China, to Huaxia civilization As the source, Chinese culture It is one of the oldest countries in the world. The Chinese people of all ethnic groups have jointly created a splendid culture and have a glorious revolutionary tradition. Chinese and Israeli The Han nationality As the main ethnic multi-ethnic state, universal Chinese , hanzi Han nationality and Minority nationality Collectively referred to as Chinese nation "And called himself" Chinese "," Descendants of the dragon ".

China is Four ancient civilizations in the world One of them. Around 5800 years ago, the Yellow River, the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and the West Liao River appeared civilized Indications of origin; Around 5,300 years ago, various regions of China entered the stage of civilization one after another. Around 3,800 years ago, the Central Plains region formed a more mature civilization and radiated cultural influence to the four directions. ^[1] After many ethnic integration and dynasty changes, until the formation of a multi-ethnic country. Early 20th century Xinhai Revolution Later, the feudal monarchy was abolished and a bourgeois democratic republic was founded. The year 1949 People's Republic of China 成立后，在中国大陆建立了人民民主专政的社会主义制度。

China has a vast territory and many ethnic groups. Pre-qin period the The Huaxia nationality Thriving in the Central Plains. Here we go Han Dynasty Through cultural integration, the Han nationality was formally formed and laid the foundation of China's main ethnic group. Later, through the integration with the surrounding ethnic groups, gradually formed a unified multi-ethnic country situation, and the population continued to rise, Song Dynasty China's population has exceeded 100 million, Qing Dynasty During that time, the population exceeded 400 million, and by 2005 China's population had exceeded 1.3 billion.

Chinese culture Long, profound and colorful, yes East Asian cultural circle The cultural suzerainty of China occupies an important position in the world cultural system. Due to the differences in geographical location and natural conditions, the cultural and economic aspects also have their own characteristics. Traditional culture and art forms are poetry , Traditional Chinese opera , penmanship , Traditional Chinese painting Wait, while Spring Festival , Glutinous Rice Ball for Lantern Festival , Clear and bright , Dragon Boat Festival , Mid-Autumn Festival , The Double ninth Festival The other is important for China Traditional festival . ^[2-6]

Chinese name: China
Foreign name: China
Abbreviated form: Zhong, Hua, Xia
continent: Asia
Official language: Chinese
Time zone: UTC+8

Major nationality: The Han nationality
Major religion: Taoism , Buddhism
Universal script: hanzi
Representative figure: Yan Emperor , Yellow Emperor , Confucius , Sun Yat-sen Etc.
Represent things: The Great Wall , The Forbidden City , dragon , phoenix , penmanship opera
Cultural thought: A hundred schools of thought , Hanfu culture , Tang poetry and Song Ci Etc.

catalogue

The meaning of a word

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EDITOR

The word "China" was first used The Western Zhou Dynasty (206 B.C.) early Bronze ware " He Zun The inscription of "more than Qi. Taizi China "From the people" refers to the center of the world at that time Luoyang ^[7] , ^[8] At the same time with" Huaxia "," China "," mid-summer "," Central Plains "," Moratsu "," Chu Hua "," The divine Land "," A surname "," In the country And so on.

" Huaxia The first use of the word Zhou Dynasty " A surname · Zhou Shu · Wucheng ", "Huaxia Barbarian, no rate of so". " The Book of History "Said:" dress dress, China, big country, summer." " Uphold justice Note: "Corona clothing Hua Zhang said, big country said summer." " China ", means gorgeous, prosperous; There are also said ancient China, summer homophone, this word. " The Biography of Zuo "China has great etiquette, so it is called summer; The beauty of wearing a chapter is called China." ^[9] Hua refers to Hanfu Summer refers to line The rites of Zhou The big country, so China has A land of ritual , Dress up the country The reputation of.

The word "China" in Chinese first refers to the Western Zhou Dynasty The capital city and its environs ( A surname Luoyang) area ^[7] ^{[11] 10 -} Later evolved into The Yellow River The middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River Central plains Outside of China, it is called Four plantings The saying goes, "The Son of Heaven is righteous, guarding the four Yi." ^[12] China is the one who lives in heaven and earth, and the four Yi are the one who lives in heaven and earth. ^[13] Han Dynasty Build a barbarian hill, and make Chinese character cultural circle Officially formed, The Northern and Southern Dynasties build Si Yi House , Ming Dynasty Four Yi Hall, divided into eight halls, said: Tartar , Jurchen , Siban The West Sky The Huis , A surname , Gao Chang , Burma . latter-day Opium Wars Since then, China has acted East Asian culture The situation of the master was gradually broken.

Historical chronology

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EDITOR

Ancient history

Primitive society , Slave society , Feudal society

Ancient Chinese history, beginning with the Yuanmou people about 1.7 million years ago and ending before the Opium War in 1840, is the history of China's primitive society, slave society and feudal society.

Primitive society

Representative figures: Aricius ^[14] , Suiren Shi ^[15] , Fuxi ^[16] , Yan Emperor (Shen Nong) ^[17] , Yellow Emperor (Xuanyuan) ^[18] , yao ^[19] , shun , yu

China's primitive society began about 1.7 million years ago Yuanmou man It ended in the 21st century BC Xia Dynasty The establishment of. Primitive society went through Primitive population and The clan commune Two periods. The clan commune has been through it again Matrilineal clan commune and The patriarchal clan commune Two stages.

Huangdi (Xuanyuan family)

Aricius

Suiren Shi

Fuxi

Shen Nong (Yan Emperor)

yao

shun

Yuanmou man The earliest known human in China. Peking man It is typical of primitive people. The caveman Already living the life of a clan commune. Yangtze River basin the The Hemudu Clan and Yellow River basin the The Banpo Clan It was a time of prosperity for matrilineal communes. Dawenkou culture The middle and late periods of the patriarchal clan commune reflect the situation.

According to the "Comprehensive Study on the Origin and Early Development of Chinese Civilization" project, around 5800 years ago, there were signs of the origin of civilization in the Yellow River, the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and the West Liaohe River. Around 5,300 years ago, various regions of China entered the stage of civilization one after another. Around 3,800 years ago, the Central Plains region formed a more mature civilization, and radiated its cultural influence to the four sides, becoming the core and leader of the overall process of Chinese civilization. ^[1]

According to legend, the Yellow Emperor was about 4500 years ago and lived in Yellow River basin Primitive tribal Tribal alliance Boss. He promoted the cultivation of grain and the domestication of livestock, which helped to strengthen the tribal alliance. He led his tribe to defeat the Yandi tribe in the upper reaches of the Yellow River and the Chiyou tribe in the south. Later, the Yan Emperor tribe and the Yellow Emperor tribe formed an alliance, lived and multiplied in the Yellow River basin for a long time, forming the future The Huaxia nationality The backbone component of... The Yellow Emperor is revered as the ancestor of the Huaxia people. Chinese nation Be known as Chinese That's how it came about.

After the Yellow Emperor, the outstanding leaders of the Yellow River Valley tribal alliance have successively yao Shun, Yu. In those days, tribal union leaders were elected. When Yao got old, he held a meeting of the tribal alliance, and they elected the talented and virtuous Shun as his successor. After Yao's death, Shun inherited Yao's position, and when Shun was old, he took the same approach and gave his position to Yu, who was able to control the water. This method of changing the position of the leader was historically called" abdicate ". ^[20]

Slave society

From the founding of the Xia Dynasty in the 21st century BC to 476 BC Spring and Autumn Period It's over. It's slave society in China.

Qi son of Yu founded it In the summer It was the earliest slave state in China. In the 16th century BC, Xia Wangjie When in office, be Tang of Shang The army perished.

16th to 11th century BC Shang Dynasty It was the development period of slave society. Agriculture and handicrafts were developed in the Shang Dynasty. bronze Smelting and casting have a high level. The written history of China began with the Shang Dynasty. King Zhou of Shang When ruling, King Wu of Zhou The king's army attacked Zhou, and the Shang Dynasty died.

11th century BC to 771 BC The Western Zhou Dynasty (206 B.C.) It was a time when slave society was strong. The Western Zhou rulers did The system of enfeoffment and The "minefield" system . King Li of Zhou When ruling, causing" Riot of countrymen King Li fled, and the regime was controlled by Zhou and Zhao two princes. In 771 BC, the Western Zhou Dynasty was Inujon Perish.

The Spring and Autumn period from 770 to 476 BC was a period of gradual disintegration of slave society. During this period, the Zhou royal family declined, The princes fought for supremacy. . On account of ironware The use and Cattle ploughing The emergence of productivity, private land increase, promote to slavery The well field system based on state-owned land gradually disintegrated, and slavery collapsed. During the Spring and Autumn Period, there was a prosperous situation in culture. ^[21]

The establishment and initial development of feudal society -- Warring States, Qin and Han

From 475 BC Warring States period Beginning, to 220 AD The Eastern Han Dynasty (206 B.C.) The extinction is the period of the establishment and initial development of Chinese feudal society.

Warring States period , emerging Landlord class Promoted the reform movement of the vassal states. Qin State among them Shang Martingale's change More thorough, make Qin state It gradually became the most powerful of the vassal states. During this period, the social economy has achieved great development, science and technology have made remarkable achievements, and ideas have emerged. A hundred schools of thought contend "The prosperous situation.

Qin Dynasty It was the first unified multi-ethnic despotism in Chinese history centralization The feudal state. First Emperor of Qin A series of measures taken to consolidate the centralization of authoritarianism had a great impact on later generations. After the unification of Qin, in order to defend against the southern invasion of Xiongnu, on the basis of connecting the original northern Great Wall of Qin, Zhao and Yan, two sections were extended to the east and west to build a city defense from Lintao in the west to Liaodong in the east. This is famous The Great Wall . The tyranny of the Qin rulers led to the outbreak of peasant wars and the collapse of the Qin dynasty.

The Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.) It was a powerful feudal country in Chinese history. Emperor Gaozu of Han Dynasty Liu Bang Take" Rest and recuperate Policy, so that the social economy has been restored and developed, Emperor Wen of Han , Emperor Jing of Han extol The cure of Huanglao Take" Light taxation "," Rest with the people The policy of the "rule of Wen Jing" situation emerged, the foundation of stability for several rulers of the early Han Dynasty, thus making Emperor Wu of Han The national strength reached unprecedented strength. Calm down" The Seven Kingdoms Rebellion After that, the centralization was strengthened; By way of" Dethrone all schools of thought and honor Confucianism alone And strengthened the rule of thought throughout the country; Through the war against the Huns and Zhang Qian was sent to the Western Regions For the further development of a multi-ethnic state; Silk Road The expansion of the Sino-foreign economic and cultural exchanges have made new development. At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, the imperial power fell, the influence of relatives and eunuchs rose, and the Western Han began to decline. The year 8 Wang Mang Abolish the crown Prince Ruzi Ying and establish Xin Dynasty The Western Han Dynasty fell.

The Eastern Han Dynasty (206 B.C.) incipient Emperor Guangwu Adjusted the ruling policy, so that the society appeared" Guangwu Zhongxing "The situation. However, in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the power of the powerful landlords developed, and the society was dark. Finally, the Yellow Turbans Uprising broke out. Under the blow of peasant uprising, the Eastern Han Dynasty existed in name only.

During the Qin and Han Dynasties, the country was unified, production developed, political and economic ties between ethnic groups were strengthened, and science and culture developed rapidly. ^[22]

Feudal society

The division of feudal states and the great integration of nationalities -- The Three Kingdoms, the Two Jin Dynasties, the Southern and Northern Dynasties

Since 220 Cao PI build wei By the year 589 sui Unification is the period of the division of feudal countries and the great integration of nationalities in Chinese history.

Emperor Wen of Wei Cao PI

Liu Bei, Emperor Zhaorei of Shu Han

Wu Emperor Sun Quan

Sima Yan, Emperor Wudi of Jin

Sima Rui, Emperor Yuan of Jin

北魏孝文帝拓跋宏

Go by Yellow Turbans uprising The heavy blow, the Eastern Han regime has been in name only. In the process of suppressing the uprising, a number of separatist military groups emerged. Cao Cao in Guandu defeat Yuan Shao Basically unify the North. Red Cliffs In battle, Cao Cao was defeated and retreated to the north. Sun Quan , Liu Bei The position has been consolidated. In 220, Cao PI Declared emperor Jianwei; In 221, Liu Bei Declare himself emperor and build Shu; In 222, Sun Quan Called Wang Jianwu, Three kingdoms The situation is formed. During The Three Kingdoms period, the economies of all countries developed.

In the later period of The Three Kingdoms, the power of Wei grew stronger and stronger. In 263, Wei destroyed Shu; In 265, Sima Yan Seizing the Wei regime and establishing the Jin Dynasty, according to history The Western Jin Dynasty (536-597) ; In 280, the Western Jin Dynasty destroyed Wu, ending the situation of The Three Kingdoms. The unification of the Western Jin Dynasty was short-lived. Due to the increasingly sharp class and national contradictions, the ethnic minorities and the displaced people in different places continued to rise up and resist, which finally led to the demise of the Western Jin Dynasty.

After the fall of the Western Jin Dynasty, the imperial family Sima Rui He established political power in Gangnam, Shi said The Eastern Jin Dynasty (917-907) . The rulers of various ethnic groups in the north successively established many states, which is known in history The Sixteen States . 383 years, unification Yellow River basin the The former Qin Dynasty And the Eastern Jin Dynasty The Battle of Feishui River The Eastern Jin won the victory, and soon the former Qin collapsed, forming a north-south confrontation situation. In the south, after the Eastern Jin Dynasty, experienced The song dynasty , qi , beam , Chen Four dynasties, history says The Southern Dynasties ; In the north, experienced The Northern Wei Dynasty (535-544) , The Eastern Wei Dynasty and The Western Wei Dynasty (535-544) , The Northern Qi Dynasty (550-597) and The Northern Zhou Dynasty (770-476 B.C.) Five dynasties, known as the Northern Dynasty. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the south of the Yangtze River was developed, and the north had a great integration of various ethnic groups. 北魏孝文帝 The reform promoted the integration of ethnic groups.

The Three Kingdoms , The two Jin dynasties , The Northern and Southern Dynasties During the period, due to the great integration of various ethnic groups and the economic development of the north and the south, science and culture were further developed, and world-leading achievements were made in many fields. ^[23]

Prosperity of feudal society -- Sui and Tang

From 581 Sui Dynasty Established until 907 Tang Dynasty The collapse was the prosperous period of Chinese feudal society.

Yang Jian, Emperor Wen of Sui

Tang Gaozu Li Yuan

Emperor Taizong Li Shimin

Emperor Xuanzong Li Longji

On the basis of national integration and the economic development of the north and the south, the Sui Dynasty realized unification. After the unification of the whole country, the social order settled down, agriculture, handicraft industry and commerce developed, and the feudal economy began to show a prosperous situation. The reform of the official system and Imperial examination system Its establishment has had a great impact on later generations; The Grand Canal It played a great role in the economic exchanges between the north and the south.

when Peasant uprising at the end of Sui Dynasty When thriving, Li Yuan Raise an army and occupy Chang 'an He proclaimed himself emperor in 618 and was founded Tang Dynasty . The rulers of the early Tang Dynasty learned the lessons of the Sui Dynasty, adjusted their ruling policies, and the early politics were relatively clear. The rule of Zhenguan "," Kaiyuan flourishing age The feudal economy gained new development.

The Tang Dynasty was a powerful and multi-ethnic feudal state, and the ties between the various ethnic groups were strengthened, and the economic and cultural exchanges with Asian countries were also unprecedented.

The Rebellion of An Shi It was the turning point of Tang Dynasty from strength to decline. After the Rebellion of An Shi, the Tang Dynasty appeared The state was divided In the situation, production was severely disrupted. In the late Tang Dynasty, land annexation was very serious, which led to the outbreak of peasant wars and the rapid collapse of the Tang Dynasty.

In the Sui and Tang dynasties, the north and the south of China were unified, the territory was vast, the economy was developed, and the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries were frequent. On this basis, people of all ethnic groups have jointly created a splendid culture. ^[24]

The further strengthening of national integration and the continued development of feudal economy - the Five Dynasties, Liao, Song, Xia, Jin and Yuan

From 907 Rear beam Established until 1368 Yuan Dynasty The extinction was a period of the further strengthening of national integration in Chinese feudal society and the continuous development of feudal economy.

Zhao Kuangyin, Emperor Taizu of Song Dynasty

The Yuan Patriarch Boriz Kublai Khan

Five dynasties and ten Kingdoms During the period, the South was relatively stable and its economy developed greatly. In the late Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, The Later Zhou Dynasty Gradually stronger, laying the foundation for the end of the division of the situation. ^[25]

The Northern Song Dynasty (960-907) After its establishment, a series of measures were taken to strengthen the centralization of power, ending the split of the five dynasties and Ten kingdoms, and the feudal economy continued to develop. In the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, financial difficulties and other crises appeared. In order to overcome the crisis of governance, Wang Anshi Reform of the law was carried out. At the end of the Northern Song Dynasty, politics was rotten and defense was empty. gold The troops marched south, ending the rule of the Northern Song. In 1127, the reign of the Southern Song Dynasty began. The Southern Song Dynasty The confrontation with Kim led to new economic development in both North and South. ^[25]

In the Northern Song Dynasty, the main ethnic minority regimes that stood side by side with it were Khitan established liao There are replacements for Liao Jurchen The establishment of Kim, and Dangxiang people established In the summer . There were constant wars between the various ethnic regimes, and economic and cultural exchanges were also strengthened. ^[25]

The chief of the Mongolian people Temujin (later known as Genghis Khan) unified Mongolia Various ministries, established the Mongolian regime. Genghis Khan and his descendants waged a massive war. Kublai Khan established Yuan Dynasty And unified the country. The unity of Yuan promoted the development of multi-ethnic countries. It was implemented in the Yuan Dynasty Provincial system Effectively administered the whole country. ^[25]

In the Song and Yuan Dynasties, various ethnic groups had frequent economic exchanges, and handicrafts, commerce and urban economy were more prosperous than before. China's ties with Asian, European and African countries were strengthened, and culture, science and technology reached a high level of prosperity. ^[25]

Consolidation of a unified multi-ethnic state and gradual decline of feudalism (before the Opium War)

From 1368 Ming Dynasty The period from its establishment to the outbreak of the Opium War in 1840 was the consolidation of the unified multi-ethnic country of Chinese feudal society and the gradual decline of the feudal system. ^[26]

Zhu Yuanzhang, Emperor Taizu of Ming Dynasty

Emperor Taizu of Qing Dynasty Aisin Gioro Nurhachi

In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang Have established Ming Dynasty . In the early Ming Dynasty, the Ming government took a series of measures to strengthen the centralization of power. In order to strengthen its military defense, the Ming government built and moved its capital to Beijing. In order to consolidate the northern frontier, the Ming government built the northern border The Great Wall . In order to further strengthen ties with overseas countries, the Ming government sent Zheng He to the Western seas as an envoy. In the middle and late Ming Dynasty, with Commodity economy The development of Jiangnan has appeared in some places capitalism The germination of production relations. In the late Ming Dynasty, the feudal autocratic rule decayed, and social contradictions became increasingly acute, and finally broke out Li Zicheng Led by a peasant uprising, the Ming rule was overthrown. ^[26]

