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Dull sound

[zhuo y? n]

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A sound in which the vocal cords vibrate during pronunciation

phonetics In this paper, the sound that the vocal cords vibrate during pronunciation is called dullness, and the sound that the vocal cords do not vibrate is called unvoiced. Consonants are clear and cloudy, while vowels in most languages are voiced, nasal , lateral , semivowel It's also voiced.

In the world, Britain, the United States, France, Germany, Japan, Russia and other countries have a large number of voiced sounds, such as [b], [d], [g], [z] and so on.

Ancient Chinese Also clear opposition. Full voiced initial Including bimu [b], Fengmu [v] (Song and later), Dingmu [d], summa [ɖ], from mother [dz], evil mother initiate mother [z], [ʒ], mother ʐ [d]. And often [d ʑ], mother ship (ʑ), group of mother [g], cartridge mother ɣ / ɦ 13 female. Qing initials including all help mother mother [p], [f] (song and so on), the mother [t], [ʈ] anemarrhena asphodeloides bge, pure mother (ts), heart mother [s], mother ʂ [t] zhuang, mother mother ɕ [t] [ʂ], chapter, mother book [ɕ], see mother [k], shadow mother [ʔ], xiao mother [x] 13 female. ^[1]

Danjin Chinese Only have... Wu language old Xiang Chinese , part Beijing Language and Culture University (Junction with Wu language), very few Gan language (Wu Xiang" Dullness corridor "Area), Hunan Western Hunan Some of the territory Southwest mandarin Such dialects retain the full voiced initial relatively intact. Mandarin As well as most Chinese dialects have no turbidity Stop sound , affricate and fricative .

In Mandarin, p[p -] and b[p] are both unaspirated and unaspirated, respectively phoneme .

Chinese name: Dull sound
Foreign name: sonant
alias: phonic

Another kind: nasal , lateral , semivowel
Mass dullness: UK, US, France, Germany, Japan
sonorousnessThe sound: Secondary voiced initial perhaps Clear initial consonant
Full voiced initial: Middle Chinese the Dead stop , A dirty affricate

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EDITOR

When saying "ah --" aa-- /a/, touch the larynx with your hand and feel the vocal cords vibrate, so the vowel /a/ is voiced. While speaking Chinese mandarin The "Babba..." bababa... When /papapa/ is paused between words, it is found that neither sound is emitted nor vocal cord vibration is felt by the hand, so this /p/ is voiceless. Instead of saying "Mom, mom..." mamama... When /mamama/, you can also feel the vocal cords vibrating when you shut up and pronounce the /m/ sound, so this /m/ ( nasal ) Yes sub-turbid .

Modern Chinese (except Wu language old Xiang Chinese No dullness refers to the absence of full voiced consonants (such as /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /z/, etc.) and partial subdullness (micro-mother, female mother, doubtful mother, sun mother), Mandarin Only part sub-turbid Sound (e.g. m, n, l). Mandarin Pinyin b[p], d[t], g[k], etc Voiceless consonant According to the international linguistic norms, the b in Mandarin is actually /p/, and the p in Mandarin is actually /p? /.

The fact that b, d and g in Mandarin are essentially unvoiced but marked as dulled letters makes China very large Partial learning In foreign languages (such as French and Japanese) that have voiced and unaspirated unvoiced sounds, unaspirated unvoiced sounds are often confused with voiced sounds (e.g. か and が in Japanese, か is aspirated unvoiced and unaspirated unvoiced, が is voiced; In French, the /k/ in ka is unaspirated and the /g/ in ga is voiced).

But some of the Germanic languages are special among European languages. For example, p/p? / in English pin is an aspirated consonant sound, and p/p/ in spin is an unaspirated consonant sound. If software is used to cut off the s of spin audio, a native English speaker hears (s)bin (if it is given to a native French or Japanese speaker, he still hears (s)pin). That is to say, English is actually the same as Chinese Mandarin Same thing. The language of the opposite. But English, for historical reasons, has adopted the grammar of the Latin family and counts this as the same phoneme The contrast with the bin the voiced consonant bin has caused many people (including some native speakers) to mistakenly believe that English is a language of opposites.

