angrily: "A liar, he should do his work first, and then boast."
'Your Majesty,' he said. Demidov, without changing his color, argued: "But you should also find out the situation first, and then hit someone!" I made the pistol you hold in your hand, and here is your original gun." Demidov took a pistol from his pocket and handed it to the Tsar.
"I'm sorry I misjudged you. I see now that you are a little able man." Peter immediately gave him 5,000 rubles to build an Arsenal in Tula. Later, Peter ordered that a government-run metallurgical factory in the Urals be put under the management of Demidov, and the blacksmith did not live up to Peter's expectations, and on the basis of this factory, gradually set up a large enterprise in the Urals. [41]

Have an eye for fakes

Peter I was in Wurttemberg to visit the historic sites, in the visit Luther In the room where he had lived, the owner told the Tsar about an ink mark on the wall: According to legend, a devil came to Luther sitting at his desk, Luther raised the ink bottle and threw it at the devil who tempted him, hitting the wall. Peter looked carefully at the ink and its spatter, then took up his pen and wrote on the wall, "Fresh ink, pure forgery." [42]

Build a house with one's own hands

Peter I was once passing a house under construction when he heard someone say something bad about him: it was said that the Tsar of Russia was a braggart who said he did everything himself, but in fact he could not build a house. These comments stung Peter. After a little thought, he climbed up the scaffold to the wall, picked up a spatula, and spent the whole day plastering, winning the plasterers' praise. Two centuries later, the residents of Charlebad nailed a plaque to the house that read: "Peter the Great worked here with the masons." [42]

Interpersonal relationship

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EDITOR

elder

  • Father: Alexei Mikhailovich (March 9, 1629 - January 29, 1676) was the second tsar of the Romanov Dynasty of Russia Alexei the First He reigned from 23 July 1645 to 29 January 1676). The first tsar of the Romanov dynasty Mikhail Romanov My son.
  • Mother: Natalia Kirilovna Naryshkina Second wife of Tsar Alexei.
  • Elder sister: Sophia Alexievna Romanova (27 September 1657-3 July 1703), regent of Ivan V and Peter I
  • Eldest brother: Fedor Alexievich (1661 - April 1682), third Tsar of the Romanov Dynasty of Russia (January 29, 1676 - April 1682)
  • Second brother: Ivan Alexievich (1666-1696), fifth tsar of the Russian Romanov dynasty, co-ruler of Peter Ivan V He reigned from April 1682 to 1696) [6]

wife

  • First wife: Evdokia Feodorovna Lopkhina (9 August 1669-7 September 1731), married in 1689, divorced in 1698 and banished to a monastery, in 1727 by his grandson Peter II Recall Moscow.
  • Second wife: Marta Samuilovna Skavronskaya (15 April 1684-17 May 1727), secretly married in 1707, officially married on 19 February 1712, after the death of Peter I became Empress Catherine the Great . [6]

Sons and daughters

Peter I and Evdokia Feodorovna Lopkhina She has 3 children:
  • Alexei Petrovich February 18, 1690 - June 26, 1718 [6] ), with Brunswick - Wolfenbutel Charlotte Cristina After marriage, his son Peter II
  • Alexander Petrovich (13 October 1691-14 May 1692)
  • Pavel Petrovich (d. 1693)
Peter I and Catherine the Great He had 5 sons and 6 daughters:
  • Pyotr Petrovich (born 1704) was born and died before his parents were officially married [6]
  • Paul Petrovich (born 1705) was born and died before his parents were officially married [6]
  • Ekaterina Petrovna (December 1706 - June 1708) was born and died before her parents were officially married [6]
  • Anna Petrovna January 27, 1708 - May 15, 1728 [6] ), married Karl Friedrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, born Peter III
  • Elizabeth Petrovna December 29, 1709 - January 5, 1762 [6] He was the tenth tsar of the Romanov Dynasty of Russia and the sixth Emperor of the Russian Empire Elizabeth I He was married from 6 December 1741 to 5 January 1762 Alexei Razumovsky Count.
  • Maria Petrovna (March 20, 1713 - May 27, 1715 [6] )
  • Margarita Petrovna (September 19, 1714 - June 7, 1715) [6] )
  • Peter Petrovich (15 November 1715-19 April 1719) [6] )
  • Pavel Petrovich (13 January 1717-14 January 1717) [6] )
  • Natalia Petrovna (31 August 1718-15 March 1725) [6] )
  • Peter Petrovich (born 7 October 1723) [6] )