In 1616, Nurhachi Have established Jurchen The regime of Later Jin Dynasty . Huang Taiji Change the true woman to Manchuria He proclaimed himself emperor in 1636 and changed his name to gold qing . In order to further strengthen the centralization of authoritarianism, the rulers of the early Qing Dynasty set up a cabinet and six ministries, and also added more Privy council ; In order to control the people intellectually, the Qing government arose again and again Literary inquisition To suppress the anti-Qing thoughts of intellectuals. ^[26]

In the early Ming and Qing dynasties, the unified multi-ethnic state was consolidated. Zheng succeeded in reclaiming Taiwan , Qing Dynasty setting Taiwan province , defeat Tsarist Russia The invasion of China's Heilongjiang Valley, these struggles to safeguard national sovereignty and territorial integrity. Crushing of the Qing government Kardan The separatist activities, pacify Size and brilliance The rebellion, strengthened against Xizang To further consolidate the multi-ethnic state. ^[26]

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, there appeared several summative scientific and technological works, and there appeared progressive thinkers with democratic colors against authoritarianism. In literature, there are also several excellent novels. ^[26]

Modern history

The modern history of China covers the period from the Opium War in 1840 to the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, which is also the history of China's semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. China's modern history is divided into two stages, from the Opium War in 1840 to the eve of the May Fourth Movement in 1919, which is the stage of the old democratic revolution. From the May Fourth Movement in 1919 to the eve of the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, it was the stage of the new democratic revolution. ^[27]

Opium Wars

Opium Wars

Before the Opium War, China was a Independent and autonomous The feudal state. Due to Chinese Natural economy In the legitimate trade between China and Britain, China is in the dominant position Trade surplus Status. In order to change the status of trade surplus, Britain smuggled goods to China opium . The import of opium brought serious disasters to the Chinese nation. The people are clamoring for a smoking ban. Lin Zexu Led the anti-smoking campaign, giving the British invaders a heavy blow.

In 1840, Britain launched an invasion of China Opium Wars . In the war, the vast patriotic officers and men and Sanyuan Li The people fought bravely. However, because the Qing government pursued the compromise policy, it finally led to the defeat of the war.

In 1842, Britain Forced the Qing government to sign the" Sino-British Treaty of Nanking China's independence and territorial integrity began to be destroyed, and it began to degenerate into feudal society Semi-colonial and semi-feudal society . During the war, some patriotic intellectuals woke up, and a new trend of "learning from the West" emerged. ^[28]

Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Hong Xiuquan jade seal

1856-1860 The Second Opium War It was a war of aggression against China launched by Britain and France in order to expand their rights and interests in aggression. America and Russia reap the benefits of the fisherman. The four countries forced the Qing government to sign the" Treaty of Tianjin "," Treaty of Beijing China lost more territory and sovereignty, and foreign forces of aggression expanded to the coastal provinces and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Chinese society has become more semi-colonial. ^[28]

Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement

After the Opium War, class contradictions in the Qing Dynasty intensified unprecedentedly. Peasant uprising The wind rises and the clouds rise.

In 1851, Hong Xiuquan launched Jintian Uprising And was established Taiping Heavenly Kingdom The regime;

In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom established its capital Tianjing , issued the" The Tian mu system ";

In 1856, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom reached its military heyday. The Tianjing incident caused by the intensification of internal contradictions in the leading group greatly damaged the vitality of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom;

In 1864, Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement Failed. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement led by Hong Xiuquan embodied a new era Peasant war The characteristics of. Some leaders of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom began to seek the truth from the West, explore ways for China to become independent and prosperous, and bravely undertake the task of fighting feudalism and aggression. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement was the peak of the peasant war in China. ^[29]

The emergence of capitalism and the deepening of national crisis in the late Qing Dynasty

In the 1860s, the Westernization faction emerged within the Qing ruling class. From the '60s to the' 90s. They set off a "division Yi long skills to self-improvement" Westernization movement . The Westernization movement did not make China rich and powerful, but it stimulated China objectively capitalism The development of... ^[30]

In the 1860s and 1870s, the capitalist mode of production emerged in Chinese society National bourgeoisie Produced. The Chinese national bourgeoisie's aggression against foreign capitalism and its own feudal oppression are both revolutionary and conciliatory. The Chinese proletariat came into being in the 1940s, earlier than the national bourgeoisie. It is the representative of China's new productive forces and is the most resolute and revolutionary. ^[30]

In the second half of the 19th century, as world capitalism moved towards imperialism In the interim, imperialism intensified its aggression against China. It broke out in 1883 and 1894 Sino-french War and Sino-japanese War . " Sino-french New Testament The signing of "France" further opened the door of southwest China; Sino-japanese Treaty of Shimonoseki The signing of the War greatly deepened the semi-colonialization of Chinese society. ^[30]

After the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, the imperialist powers launched a fierce competition in China for the export of capital, and also forcibly occupied "foreign capital" in China. Leased territory ", partition" Sphere of influence ", set off The China frenzy China's national crisis has deepened unprecedentedly. ^[30]

Hundred Days' Reform and Boxer Rebellion

After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, due to the unprecedentedly serious national crisis and the initial development of Chinese national capitalism, the national bourgeoisie began to emerge on the historical stage as a new political force. The bourgeois reformists led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao set off the Reform movement in order to save the nation from extinction and develop capitalism. The feudal obstinate and conservative forces represented by Empress Dowager Cixi launched a coup d 'etat, which failed the reform. This reform movement of a bourgeois nature played a role in ideological enlightenment in society and was conducive to the spread of bourgeois ideology and culture. ^[31]

The Boxer Movement was an anti-imperialist patriotic movement. This movement crushed the arrogant plan of the imperialist powers to divide China, dealt a heavy blow to the reactionary rule of the Qing government, and accelerated its demise.

In the summer of 1900, the allied forces of Britain, Russia, Japan, France, Germany, the United States, Italy and Austria invaded China.

In 1901, the Qing government was forced to sign a treaty with eight countries and 11 countries, including Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain. Treaty of sin-ugly ". It marks the formation of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society in China. ^[31]

The Revolution of 1911 and the fall of the Qing Dynasty

Sun Yat-sen

In 1894, Sun Yat-sen He founded the first revolutionary group of the Chinese bourgeoisie Reviving China Society .

At the end of the 19th century, he was the founder of modern education in China He Ziyuan Such people open the wind, pioneering new learning. It was abolished by the Qing Court in 1905 Imperial examination system .

In the early 20th century, The bourgeois democratic revolution Ideas spread widely and emerged Zhang Binglin , Zou Rong , Chen Tianhua isometrically Democratic revolution Thinker and propagandist. With the spread of democratic revolutionary ideas, bourgeois revolutionary groups were established one after another.

1905 China Tongmeng Association The establishment of the Communist Party of China marked that China's bourgeois democratic revolution had entered a new stage. Through the polemics between revolutionaries and royalists, the ideas of democratic revolution were further spread and the upsurge of democratic revolution was effectively promoted. ^[32]

After the establishment of Tongmenghui, the revolutionaries launched a series of uprisings in Pingliuli, Guangzhou Huanghuagang and so on, and Sichuan took place Road protection movement .

In October 1911 Wuchang Uprising Success.

On New Year's Day 1912, Sun Yat-sen took office as provisional president in Nanjing and declared Republic of China Established, then issued the" Republic of China Provisional Convention ". The Revolution of 1911 not only made great historical achievements, but also left a profound lesson. ^[32]

The Revolution of 1911 was an anti-imperialism and anti-feudalism in modern Chinese history The bourgeois democratic revolution . It overthrew the rule of the Qing Court and the two-thousand-year monarchy, established a bourgeois democratic republic, and promulgated a reflection of the bourgeoisie democracy The temporary covenant of the spirit. The Revolution of 1911 enabled the people to gain some freedom and democratic rights. He was liberated politically and ideologically. It cemented the idea of a democratic republic. The revolution of 1911 also hit imperialism In China Colonial rule It created favorable conditions for the development of China's national capitalism. ^[32]

The rule of the Northern warlords in the early Republic of China

Yuan Shikai

In March 1912, Yuan Shikai took office Provisional President of the Republic of China The provisional government moved to Beijing. After the provisional government officially moved to Beijing, Yuan Shikai headed the government Beiyang Warlords The regime was established. Yuan Shikai suppressed the internal Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) To sell national sovereignty to the outside world, Sun Yat-sen called for force against Yuan," Second revolution "It happened. Because the Kuomintang's strength was scattered and the Beiyang Army was strong, the "second Revolution" soon failed. After Yuan Shikai suppressed the "Second Revolution", it began Come back to power Imperial activities. Sun Yat-sen once again organized force against Yuan, National defense movement Suddenly, Yuan Shikai was forced to abolish the imperial system and died in despair. ^[33]

After Yuan Shikai's death, China emerged Secession by warlords The situation. Xuzhou warlord Zhang Xun To mediate" The battle between the government and the court In the name of the restoration of Puyi into Beijing, but the restoration of the ugly drama lasted only a short 12 days. After Duan Qirui returned to power, he refused to reinstate the" Provisional contract And summoned Congress. In order to maintain the republican system, Sun Yat-sen advocated Law protection movement But that too soon failed. ^[33]

World War I During this period, the imperialists were busy with the war, temporarily relaxing their economic aggression against China, and China's national industry was briefly developed. ^[33]

五四运动和中国共产党的创立

World War I During this period, with the further development of China's capitalist economy, the bourgeoisie strongly demanded the implementation of bourgeois policies in China Democratic politics Oppose feudalism army The rule of the valve, New culture movement Came into being.