Chinese

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EDITOR

Middle Chinese

Form of rhyming diagram

Middle Chinese In, Thirty-six letters Divided into four categories: full clear, subclear , Total turbidity , sub-turbid . Taking the general thirty-six letters as an example, the full Qing includes eleven mothers, such as Bo, Fei, Duan, Zhi, Jing, Xin, Zhao, Jian, Qing, Ying and Xiao; the second Qing includes pang, Fu, Tao, Che, Qing, wear and Xi seven mothers; the second Qing includes Fu, Feng, Ding, Cheng, Cong, evil, bed, Zen, Qun and box ten mothers; the second Turd includes Ming, Wei, mud, Niang, doubt, Yu, Lei and Ri eight mothers. academically mimicry Then the full clear includes all the clear is not aspirated Stop sound Clear is not aspirated affricate Wasayoshi fricative The second clear includes all clear aspirated stops and clear aspirated affricates, the full voice includes all voiced stops (stops, affricates, and affricates), and the second voice includes all sonorousness ( nasal , edge tone and tone).

all Voiced initial consonant Refers to the Middle Chinese the Dead stop , voiced affricate and voiced affricate consonants, voiced consonants called secondary voiced consonants or clear consonants. In the rhyme diagram, the full consonant includes union consonant, Fengmu consonant, Dinmu consonant, summa , from mother, evil mother, A surname Zen mother, group mother and box mother, see Shou Wen Thirty-six letters .

Status quo

In most dialects of modern Chinese (except Wu language old Xiang Chinese ) are lacking in turbidity Stop sound , affricate and fricative , that is, medieval full dullness.

Wu language The stops and affricates of Laoxiang dialect are still completely clear, subclear , Total turbidity Three points of character.

The process of Chinese initials clearing is usually accompanied by the differentiation of tones to maintain the original distinction, usually Clear initial consonant Characters change to Yin tone while voiced initials change to Yang tone (not necessarily in all tones, as Mandarin only Level tone Distinguish Yin and Yang, Mandarin level and Positive level It is not distinguished by clarity (whether the vocal cords vibrate or not), but by tone.

Jiang Yong Saying "clear turbid root in Yin and Yang", voiced sounds in Chinese (except Wu language And Lao Xiang) disappeared after Chinese (except Wu language The phonetic system of Laoxiang dialect has an imbalance of Yin and Yang. The confidence is blindly "vacuous" and becomes loud Bureaucratic tone The language. Like the habit of talking loudly The dullness is clear When formed, because the vocal cords to vibrate the dulled word is difficult to produce a high tone, after the initial is not clear, it can only be distinguished by the tone, so the tone fluctuation is amplified. After the dullness of the reserved voice is cleared, speaking becomes easier, and the situation of "raising one's voice" appears.

He was the president of the Pronunciation Union Wu Zhihui For suggestion Chinese The traditional Chinese pronunciation The restoration of dullness joked: "Dullness is very strong, is the vitality of China." German language Many voiced words, so its country is strong; Chinese mandarin is weak because it does not use voiced sounds."

Wu language

Wu language Retain the full mediaeval consonant.

Full voiced consonant in Wu language
A surname	Run bau	bubu	Plain bottle poverty is often caused by disease bin	Beat Pai Pai	Phong bong
A surname	As if bang	Thin boh	Skin and spleen fatigue bi	Accompany compensation Pei bei	Basin b is a/W/n
A surname	Vaval punished vah	Food is troublesome and tedious	Fangvang	vu VU	Feng sews vong
A surname	A surname	Floating veu	-
Fixed mother	Dao rice mourning Tao Tao dau	eg	Tang sugar Tang dang	Talk to Dan daen	Eg. The height of the rattan vine is high
	di Di Di	The first bean deu	Tong Tong Tong	The pavilions are at rest	Carry dai
	Tian Tian fills dien	Tudou	Duan Tuan Tan duen	Make a nice diau	Read doh alone
summa	Orange dʐ A/W/n/d	-
maternal	Kindness comes from dzɿ	Tsedzai	Layer dz A = n	-
	Make a Cao dzau	Family dzoh	Take a seat at dzou
	zydzi	Absolutely dzieh	Qin dzin
	The disease is silent	eg	All recommend dzien
evilma	Sinicji zɿ	With zei	Chanting zong
	习席zih	Thank you zia	Xiang Xiang is like ziang
	zin	Xu zi	Continued zoh
A surname	Chong dʐong	-			-
A surname	dʑien	-
Zen mother	The ship ʑ uen	Solid food ʑih	The rope ʑi is a WA	The object is ʑ
gunmother	Wild and glorious	Kwai kneel guei	co-gong	-
	Bridge dʑiau	And dʑih	Its strange skill is forbidden by dʑi	Koto Jinqin dʑin
	Piece health dʑien	Eg. My uncle ʑ	Strong dʑiang	-
Box mother	Box ɦah	Hang Hang ɦang	How ɦau	Hwa	Damage ɦai
Box mother	Huang wang	wu Hu	Now suspect gamma ien	-