Character dispute

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EDITOR
In the study of Peter I by historians, the most heated debate is about the authenticity of the three wills of Peter I. The three wills of Peter are: (I) a letter from Peter I to the Senate (Senate) from the front on 10 July 1711 (Julian calendar), when he was besieged by Ottoman forces. (ii) Concerning the ambiguous words written by Peter I from his bedside on 27 January 1725 (Julian calendar), "Leave everything to..." . (3) The political testament concerning the so-called Fourteen Points of Peter. [34]

A letter to the Senate

In the summer of 1711, Peter I led a southern expedition to the Ottoman Empire, and the results were Prut River The city was besieged by Ottoman and Crimean Khanate forces. [23] On 10 July of the same year, Peter I wrote a letter to the Senate concerning the heir to the throne, sending an officer to St. Petersburg. This letter came to be known as one of Peter's wills. The will reads:
"I inform you that I and our army, through no fault or error on our part, but only through false information, have been surrounded by the extremely powerful Ottoman legions, all means of sustentation have been cut off, and without the help of God I see no other way but total defeat or the capture of the Turks." In the latter case, when I myself am not present among you as one of your own, you shall no longer honor me as your king, and do not do what I ask of you, even if I command it myself. But if I shall be killed, and you shall surely receive definite news of my death, choose as your successor one who is most worthy of me."
The letter was first seen in the Story of Peter the Great, edited by Ja Sterling. According to Stirling, the original copy of the letter was kept in the office of Peter I, where it was "shown to many famous people by the head of the office, Duke Mi ShCherbatov". As an admirer of Peter the Great, Stirling had lived in Russia for fifty years and was close to the Russian royal family, so he must have seen a lot of Russian court archives and knew a lot about Peter the Great. Therefore, when he compiled the Story of Peter the Great, in terms of the materials used, there is still a certain truth. However, the original letter of Peter I to the Senate, which was collected in the book, has never been found. Therefore, the question of the authenticity of this letter has been discussed by Russian historians and Soviet historians for a long time, but no consensus has been reached and there are differences.
Russian poet and historian Yasser Pushkin took a negative view of the letter. Nig Ustriarov, a member of the Petersburg Academy of Sciences, wrote that the letter was a forgery and "fabricated by Stirling". Ustriyalov believes that Peter I would not have authorized the Senate to choose a successor when he died on the Prut front, because his son Alexei was still the natural heir, and Peter I was not deprived of the throne from the crown prince Alexei, because the relationship between his son and son had not deteriorated so much. Ustriarov's view is supported by other historians such as Fi 'a Wittberg.
Russian historian Semi Solovyov confirmed the authenticity of Peter's letter. No matter how strongly others disagree with the authenticity of the letter, he said, we do not believe we have the right to "deny that authenticity." The historian Ya A Belov agrees with Solovyov. He wrote specifically against Wittberg's views, arguing that "all the evidence against the authenticity of the letter of July 10, 1711, by Mr. Wittberg, cannot stand... Critical ". Some historians of the former Soviet Union agree with Soloviv. Yepa Podjapolskaya, for example, believed that Peter's will was genuine, not a forgery. [34]