In 1915, Chen Duxiu Founded in Shanghai New youth And became the symbol of the rise of the new cultural movement. "Democracy" and "science" were the slogans of the New Culture Movement. The New culture movement has set off a trend of ideological liberation in society. After the victory of the October Socialist Revolution in Russia, Li Dazhao propagate October Revolution And lifted it for the first time in China socialism So that the new culture movement has a new development. ^[34]

May Fourth Movement

Paris Peace Conference It rejected the just request of the Chinese representative and aroused the strong righteous indignation of the Chinese people.

1919 May Fourth Movement It broke out in Beijing. In early June, the movement developed into Working class As the main force of the nationwide mass patriotic movement, and achieved initial victory. The May Fourth Movement is of great historical significance to China The new Democratic Revolution The beginning of... ^[34]

After the May Fourth Movement, Marxism It spread in China and became the mainstream of the new thought. A group of advanced elements associated Marxism with China Workers' movement Initial combination.

In 1920, communism Teams were set up in different places;

In 1921, the "Great Congress" of the Communist Party of China was convened. Communist Party of China Was born;

In 1922, the "Second National Congress" of the Communist Party of China formulated the program of democratic revolution, which pointed out the direction of the Chinese revolution. ^[34]

Under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, from the Hong Kong seafarers' strike in January 1922 to the Beijing-Han Railway workers' strike in February 1923, the Chinese workers' movement saw its first upsurge. ^[34]

The First Revolutionary Civil War

From January 1924 to July 1927 The First Revolutionary Civil War Time. The First Revolutionary Civil War was waged by the Chinese people under the leadership of the Communist Party of China against imperialism. Beiyang Warlords The war. ^[35]

Go by The 27 massacre The Communist Party of China realizes that it is not enough to rely solely on the strength of the working class, and that only by uniting all the forces that can be united can the Chinese revolution be led to victory. To this end, the Communist Party of China decided to cooperate with the Kuomintang led by Sun Yat-sen and establish a revolutionary united front.

In January 1924, Chinese Kuomintang The first National Congress was held in Guangzhou. The convening of the Kuomintang "Big One" marked the realization of the cooperation between the two parties and the formal establishment of the revolutionary united front. The Soviet Union With the help of the Kuomintang, the Army Officers' School was established in Guangzhou Whampoa, laying the foundation for the establishment of the National Revolutionary Army. ^[35]

The Northern Expeditionary Army entered Wuchang

After the Kuomintang, the National Revolutionary movement against imperialism and feudalism began rapidly. Workers everywhere went on strike one after another, setting off an upsurge of anti-imperialist patriotic movements, among which the most influential was May 30th Movement Provincial and Hong Kong general strike; The peasant movement gradually developed in Guangdong, Hunan and other provinces. Guangdong revolutionary government A training center for the backbone of the peasant movement was also established. After the two eastern campaigns of Chen Jiongming, the revolutionary base areas in Guangdong were consolidated and unified; The first expedition Later, National government It was established in Guangzhou, and its army was organized as National Revolutionary army . ^[35] In order to overthrow imperialism, overthrow the rule of warlords, and unify China, the national government began Northern expedition . The Northern Expeditionary Army marched successfully and reached the Yangtze River Valley in less than six months. The Northern Expedition was strongly supported by the workers' and peasants' movement; The victory of the Northern Expedition also promoted the upsurge of the workers' and peasants' movement, and the Shanghai workers' armed uprising won victory. ^[35]

After Sun Yat-sen's death in March 1925, Kuomintang rightists Intensifying the struggle for revolutionary leadership;

In 1927, Chiang Kai-shek launched the "April 12" counter-revolutionary coup d 'etat; Wang Jingwei launched the "July 15" counter-revolutionary coup d 'etat. During this period, to Chen Duxiu As represented by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China Right capitulationism Mistake. So the national revolution failed. ^[35]

Second Revolutionary Civil War

From August 1927 to July 1937 Second Revolutionary Civil War Time. The Second Revolutionary Civil War was a war waged by the Chinese people under the leadership of the Communist Party of China against the reactionary rule of the Kuomintang. ^[36]

After the "April 12" counter-revolutionary coup d 'etat, Chiang Kai-shek set up in Nanjing National government . Soon after, the nationalist government held a "northern expedition" and occupied Beijing, and the warlord Zhang Zuolin withdrew to the customs. Zhang Xueliang" Northeast Yi Zi "And obey the national government. In this way, the national government formally unified the whole country. But years of infighting among the new warlords of the Kuomintang brought great disasters to the people. Under the national government, Four great families By virtue of the state power, he quickly amassed huge wealth and became the representative of the Chinese bureaucratic comprador bourgeoisie. ^[36]

Nanchang uprising

Undeterred by the massacre of the Kuomintang reactionaries, the Chinese Communists held the "August 7" Conference in 1927, corrected the mistake of Chen Duxiu's right-oriented capitulationism, and launched a war Nanchang uprising , Autumn harvest uprising and Guangzhou uprising , created The Red Army To open up rural base areas, proceed Agrarian revolution It opened up a way for the countryside to encircle the cities and seize power by armed force. Then, the Red Army won three counter-" encirclement and suppression "victories. At the same time, the Chinese Soviet regime was established. ^[36]

In 1931, Japan launched the "September 18 Incident" of aggression against Northeast China. As a result of the Kuomintang's policy of non-resistance, the three provinces in the Northeast were lost. Japan Fukui A surname do Puppet Emperor, established The "Manchukuo" And practiced colonial rule over the northeast.

In 1932, Japan launched the invasion of Shanghai "January 28" incident, and obtained the right of Japanese troops to stay in Shanghai. ^[36]

In the autumn of 1933, Chiang Kai-shek launched the fifth round of "encirclement and suppression" against the revolutionary base areas. Due to the influence of Wang Ming's wrong "left" adventurism, the Red Army failed in its fifth counter-" encirclement and suppression "and was forced to march on the Long March. The Communist Party of China Long march road-held Zunyi Conference He saved the Party, the Red Army, and the Chinese Revolution at a critical juncture. ^[36]

The signing of the Home Agreement in 1935 and the signing of the" The five provinces of North China are autonomous ", so that the Chinese nation in the subjugation of the vital moment of extinction. The "12 · 9" Movement set off a new upsurge in the national anti-Japanese and national salvation movement. In December 1935, the expanded meeting of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee held in Wayaopu formulated the strategic policy of the anti-Japanese national united front.

The year 1936 Xi 'an Incident A peaceful solution was obtained, which opened the prelude of the two parties from civil war to peace, from division to confrontation to cooperation against Japan. ^[36]

War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression

On July 7, 1937, the Japanese attacked Lugou bridge The Chinese army fought back across the country War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression The prelude to the beginning. On August 13, the Japanese Army attacked Shanghai and the Nationalist government was forced to fight against Japan. In late September, the KMT published a document submitted by the Communist Party of China KMT and CPC cooperation The anti-Japanese national united Front was formally formed, and the Anti-Japanese War of the whole nation began. ^[37]

National Revolutionary army

In the early days of the War of Resistance, the Nationalist government organized many battles on the front battlefield to fight against the Japanese invaders, but it carried out a one-sided line of resistance and lost a large part of its territory. The Communist Party of China pursues the line of total resistance and the policy of enduring resistance. The Eighth Route Army , The New Fourth Army Penetrated behind enemy lines, carried out guerrilla warfare extensively and established many Anti-japanese base area And achieved a great victory. ^[37]

It was occupied by the Japanese Army in October 1938 Guangzhou After Wuhan, the war of resistance against Japan entered the stage of stalemate. The Japanese imperialists carried out political seduction to the Kuomintang, and the pro-Japanese faction in the Kuomintang defected to the enemy. The pro-British and Anglo-American faction in the Kuomintang gradually became passive in the war of resistance, creating anti-Communist friction incidents, to which, Communist Party of China It was resolutely fought back and ruthlessly exposed. In the difficult years of the War of Resistance against Japan, in order to overcome difficulties and win the war of Resistance, the Communist Party of China took a series of measures politically, economically and ideologically, and finally passed the most difficult period. ^[37]

In 1944, Liberated area The army and people began a local counterattack.

In April 1945, the Communist Party of China held a" Seven ancient religions "On August 8, The Soviet Union declared war on Japan . The final battle against the Japanese "Of the call, War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression Enter the great counterattack. On 15 August, the Japanese government announced its unconditional surrender, and on 2 September, an unconditional surrender was signed. After eight years of hard fighting, the Chinese people won a great victory in the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. ^[37]

Third Revolutionary Civil War

重庆谈判中的毛泽东和蒋介石

The period from August 1945 to October 1949 was the Third Revolutionary Civil War. The Third Revolutionary Civil War was a war waged by the Chinese people under the leadership of the Communist Party of China against the Kuomintang reactionaries. ^[38]

抗日战争胜利后，1945年8月，毛泽东亲赴重庆同 Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) During the negotiations, representatives of the Chinese and Communist parties signed the" The Double Tenth Agreement ". However, during the negotiations, the Kuomintang sent troops to Liberated area Launch an attack. The army and civilians in the liberation area repulsed the Kuomintang military attack. Representatives of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party signed an armistice agreement and convened in Chongqing Political consultative conference . ^[38]

In the summer of 1946, the Kuomintang army launched an attack on the liberated areas with the assistance of American imperialism, and a full-scale civil war broke out. ^[38]

From the summer of 1946 to June 1947, the people People's Liberation Army The overall and key attacks of the Kuomintang army were crushed. At the end of June 1947, the People's Liberation Army began a nationwide counteroffensive.

From September 1948 to January 1949, the People's Liberation Army launched the Liaoshen, Huaihai, Pingjin Three major campaigns Basically wiped out the main force of the Kuomintang army and accelerated the victory of the People's War of Liberation throughout the country.

In April 1949, the People's Liberation Army crossed the river and was liberated on the 23rd Nanjing . ^[38] September 1949, first session Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Be convened. ^[38]

Modern history

The founding of the People's Republic of China and the realization of the transition to socialism

The founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949 marked a new era in which the people became masters of their own country.

From the founding of the People's Republic of China in October 1949 to 1956, the Communist Party of China led the people of all ethnic groups in the country in a step-by-step transition from new democracy to socialism, quickly restored the national economy and carried out planned economic construction, and basically completed the socialist transformation of private ownership of the means of production in most parts of the country. At this historical stage, the guidelines and basic policies established by the Party were correct and the victories achieved were brilliant. ^[39]

In the first three years after the founding of the People's Republic of China, we purged the remaining armed forces and bandits of the Kuomintang reactionaries on the mainland, achieved the peaceful liberation of Tibet, established people's governments at various levels in all localities, confiscated bureaucratic capital enterprises and transformed them into socialist state enterprises, unified the financial and economic work of the whole country, stabilized prices, and completed the reform of the land system in the newly liberated areas. We suppressed the counter-revolution, launched the "Three counter-movements" against corruption, waste and bureaucracy, and launched the "Five counter-movements" against bribery, tax evasion, theft of state property, cutting corners and theft of state economic information to repel bourgeois attacks. The educational, scientific and cultural undertakings in old China were reformed effectively. While successfully completing the heavy tasks of social reform and carrying out the great War against the United States to aid Korea and defend the country, the national economy, which had been severely damaged in old China, was quickly restored, and the national industrial and agricultural production reached the highest level in history by the end of 1952. ^[39]

Socialist construction has developed zigzageously in the course of exploration

After the basic completion of socialist transformation, the people of all ethnic groups in the country under the leadership of the Communist Party of China began to carry out all-round and large-scale socialist construction. In the 10 years leading up to the "Cultural Revolution", despite serious setbacks, great achievements were still made. Compared with 1966 and 1956, the industrial fixed assets of the whole country increased by three times in terms of their original prices. The output of major industrial products, such as cotton yarn, raw coal, power generation, crude oil, steel and machinery and equipment, has seen tremendous growth. Since 1965, it has been completely self-sufficient in oil. A number of new industrial sectors such as electronics industry and petrochemical industry have been built up. Industrial layout has improved. The basic construction and technological transformation of agriculture began to be carried out on a large scale and gradually achieved results. The use of tractors and fertilizers in agriculture increased by more than six times, and electricity consumption in rural areas increased by 70 times. The number of college graduates was 4.9 times that of the previous seven years. After rectification, the quality of education has been significantly improved. There have also been outstanding achievements in scientific and technological work. ^[39]

Ten years of the "Cultural Revolution"

The "Cultural Revolution" from May 1966 to October 1976 caused the Party, the state and the people the most serious setbacks and losses since the founding of the People's Republic. His main argument is that a large number of bourgeois representatives, counter-revolutionary revisionists, have infiltrated the Party, the government, the army and all sectors of the cultural sphere, and that the leadership of a considerable majority of units is no longer in the hands of Marxists and the masses of the people. The capitalist establishment in the Party has formed a bourgeois command at the centre, with a revisionist political and organisational line and agents in the provinces, cities, autonomous regions and central departments. All kinds of struggles in the past could not solve the problem. Only by carrying out the Great Cultural Revolution and mobilizing the masses openly, comprehensively and from the bottom up to expose the above-mentioned dark side can we regain the power usurped by the capitalist faction. In essence, this is a great political revolution in which one class overthrows another, and there will be many more in the future. These arguments appeared mainly in the "May 16 Notice" as the programmatic document of the "Cultural Revolution" and in the political report of the "Ninth National Congress of the Communist Party of China", and were once summarized as the so-called "theory of continuing the revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat", thus giving the term "continuing the revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat" a specific meaning. ^[39]

Blaze a new trail for socialist modernization in the course of reform and opening up

The victory in crushing the "Gang of Four" saved the Party and the country from the crisis, but the political, ideological, organizational and economic chaos left by the "Cultural Revolution" was still extremely serious. ^[39]

Before and after the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee, the Communist Party of China led and supported the great discussion that practice is the only criterion for testing truth. This was by the central principal at that time Hua Guofeng sanctified People's Daily , Red Flag Magazine, Liberation Army newspaper Proposed in the United Society.) It re-established the ideological line of emancipating the mind and seeking truth from facts. This is the ideological line to correct the mess. ^[39]

Natural environment

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EDITOR

Geographical profile

China is high in the west and low in the east. Mountainous region , plateau and hill It covers about 67% of the land area, and basins and plains account for about 33% of the land area. Mountains are mostly east-west and northeast-southwest trend, mainly Altai Mountain , Tianshan Mountain , Kunlun Mountains , The Karakoram Mountains , Himalayas , Yinshan, Qinling Mountains , Nanling , The Greater Khingan Mountains , Changbai Mountain , Taihang Mountains , Wuyi Mountain , Mountain ranges of Taiwan and Hengduan Mountain Wait for the mountains. ^[40]

The west has the tallest in the world Tibetan plateau With an average altitude of more than 4,000 meters, known as the "roof of the world", Mount Everest is 8848.86 meters above sea level, the world's first peak. North and east of here Inner Mongolia , Xinjiang region, Loess plateau , Sichuan basin and Yunnan-guizhou Plateau It is the second step of China's terrain. The Greater Khingan Mountains One Taihang mountain one Wushan Mountain one Wuling Mountain one Xuefeng Mountain The east of the first line to the coastline are mostly plains and hills, which is the third step. The continental shelf to the east and south of the coastline contains rich submarine resources. ^{[40 and 41]}

Millions of years ago, the Tibetan Plateau rose, a major crustal movement in Earth's history that shaped China's landscape. From the air, the terrain of China is like a ladder, descending gradually from west to east. by Indian plate with Eurasian plate With an average elevation of more than 4,000 meters, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is known as the "roof of the world" and constitutes the first ladder of China's terrain. The main peak of the Himalayas on the plateau Mount Everest At 8,848.86 meters, it is the highest mountain in the world. Second step Inner Mongolia Plateau , Loess plateau , Yunnan-guizhou Plateau and Tarim basin , Junggar Basin , Sichuan basin The average altitude is 1000-2000 meters. ^{[40 and 41]}

Over the east edge of the second step The Greater Khingan Mountains Taihang Mountain Wushan Mountain and Xuefeng Mountain Direct eastward Pacific coast It is the third step, which drops below 500 meters to 1000 meters, and is distributed from north to south Northeast plain , North China Plain , Middle and lower Yangtze River plain The border of the plain is inlaid with low mountains and hills. To the east is the shallow sea area of the Chinese continental shelf, that is, the fourth step, the water depth is mostly less than 200 meters. ^[40]

Topography of China

landform

The main features of the terrain

1. Varied topography On the vast land of China, there are majestic plateaus, rolling mountains, broad plains, low hills, as well as small and flat basins surrounded by mountains. The five basic landforms on the land are distributed in China, which provides various conditions for the development of China's industry and agriculture.

2. Vast mountainous area Mountains, hills and more rugged plateaus are often referred to as mountains. China's mountainous area accounts for two thirds of the country's total area, which is another significant feature of China's topography. The vast area of mountainous areas brings certain difficulties to the development of transportation and agriculture, but mountainous areas can provide forest products, minerals, water energy and tourism resources, which provides a resource guarantee for changing the appearance of mountainous areas and developing mountainous economy.

3. The terrain is high in the west and low in the east The ladder distribution of terrain is the general trend of land surface fluctuation. The terrain of China is high in the west and low in the east.

The first step on the ladder is the Tibetan Plateau, with an average elevation of more than 4,000 meters. The Kunlun Mountains, Qilian Mountains and Hengduan Mountains are distributed in the northern and eastern edges, which are the dividing lines of the first and second echelons of the terrain.

The second step of the terrain is distributed with large basins and plateaues, with an average elevation between 1000 and 2000 meters, and the Greater Khingan Mountains, Taihang Mountains, Wushan Mountains and Xuefeng Mountains to the east are the dividing lines of the second and third steps of the terrain.

The third step of the terrain consists of broad plains, interspersed with hills and low mountains, most of which are below 500 meters above sea level.

If a cross-section of China's topography is drawn from west to east through the 32° north latitude, from the great plateau in the west, to the basin in the middle, and then to the eastern plain, the terrain features are very obvious.

From the third step of the Chinese land ladder continues to extend below the sea surface, is the shallow sea continental shelf, which is the natural extension of the mainland to the sea, generally not deep, slow slope, rich in Marine resources. ^[42]

plain , basin , plateau , hill , Mountain range

China has... Three great plains They are distributed on the third step of the terrain in eastern China. Due to the different location, causes, climatic conditions, etc., it also has its own characteristics in the terrain. These three great plains are connected to the north and south, the soil is rich, and they are the most important farming areas in China. In addition, China has Chengdu plain , Fen-wei plain , Pearl River Delta , Western Taiwan plain They are also important farming areas.