An unfinished will

In late January 1725, Peter I became terminally ill. On the afternoon of January 27 (February 7), after a period of comatose state, he came to his senses and ordered his watchman to fetch a clipboard and a pen and paper, writing in a trembling hand some very vague words: "Leave everything to..." . Peter himself found the writing unclear, and then called for others to "ask Princess Anna to come to him and want to dictate the will to her." But when Anna came to her father, Peter was again in a delirious coma from which he never recovered. Peter died the next day (8 February 1725). Peter I left this unfinished will on his deathbed, "leaving everything to..." Has remained an unsolved mystery.
This event was recorded by Peter the Great's contemporary, Count Gef Basiewicz. He served as an adviser to Peter I, knowing the inner workings of the Russian court and the circumstances of Peter's death. The unfinished will and circumstances of Peter I are recorded in Basiewicz's Papers. But former Soviet historian Pavlenko doubts the authenticity of the ambiguous will. He made no mention of the will in his 1975 Biography of Peter the Great. Later, he wrote a special article in the Soviet magazine Historical Questions, saying that the will was nothing more than a "myth with ulterior motives." He argued that Peter I had no intention of giving the throne to Anna, and that the will was written by someone in the Holstein family (Anna had been betrothed to the Duke of Holstein of Germany). Pavlenko said that the fabricator of the will was for such a purpose that when The Romanov Dynasty After the severance of the male line, the Holstein-Gottorp dynasty had the "legitimate right" to inherit the Russian throne.
The French philosopher, writer, and historian Voltaire, who was asked by the Russian government to write a biography of Peter the Great, used Basiewicz's account of the circumstances of Peter's death. Russian historian Semi Solovyov, in his book A General History of Russia, also confirmed the authenticity of Peter's unfinished will before his death. In the third volume of the General History of the Soviet Union, edited by the academician of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, Ponomarev, it is also pointed out that Peter the Great wrote "leave everything to..." before his death. This unfinished will. [34]

Political testament

Of the three so-called wills of Peter, the most notable is undoubtedly the political testament concerning the so-called Fourteen points of Peter. This document is widely circulated and there are many translations. Political pundits and historians in various countries have written many analyses of this so-called "political will" of Peter I. Some believe that this "will" is genuine, and some believe that it is fake. Others have not expressed a clear opinion on the authenticity of the will.
The contents of the so-called "political testament" of Peter are: 1) To keep Russia in a state of war for a long time, to choose the most favorable moment to launch an attack, to continue war and peace, and to ensure Russia's interests, expansion and increasing prosperity. (2) By every means possible, the Russians will benefit from recruiting officers during the war from the most intelligent men in Europe. (3) Russia shall take every opportunity to participate in the discussion of European affairs, and especially of Germanic affairs. 4. Partition of Poland. (5) Occupy as much Swedish territory as possible, and induce Sweden to attack Russia, so as to give Russia an excuse to conquer Sweden. To this end, Denmark must be separated from Sweden in order to foster competition between them. 6. Always choose German princesses as wives for Russian princes, promote royal marriages, and win German support for Russia. 7. Give priority to trade with England. 8) To expand Russia further north along the Baltic Sea and further south along the Black Sea. 9. Get as close to Constantinople as possible. (10) To try to maintain the alliance with the Austrian Crown, to induce Austria by various means to seek aid from Russia, and to exercise some protection over Austria. 11, to make Austria interested in driving the Ottomans out of Europe. 12) Try to reunite all the politically and religiously divided Greeks scattered in Hungary, the Ottomans, and central Poland around the Russians. 13) After dismembering Sweden, destroying Persia, crushing Poland, and conquering the Ottomans, proposed to the French and Austrian governments, respectively, to share the global empire with them. And then use one of them to subdue the other. 14. Try to conquer Germany and France. "When these two countries were conquered, the rest of Europe could be subdued without a single blow. In this way, we in Russia can conquer Europe, and we must conquer Europe."
As early as 1797, there appeared in the West the so-called "will of Peter the Great" legend. In 1812, in his book The Development of the Russian State from its Birth to the beginning of the nineteenth century, Legur first publicly announced the existence of the so-called political testament of Peter the Great. In 1836, Gaillard's Memoirs of the Medallion Deo gave it the form of a document. Theo was made King of France thirty years after the death of Peter I (1755) Louis XV Sent on a diplomatic mission to Russia, spent five years there. In 1757, Theo went to Paris to bring the Empress of Russia Elizabeth Petrovna The treaty between Russia and France against Prussia was sent to King Louis XV of France. At the same time, Theo is said to have sent a government will of Peter I to Louis XV (the political Testament of Peter the Great). However, no original of Peter I's political will has been found in the archives of any previous Tsarist government or in the archives of any other government. The existence of this will is not mentioned in such famous historical works as the History of the Empire of Peter the Great by Fei Prokopovich, The Achievements of Peter the Great by Yi Golikov, and the Political History of Peter the Great by En Ustriarov. In his famous 1890 treatise on the Foreign Policy of the Russian Tsarist Government, Engels also did not acknowledge that Peter I had written such a will himself, arguing instead that it was "probably written by some descendant."
Historians of the former Soviet Union believe that Legur's book is a paraphrection of German-Austrian memoirs. Legur's book is followed Napoleon I Published in order to create public opinion for Napoleon's war against Russia (i.e., the invasion of Russia in 1812), the "Will" was invented by the French ambassador to Poland, Count de Brolie, who had access to the depositary of German-Austrian documents. Since then, the Western powers have deliberately thrown out this forged political will of Peter the Great in the publications of several countries.
As early as 1876, Schuyler wrote in his book Turkistan that "it hardly needs to be stated that the language, expressions, and concepts of this so-called will could never have been used by Peter the Great or his contemporaries." In the preamble to the will and in the body of the will there is a rude and derogatory reference to the dignity of the Russian people, which is not in the tone of Peter the Great. As far as the content of the will itself is concerned, although in some respects it is in line with Peter I's foreign policy and the strategic means to achieve this policy, there are also places where it is not in line.
Moreover, from the date of the writing of this so-called political testament, the accounts are inconsistent: one is that it was 1724; One says 1722. Moreover, the various translations of this so-called political testament do not seem to agree: some say fourteen, some say eleven, and some say fifteen. From these circumstances, the so-called political will of Peter the Great is likely to be forged by later generations. [34]