China has... Four major basins They are mostly distributed on the second level of the terrain, and their characteristics are not the same due to their different locations. In addition, the famous Turpan Basin is also distributed on the second echelon of terrain, and it is the lowest basin in China (-155 meters).

China has... Four plateaus They are concentrated on the first and second stairs of the terrain. Due to the different height, location, origin and external erosion, the appearance of the plateau is different.

China hill Numerous, widely distributed. Mainly in the eastern region Hills of liaodong , Shandong hills , Southeast hill . Some hilly areas are densely forested and rich in minerals; Some of the hills have been turned into terraces, or contain water energy, and some of the hills and peaks are famous tourist attractions. ^[42]

Mountains extend into veins and are mountains. Mountains form the skeleton of China's topography and are often the boundaries between different topographic regions. The direction in which mountains extend is called strike. The distribution of mountains in China can be divided into five types according to their strike. There are 3 lines of mountains (mainly including 5 mountains) in the east-west direction: Tianshan Mountain and Yinshan Mountain in the north; Kunlun Mountains - Qinling Mountains; The south is Nanling. The mountains in the northeastern-southwest direction are mostly distributed in the eastern part of China, and there are mainly 3 columns (mainly including 7 mountain ranges) : in the west, it is listed as the Greater Hinggan Mountains, Taihang Mountains, Wushan Mountains and Xuefeng Mountains; Listed as Changbai Mountain - Wuyi Mountain; The east is listed as Taiwan mountain range. The mountains that run northwest to southeast are mainly distributed in western China, and there are two famous mountains: the Altai Mountains and the Qilian Mountains. There are two major north-south mountain ranges, distributed in the southwest and northwest, namely Hengduan Mountain Range and Helan Mountain Range. The arc mountain system consists of several parallel mountain ranges, from basically east-west to north-south and connected with the Hengduan Mountains, of which the most famous mountain range is the Himalayas, distributed in China and India, Nepal and other countries on the border, stretching more than 2,400 kilometers, an average altitude of 6,000 meters, its main peak Mount Everest At 8,848.86 meters above sea level, it is the highest mountain in the world. ^[41]

river

There are many rivers and lakes in China. These rivers and lakes are not only an important part of China's geographical environment, but also rich in natural resources. China's rivers and lakes are unevenly distributed, with both internal and external flows.

Chinese water system

Rivers China has one of the most rivers in the world. China has many great rivers of long standing. Among them, there are more than 1,500 rivers with a drainage area of more than 1,000 square kilometers. China's rivers, according to the circulation of river runoff form, there are outflow rivers into the sea, and there are internal rivers that do not communicate with the sea. ^[43]

lakes

There are many lakes in China, with more than 24,800 lakes, of which more than 2,800 are natural lakes with an area of more than 1 square kilometer. Although the number of lakes is large, the regional distribution is very uneven. In general, Eastern monsoon region especially The middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River , the largest distribution in China Fresh water lake Group; In the west, lakes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are concentrated, and most of them are inland Saltwater lake . The lakes in the outflow area are connected with the outflow river, and the lake can flow into and out, containing less salt, which is called a freshwater lake, also known as a drainage lake.

China's famous freshwater lakes are Poyang Lake , Dongting Lake , Taihu Lake Hongze Lake, Chaohu Lake, etc. Most of the lakes in the internal flow area are the destination of internal rivers, and the lake can only flow into, but not out. Due to strong evaporation, more salt water is formed into saltwater lakes, also known as non-draining lakes, such as Qinghai Lake, the largest lake in China, and Namco Lake, which is at a higher altitude. According to their origin, lakes in China include river lakes (such as those along the Yangtze River in Hubei Province), sea lakes (睸 lakes), Such as West Lake), corrosion lake (such as Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau limestone erosion formed by the lake), ice erosion lake (such as some lakes in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau), structural lake (such as Qinghai Lake, Poyang Lake, Dongting Lake, Dianchi Lake, etc.), crater lake (such as Changbai Mountain Tianchi), barrier lake (such as Jingbo Lake). ^[43]

political

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EDITOR

Zen and hereditary

Primitive society In order to Clan tribe Constitute. Then gradually came the central government. yao It was adopted in The Times of Shun and Yu The abdication system Inherit the right to rule. Historians believe that Yu's son Qi founded the Xia Dynasty, the first of its kind in China inherit dynasty . It was used in summer, Shang and Zhou dynasties The system of enfeoffment , Dukes The aristocracy has a lot of power. The Qin Dynasty will be a long time coming The system of prefectures and counties Officially become Administrative regions of China In the main structure, the emperor replaced the son of Heaven and had supreme power. ^[44] Since the Qin Dynasty, China mainly adopted Patriarchal clan system , The system of prefectures and counties and centralization (There were many differences between the different dynasties, for example, the centralization of power in the Western Han Dynasty was not the mainstream in many cases). It is usually the case that a dynasty in the early years of establishment can be vigorous rule, the state is in the ascendant stage. And then he started to hold his own, Social contradiction Gradually accumulate. At the end of the dynasty, the country's political corruption, social contradictions intensified, and finally through large-scale wars to end the old dynasty, the establishment of a new dynasty with different names. Or a massive foreign invasion, leading to the overthrow of the old dynasty. ^[45]

The politics of ancient China was Rule by man with Rule of law Parallel. The ancient rule of law is different from the modern rule of law in concept. The ancient rule of law means that citizens must obey the law, while the modern rule of law means that the government must obey the law first.

Patriarchy and the centralization of government reinforced the idea of a unified state. "Long united must be divided, long divided must be united" describes the history of the country's repeated cycles between states of unity and division.

Three princes and nine ministers

Sangong is a combination of the three most prestigious official positions in the ancient Chinese court. The Zhou Dynasty has this word, the Western Han Jinwen Jing scholars according to the "Shangshu Biography", "Li" and other books that the three Gong refers to "Sima, Situ, Sakong". According to Zhou Li, ancient Confucian scholars thought that "Taifu, Taishi and Taibao" were the three princes. There were no three princes in Qin Dynasty. At the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, Cheng Xu and the official of the imperial history were the main successors to the Qin system to assist the emperor in governing the country. There is also a chief military officer, but not always. From the time of Emperor Wudi, due to the influence of Confucian classics, the prime minister, the imperial historian doctor and the first lieutenant were also called the three princes.

Nine products in the system

The nine-pin Zhongzheng system was developed after the system of investigation and recruitment in the Han Dynasty Talent selection The system, in general, should have sprouted in the late Eastern Han Dynasty when Cao Cao's family was in charge of the government. Cao Cao at the end of the Han Dynasty, the eclectic use of talents has become an urgent topic. At the same time, Cao Cao also found out from the Han Dynasty's selection system of false investigation and excessive emphasis on moral character, so he put forward the idea of "talent is chosen". Cao Cao has issued several orders to seek talents, he clearly pointed out that even if the "unfilial" people, as long as they are "high talent and foreign", as long as they have "the skill of governing the country with military", they can be used to govern the state. This is undoubtedly a powerful correction to the standards of employment at that time. The change of this guiding ideology brought about a grand situation of "fierce generals like clouds and advisors like rain", thus creating conditions for the establishment of a new selection system. ^[46]

In the early days of the nine products Zhongzheng system, it did contain the spirit of "meritocrity", but because most of the Zhongzheng officials were held by the rich and powerful people who enjoyed political and economic privileges, the criteria for evaluation gradually turned to be decided by family (family rank), and the rich and powerful families controlled the power of talent selection, and gradually formed Wei and Jin Dynasties In the "gate system" of the period, there appeared the corruption phenomenon of "no poor family in the upper class and no noble family in the lower class". ^[46]

Three provinces and six departments

The three provincial governors jointly discuss state affairs and hold the office of prime minister, and the place where they discuss politics is called the Hall of Political Affairs. The Imperial Order of Shangshu was high and powerful, and since Sui Dynasty, it was basically not established (Emperor Yang had been given the title of Imperial Order of Shangshu), and Taizong had held this post, so the Tang Dynasty no longer conferred the post of Imperial Order of Shangshu. Left and right servants shoot on behalf of the book to save trouble, also served as prime minister. ^[47]

From the Sui and Tang Dynasties, it was the general name of the Ministry of Official Affairs, Ministry of Household Affairs, Ministry of Rites, Ministry of Military Affairs, Ministry of Punishment and Ministry of Works in the central administrative organs. Also known as "six Cao". Originated in the Qin Shaofu Shangshu, after the Han Shangshu Tai Cao evolution. ^[47]

The six departments were divided into nine ministers in the Qin and Han dynasties. After the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the Shangshu was divided into Cao and gradually became the ministry. The six departments of official, household (Sui called the Ministry of People), rites, soldiers, punishment, and work were attached to the six officials in the "Zhou Rites", and most of the positions of nine ministers in the Qin and Han Dynasties were merged. The six parts of the Yuan Dynasty were changed to Zhongshu Province. Emperor Taizu abolished the prime minister, to the book of the world, the six directly responsible for the emperor, the status more improved. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the new Ministry of Foreign Affairs and other departments were established, and the name of the six departments was abolished. ^[47]

cabinet

See also: Cabinet system in Ming Dynasty

Privy council

As the most important and the longest central supreme aid and control institution in the Qing Dynasty, there are still differences in the academic circles on the establishment time, there are four years, seven years, eight years and ten years of Yongzheng. Most scholars believe that in the seventh year of Yongzheng (1729), the Qing Court used troops against the northwest Junggar, in order to facilitate the emperor to summon ministers at any time to study military and political affairs and to keep military secrets Lungjong Gate Set up a "military engine room" as a temporary military command organization. Yongzheng 10th year (1732) Military engine room officially changed to "handling military machinery", referred to as "military machinery".

Democratic republic

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the Qing rulers were under internal and external pressure, and China emerged constitutionalism The fight against the royalists. After the end of the Qing Dynasty, China bid farewell to the imperial system of more than two thousand years.

The establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China began republicanism The gate. In the early Republic of China, warlord A free-for-all. Northern expedition When it was over, the then-leader of the northeast Zhang Xueliang announce Northeast Yi Zi The Republic of China was formally unified.

On October 1, 1949, the founding ceremony of the People's Republic of China was held in Tian 'anmen Square in Beijing. The founding of the People's Republic of China was the greatest event in the history of China and one of the greatest events in the world in the 20th century. It put an end to the history of a minority of exploiters ruling the vast majority of the working people and the imperialist enslavement of the Chinese people of all ethnic groups. The Chinese people became masters of their own country and opened a new historical era in the development of the Chinese nation. ^{[51] 50 -}

Military affairs

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EDITOR

China has a long military history. The succession of dynasties in Chinese history was mostly caused by large-scale wars. Before the Qing Dynasty, the Chinese Empire had been the most powerful in the world for three thousand years troops . Even at the time of its demise, the Shang Dynasty had 300,000 The Regular Army (At the time of the combat mission in the South), there have been throughout history Civil revolt And the uprising. ^[48]

There were constant conflicts between China and the surrounding ethnic groups, especially the nomads in the north. Since the Opium War, China's backward military force has been unable to resist the ships and guns of the Western powers, and almost all the wars between China and the Western powers during the Qing Dynasty ended in defeat, with one exception, namely Sino-french War It also forced the downfall of the French cabinet, but in the end, France was "overwhelmed" and obtained supraconceity over Vietnam, and also allowed China to open its southwest ports and allow France to build roads in the southwest.

Since the late Qing Dynasty, China's military began to emulate that of the West. Since the late 19th century, Japan As a newly industrial country, large-scale invasion of China.

After the September 18 Incident, the Chinese people rose up in the white mountains and black waters to resist, which became the starting point of the Chinese people's War of resistance against Japanese aggression, and at the same time opened the prelude to the world Anti-Fascist War. After the July 7 Incident, fighting against aggression and saving national life became the common will and action of all political parties, ethnic groups, classes, social strata, organizations and overseas Chinese. China thus entered the stage of national resistance and opened up the main eastern battlefield of the World Anti-Fascist War. In the arduous War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, all the sons and daughters of the Chinese nation fought for the survival of the country, fought for the rejuvenation of the nation, and fought for human justice. The broad mobilization of society, the profound awakening of the nation, the tenacious will to fight, and the firm belief in victory all reached an unprecedented height. The Chinese people have fought strong enemies with steel, built the Great Wall with flesh and blood, and fought in national disasters, composing a magnificent epic that shook heaven and earth and shook spirits. ^[52]

After the victory of the War of Resistance against Japan, the Kuomintang reactionaries plotted to start a civil war with the support of US imperialism. However, during the negotiations, the Kuomintang sent troops to attack the liberated areas. The army and civilians in the liberation area repulsed the Kuomintang military attack. Representatives of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party signed an armistice agreement and held a political consultative conference in Chongqing.

In the summer of 1946, the Kuomintang army launched an attack on the liberated areas with the assistance of American imperialism, and a full-scale civil war broke out.

From the summer of 1946 to June 1947, the People's Liberation Army crushed the Kuomintang army's overall and key offensives. At the end of June 1947, the People's Liberation Army began a nationwide counteroffensive. From September 1948 to January 1949, the People's Liberation Army launched three major campaigns, namely the Liao-Shen campaign, the Huai-Hai Campaign and the Pingjin-Tianjin Campaign, which basically wiped out the main force of the Kuomintang army and accelerated the victory of the People's Liberation War throughout the country. In April 1949, the People's Liberation Army crossed the river to fight, liberated Nanjing on the 23rd, and overthrew the reactionary rule of the Kuomintang.

In September 1949, the first session of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference was held, marking the great victory of the Chinese people's democratic revolution. ^[53]

economy

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EDITOR

Ancient China had developed agriculture Economy, the size of its economy for a long historical period of time leading the world. In history, due to the change of natural environment and the influence of human factors such as war, the economy of ancient China usually has the same cycle as the rise and fall and replacement of dynasties.

Ming Dynasty (early Ming Dynasty implemented the sea ban, later Longqing switch Since the Qing Dynasty, China has clung to the agricultural economy, while Western world In the same period first achieved Industrial revolution China's economy fell behind that of the West. Since the Opium Wars Since then, China's formerly conservative agricultural economic system has been greatly challenged by the Western world.

China followed the Western industrial development process after the establishment of the Republic of China government Sino-japanese War On the eve of the war, it had developed smoothly, although it was subject to multiple internal and external interference. After that, China had a relatively long period of peaceful development until the end of the Sino-Japanese War and the KMT War.

1980年代以来，邓小平政府宣布 Reform and opening up Come into operation Socialist market economy And carry out economic restructuring. GDP With more than $7.2 billion, China has become the world's second largest economy after the United States, and it is widely believed that China is the fastest growing country in the world economy However, per capita GNP is still in the middle of the world (89th) and is increasingly constrained by resource constraints and the widening gap between rich and poor. Among the provinces of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong is the first strong province with the highest GDP, and Zhejiang is the first rich province with the highest per capita income.

中国大陆、香港、澳门、台湾之间的经济联系在 globalize The process is getting closer.

culture

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EDITOR

Language and writing

Chinese It is the most spoken language in the world and the official language of China. Chinese characters are the most intimate words for the Chinese people and the quintessence of China.

Inscriptions on tortoise shells and bones

Modern Chinese has standard language ( Mandarin or National language ) and dialect A point of... Putonghua takes Beijing pronunciation as the standard pronunciation, Uttar Pradesh as the basic dialect, and modern vernacular works as the grammar norm. The Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language promulgated on October 31, 2000 established Putonghua as the national standard language.

Chinese dialects are generally divided into seven major dialects: Northern dialect , Wu dialect , Hunan dialect , Gan dialect , Hakka dialect , Cantonese dialect , Min dialect . There are also several quadratic languages and many native languages distributed in each language area. Among them, the northern dialects with the largest number of users are divided into four sub-dialects: Northern Mandarin, Northwest Mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Xiajiang Mandarin.

Chinese characters are written characters that record the Chinese language, Inscriptions on tortoise shells and bones It is the earliest written language in China, with a history of more than 3,000 years. The Chinese characters in use today are gradually evolved from ancient Chinese characters. Chinese characters are commonly used by the Han nationality. Since the 1950s, the state has organized and simplified the existing Chinese characters, and formulated and published standards such as "The First Batch of Different Characters Rectification Table", "Chinese Character Simplification Plan", "Simplified Characters General Table", "Modern Chinese Common Characters Table" and "Modern Chinese Common Characters Table". The Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Chinese Language promulgated on October 31, 2000 defines standardized Chinese characters as the standard Chinese language. Standard Chinese characters refer to the simplified characters and the unsimplified inherited characters.

People's Republic of China Before its establishment, 21 ethnic minorities had their own written languages. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, the government has formulated written language programs for the Zhuang, Buyi, Yi, Miao, Hani, Lisu, Naxi, Dong, Wa and Li ethnic groups.

From the point of view of the writing system and the form of letters, the Chinese writing system of phonetic characters, syllabic characters, alphabetic writing system, ancient Indian letters, Uighur letters, Arabic letters, square letters, Latin letters, Slavic letters and so on.

On February 11, 1958, the Fifth session of the First National People's Congress passed a resolution announcing the Chinese Pinyin Program. The Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language stipulates that the Chinese Pinyin Scheme shall be used as a tool for spelling and phonetic annotation. The Hanyu Pinyin Scheme is also the international standard for spelling Chinese place names, personal names and Chinese documents.

etiquette

Confucius and the Confucian Temple

In Confucian tradition, men perform the crown ceremony at the age of 20 and take the characters, and women perform the hairpin ceremony, which is the way to become adults. In order to take charge of state affairs as soon as possible, the princes of Heaven saluted much earlier. King Wen of Zhou was crowned at the age of twelve, and King Cheng was crowned at the age of fifteen. In modern times, Japan called it adult-style.

China follows the six wedding rites, namely, receiving, asking for fame, nagging, receiving, asking for time, and greeting. Natai is to propose, ask the name of ask the woman's name (the same name is not married), Naji for the divination of the birth of the eight characters is appropriate, Nazheng for the payment of the bride price, please period to determine the date of the wedding, kiss welcome to greet the bride.

China follows the rituals of mourning and mourning, which are mainly represented by wearing hemp and mourning, summoning the soul and so on. The longer the funeral is held, the more it shows the family's respect and love for the deceased. In ancient times, there was a 100-day mourning period after the funeral, and no one in the family was allowed to marry for the next one to three years.

According to Confucian classics, Han people worship their ancestors, worship the sun and moon, stars, earth, mountains and rivers, and great Nuo.

literature

From the pre-Qin period, the Book of Songs, the Ci of Chu, the Fu of Han, the Shu of Jin, the poetry of Tang, the Ci of Song, the Qu of Yuan, the novels of Ming and Qing Dynasties, and the essays of the Republic of China, describe the splendid history of ancient Chinese literature.