memorialize

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EDITOR
effigy
There are many statues of Peter I throughout Russia, with 25 of them in St. Petersburg alone. One of the most famous is the statue of the Bronze Knight. The most controversial statue of Peter I is located in Moscow, which was commissioned by the Moscow city government in 1996 to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the Russian Navy. The statue was unveiled in 1997 to celebrate the 850th anniversary of the founding of Moscow. The entire statue is 98 meters high, of which the height of Peter the Great accounts for 18 meters, and weighs about 2,000 tons. It is one of the tallest and largest statues in Russia. There is a view that this is the "wrong statue installed in the wrong place", in addition to aesthetic reasons, there are deep political factors. [48]
Bronze knight
Bronze knight statue of St. Petersburg
Bronze knight It is located in St. Petersburg, Russia December Party Square Above, a statue of Peter I riding a horse. The statue weighs 8 tons and is 5 meters high. The statue, named after Pushkin's long poem "Bronze Knight", was built between 1766 and 1782 and was specially commissioned by Empress Catherine II of France Falcone Of sculpture. [7] The statue sits on a single undulating block of granite, symbolizing that Peter the Great was the first to open the sea to Russia. On the base of the statue is the inscription "Catherine II to Peter I", which means that she will continue the reforms started by Peter the Great. [48]
museum
There are 10 museums in Russia named after Peter the Great, most of them where he lived and visited. Many museums are affectionately known by locals as "Peter's Huts". Peter's Hut in St. Petersburg was Peter I's first simple residence in the wilderness. Another famous Peter's Hut is located in Moscow's Kalomensk Park. It is also a log cabin with only three rooms: bedroom, kitchen and study, and was visited by Peter I in 1702 Arkhangelsk It was built at the time. Peter stayed in the cabin for two months, overseeing the construction of a fortress and battleships. In 1934, Peter's House was relocated to Moscow's Kalomensk Park, the only museum in Moscow named after Peter the Great. [48]
collegiate
St. Petersburg State Polytechnic University Founded in 1899, the fifties and sixties of the 20th century is also called Gary ning engineering college, in February 2015 changed its name to st. Petersburg Peter the great tech (С а н seem т - П е т е р б р f с seem и й п о л и т е x н и discusses some related problems е с seem и й н и kind guide е р с и т е т П е т р а В е л и seem о f о). [59]
island
Peter I Island is Antarctica Bellingshausen Sea The highest point is 1200 meters above sea level. The whole island is covered in ice and there are no inhabitants. The island is surrounded by cliffs, boats can not land, only the use of helicopters can be boarded. January 22, 1821, Russian explorer Bellingshausen When he and his assistant led the Antarctic expedition on the "Vostok" and "Mir", they discovered the island and named it Peter I Island. The island was first visited by Norwegian explorer Ola Olstad in 1929. Norway has a claim to this, but according to the Antarctic treaty This request is frozen. [11]
Postage cover
In 1977, the Soviet State Post Office issued a "Monument to Peter the Great" postage cover, the main picture is "the statue of Peter the Great".
cruiser
The cruiser Peter the Great Originally named "Kirov", it is the fourth "Kirov" class ship of the Russian Navy Nuclear-powered cruisers . Construction began at the Baltic Shipyard on 25 April 1986 and the ship was launched on 29 April 1989. On 27 May 1992, the Russian Navy renamed the cruiser after Peter the Great, the founder of the Russian Navy. Commissioned on 19 April 1998, it is a member of the Russian Navy Red Flag Northern Fleet Flagship. [8] [58]
Special Edition Coin
On April 29, 2022, the Central Bank of Russia announced the special issue of "Commemorating the 350th anniversary of the birth of Peter the Great" commemorative coins, a set of three. This included 3-ruble 1-ounce silver coins, 100-ruble 1-kilogram silver coins, and 10,000 ruble gold coins.
Commemorative activity
On June 9, 2022, to commemorate the 350th anniversary of Peter the Great's birth, 158 cultural events were held across Russia. The National Historical Museum of Russia presents the exhibition "Peter the Great: A Journey to Europe", featuring 350 exhibits on Peter I's two trips to Europe. The exhibition Hall of National Economic Achievements in Moscow held a multimedia exhibition entitled "Peter the Great - Birth of the Empire", which connects the life of Peter I to the path of Russian development in the form of an immersive biography, introducing the reform and technological innovation of Russian society at that time. The Tretyakov Gallery "Peter the Great - The Ruler's Beard", an indoor exhibition, presents a clever and unique view of the changes in the portrait of Peter the Great from the 18th to the 21st century. [49]