Classics and history subset It is a traditional Chinese learning. The Eastern Jin Dynasty (917-907) Li Chong Officially determined that the order of A, B, Bingding is the classics and history subset, but it has not been directly used as the name of the classics and history subset. In the early Tang Dynasty, it was compiled into "Sui Shu · Jing Ji Zhi", which is the first part of the existing four-part classification system officially named "Jing Shi Subset". It is divided into 4 classics and history subsets, divided into 40 subcategories, classics and history subsets of books more than 69,570 volumes, translation books more than 320 volumes, 7,00&8 volumes, calligraphy and painting images and other about 200 kinds. Besides, there are art records, Tao books, books, painting records, and eight eyes.

MUSICIANS

Zeng Hou Yi Chime bells

The bone flute has appeared in China since the Neolithic Age and is the earliest wind instrument in the world.

Chinese traditional music, including folk music, literati music, religious music and court music, was formed and developed in the exchange and integration of Central Plains music, four domains music and foreign music. Chinese traditional music has distinct characteristics. Commonly used Musical Instruments are Zheng, qin, Xiao, etc., the tone is based on the palace, Shang, Jiao, Zheng, Yu five Yin.

Chinese traditional dance has a long history, embodies Chinese traditional culture and aesthetics, and has a close relationship with martial arts, acrobatics and opera.

Opera is a traditional stage art in China. It is a combination of singing, singing, singing and playing. It includes Peking Opera, Henan Opera, Hebei Clapper Opera, Qin Opera, Pingju Opera, Cantonese Opera, Yue Opera, Kunqu Opera, Huangmei Opera, Chaozhou Opera, Jin Opera, Flower-drum Opera and so on.

painting

Songhe diagram

Chinese painting is called Chinese painting in China, mainly using brush, soft brush or fingers, ink and traditional Chinese painting colors on silk or rice paper.

According to the content, Chinese painting can be divided into flower-and-bird painting, landscape painting and figure painting. According to the skills can be divided into Gongbi painting, freehand painting, heavy color painting, ink painting, white painting, mural painting, interior painting; According to the artistic level, it can be divided into figurative Chinese painting and abstract Chinese painting.

Chinese painting is good at freehand brushwork, and its emphasis is on spirit resemblance rather than shape resemblance, emphasizing observation and summary rather than scene copying, using scatter perspective rather than focus perspective, valuing artistic conception rather than scene.

A thousand Li of rivers and mountains

Science and technology

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EDITOR

China is Ancient civilization One of them. Ancient China had a different scientific and technological tradition from Western countries. Ancient China has contributed a lot of inventions to the world, and in astronomy , Maths , medicine , machinery, metallurgy , tao porcelain , spin , unit Many aspects of the development of unique advanced results.

Some inventions invented by China before other countries include: Four great inventions ( papermaking , printing , Compass , gunpowder ), seismograph , abacus , The umbrella (in use today, an umbrella that opens and retracts), toothbrush , stirrup , Silk , rudder , porcelain , Oil well , Paper money , Matches , lacquerware , kite, Hot Air Balloon , Fishing rod , fan , A crossbow , dock , Trebuchet Let's wait.

After entering modern society, China learned from Western civilization and continued to develop its scientific research. It started in 2003 Shenzhou series spacecraft The success of the launch marks China's success as a successor The Soviet Union and America After that, the third nation capable of sending a man into space on its own.

society

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religion

The founder of Taoism - Lao Tzu

It is generally believed that Taoism is Chinese native Founded religion. In the Spring and Autumn Period (about the sixth century BC), Laozi founded Taoism, and after the Warring States period, there was a fairy family. In the Qin and Han Dynasties, on the basis of Taoism and fairy family, Yin and Yang, Mohism and Confucianism were absorbed, and Fang Xian Dao and Huang Lao Dao successively emerged The Eastern Han Dynasty (206 B.C.) Zhang Daoling founded Zhengyi Weidao, the formal formation of Taoism.

Sakyamuni

During the reign of Emperor Yongping of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Emperor Ming sent his envoys to India to seek sutra, which was known as "Yongping seeking Fa". Since then Buddhism was introduced into China from India. In the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, people began to seek spiritual belief widely due to social unrest, and Buddhism has been booming since then, but it is deeply influenced by the metaphysics at that time. Because of the inclusiveness of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism absorbed Confucianism and influenced each other, the Chinese religious tradition of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism was formed.

Mohammedan worship

Chinese Islam originated when Muhammad's uncle led a mission to China and built the Huai Sheng Temple, one of the oldest mosques in the world. During the Song Dynasty, Chinese Muslims controlled the import and export trade and gradually gained influence in the imperial court. Famous Muslims include Zheng He and Yehedi Erding, who led the design and construction of Khan Bali (now Beijing). During the Ming Dynasty, the descendants of early Muslim immigrants assimilated into Chinese society in terms of language, names and customs, and Nanjing became an important center of Islamic learning. People who believe in Islam are mainly Hui, Uyghur, Kazakh, Kirgiz, Tatar, Uzbek, Tajik, Dongxiang, Salar, and Baoan

Chinese Christians

In 1840, Western ships and guns opened the door to China, and a large number of missionaries came to China to preach, and successively set up some educational and medical undertakings in the Qing Empire and the Republic of China.

costume

Hanfu, also known as Han clothing, Han clothing, Huafu, Tang clothing, from the accession of the Yellow Emperor (about 2698 BC) to the end of the Ming Dynasty (the middle of the 17th century AD) this nearly 4,000 years, based on the ceremonial culture of the Han (and the predecessor of the Han Chinese), The clothing system with unique Chinese national cultural features and characteristics, which is obviously different from the traditional clothing of other nationalities, was formed through the respect of Zhou rites and the appearance of heaven, law and earth in the Han dynasties. Hanfu is one of the oldest national costumes in the world. It is a traditional national costume inherited by the Han people for more than 4,000 years. It is a ceremonial culture inherited from the Confucian Bible, The Book of Songs, the Book of Shang, the Rites of Zhou, the Book of Rites, the Book of Changes, the Spring and Autumn Annals, the Kaiyuan Rites of the Tang Dynasty and other subsets of classics and history, and reflects the national characteristics of the Han people unchanged for thousands of years. And through Zhou Li and Chinese law system influenced the whole Han cultural circle.

Traditional Han clothing

Japan, Korea, and Vietnam have all enacted laws emulating the Huaxia crest system. Until 1645, after the Qing army entered the customs, Durgon issued a shaving order, requiring all people to shave their hair and dress easily, so in the following hundreds of years, Han men basically changed to clothes improved on the basis of the original Manchu dress, after the revolution of 1911, There was a time when men wore the Zhongshan suit that Sun Yat-sen had adapted from the South Asian Chinese and women wore the cheongsam, which was derived from Manchu dress. In recent years, the revival of Hanfu has also become a movement for the new generation to restore the traditional Han people. At the same time, each ethnic minority in China often has its own unique national costumes.

Festivals

Major Chinese traditional festivals
Festival name	date
Spring Festival	The first day of the first lunar month
Lantern Festival	The 15th day of the first lunar month
Cephalic teeth	Head teeth (2nd Day of the 2nd lunar month)
Hanshi Festival	The day before Qingming Festival
Qingming Festival	Qingming
Dragon Boat Festival	The fifth day of the fifth lunar month
The seventh Evening of the seventh Moon	The seventh day of the seventh lunar month
Ghost Festival	The 15th day of the seventh lunar month
Mid-Autumn Festival	The 15th day of the eighth lunar month
Double Ninth Festival	The ninth lunar month
Winter Solstice Festival	Winter solstice
Laba Festival	The eighth day of the twelfth lunar month
Tail teeth	The 16th of the twelfth lunar month
Offer sacrifices to the kitchen god	The 24th day of the twelfth lunar month
Chinese New Year's Eve	Last day of the 12th lunar month

diet

China is tea Hometown, Chinese tea culture has a long history, extensive and profound. China is an ancient wine maker.

In the pre-Qin period, koji wine making appeared. After the Han Dynasty, the technology of making koji was developed. The Eastern Han Dynasty introduced wine; Medicinal wine appeared in Song Dynasty. In the Yuan Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, the distilled liquor was introduced from Arabia. Chinese wine culture has a long history. Wine is not only used for sacrifice, alliance, victory and other official activities, but also used for folk funeral rites, happy reception and other occasions.

Chinese cuisine has experienced thousands of years of development history. It consists of palace dishes, government dishes and local cuisines with different flavors. Famous cuisines include Shandong cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Guangdong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Jiangsu cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and so on. Chinese food is mostly processed into small, edible pieces, and solid food is eaten with chopsticks.

nation

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EDITOR

1. The Han nationality 2. Manchu 3. The Korean nationality 4. Hezhen nationality 5. The Mongolian nationality 6. Daur 7. Ewenki Nationality 8. Oroqen Nationality 9. The Hui Nationality 10. Dongxiang 11. Tu 12. The Salah 13. The Bao 'an 14. Yugur 15. Uighur nationality 16. Kazakh 17. Kirgiz 18. Xibe 19. Tajik ethnic group 20. Uzbek 21. Russian 22. Tatar 23. The Zang nationality 24. The Monba 25. The Lhoba nationality 26. The Qiang nationality 27. The Yi Nationality 28. Bai Nationality 29. Hani Nationality 30. The Dai 31. Lisu 32. Wa Nationality 33. Lahu 34. Naxi 35. Jingpo nationality 36. Blang 37. The Achang Nationality 38. Pumi 39. Nu 40. Deang Nationality 41. Dulong 42. The Jino 43. The Miao 44. Buyei 45. The Dong nationality 46. The Aquarium 47. Gelao Nationality 48. The Zhuang Nationality 49. The Yao nationality Fifty. Mulam nationality 51. Maonan 52. The Jing nationality 53. Tujia Fifty-four. Li nationality 55. She nationality 56. The mountain Tribe. ^[49]

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