Artistic image

broadcast
EDITOR

Literary image

Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin In 1833 he wrote a long narrative poem Bronze knight In his long poem, he wrote only two people, one is Tsar Peter I, and the other is a small civil servant Eugen. As a real historical figure, Peter I appears only in wedges. The main part of the poem depicts a bronze statue of Peter on a horse in St. Petersburg a hundred years later. Belinsky "This poem is the boldest and most solemn tribute to Peter the Great." [43]
In 1905, the Russian writer Dmitry Melezhkovsky wrote the historical novel" The Antichrist: Peter and Alexei In the novel, Peter I changed the image of the "bronze knight" under the pen of Pushkin, the great Russian poet of the 19th century, and was depicted by Melezhkovsky as a "two-sided king" who combined many opposing characteristics such as firmness and vulnerability, kindness and cruelty, calm and madness. [10]
Writers of the former Soviet Union Leo Tolstoy He wrote a long historical novel Peter the Great, the first of which was published in 1930, mainly describing Peter's struggle for power, the conflict between the court nobility and Peter's initial measures to promote the Westernization of the country. The second volume, published in 1934, describes Peter's struggle to seize the waters, the conflicts between the nations of Western Europe, and Peter's diplomatic and military activities in preparation for the war in the North. According to Tolstoy's conception, these two books are merely a prelude to the third, which is the most important part of the novel. It will describe the legislative work and reform activities of Peter the Great, describe the heroic struggle of the Russian army to defend the cities of Yuryev and Narva, and will also depict the great power of the world and some Western countries. But Tolstoy's untimely death in 1945 left the project unfinished, and the novel only lasted until the recapture of Narva in 1704. [44]

Film and television image

time
title
Actor or actress
The year 1934
Peter the Great (Drama)
- [45]
The year 1937
" Peter the Great "(Film)
Nikolai Simonov [46]
1938
" Peter the Great 2 "(Film)
Nikolai Simonov [47]
The year 1986
Peter the Great (TV series)
Maximilian Schell [57]
The year 2011
Peter the Great (film)
Sergey Makovetskiy
Hit the road
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