Lao Xiang language

Loudi - Shaoyang The piece, called "Old Xiang Chinese ", is the most pure characteristics of the Hunan language, the least close to Mandarin one Dialect film . Retain full voiced consonants.

phragmogram	Area of use
Xiang double small piece	Xiang Township , doublet , Shaoshan (a county in Henan Province) , Loudi
Lian Mei small piece	Lianyuan , An Hoa
New small pieces	modernize , Lengshuijiang
Wu Shao small piece	Shaoyang , Wugang County , Shaodong County , Shaoyang County , Tan Thao , Gyrus carinatus , Sinning , The steps of a city wall
Suihui small piece	Suining county , Jointly with others , Jingzhou , passage

Xiang Chinese Overview of full consonant retention:

Dialect film	Representative dialect point	A voiced initial in a dialect	The source of the voiced consonant
Changyi tablet	Changsha	z	Japanese mother read z, other all clear.
	Yuan River	z	Japanese mother text read z, middle "from evil Chongcheng ship Zen" six mother turbidize part read z. Everything else is clear.
	Yuanjiang south Dashan town	Z, b, d, ʣ ʥ, g	z remained more, but b,d,ʣ,ʥ,g were obviously cleared
	Yueyang Rongjia Bay	B ʱ, d ʱ ʣ ʱ, ʥ ʱ, g ʱ	Middle subclear and full voiced consonants read aspirated dullness
Lou Shaopin	Shaoshan (a county in Henan Province)	B, d, g, dz, d ʐ ʥ, gamma	In the middle ages, the whole voiced consonant in the Shu Sheng rhyme on the voiced stop, the voiced fricative, the read voiced, but part of the voiced fricative clear. Into the rhyme all clear
	doublet	B, d, g, dz, d ʐ ʥ, ʑ, gamma	In the middle ages, the full voiced initial consonant basically retains the dullness in the Shu Sheng rhyme, and becomes clear in the sound rhyme
	Shaoyang Changle	B, d, g, dz, d ʐ ʥ, v, z, ʑ, ɦ	In the middle ages, the full voiced initial consonant basically retains the dullness in the Shu Sheng rhyme, and becomes clear in the sound rhyme.
pantograph	Qidong	B, d, g, ʤ, v, z, gamma	In the middle ages, the full voiced consonant retains the voiced sound in the sound rhyme and in the sound rhyme, no matter the stop, affricate, affricate.
pantograph	Jeonju	B, d, g, dz, ʥ, z, ʑ	The ancient total turbidness is flat in the stop sound, the affricate basically retains the dullness, the affricate part retains, and the part is clear.
Chenbian	Xupu (Xupu)	B, v, d, dz, z, d ʐ ʐ, ʥ, g	In the middle, the full consonant is in the stop, and the affricate retains the dullness in the flat tones and becomes clear in the oblique tones; Turbid fricative all clear
	Luxi County	B, v, d, dz, d ʐ ʐ, ʥ, ʑ, g	In the middle, the full consonant is in the stop, and the affricate retains the dullness in the flat tones and becomes clear in the oblique tones; Turbid fricative all clear
	Chenxi	B, v, d, dz, z, d ʐ ʐ, ʥ, g	In the middle, the full consonant is in the stop, and the affricate retains the dullness in the flat tones and becomes clear in the oblique tones; Turbid fricative all clear

The old Xiang Chinese Representing dialects -- Shuangfeng dialect Initial consonant of a Chinese syllable ^[2]

Shuangfeng (Huamen) dialect initials layout
-		Double lips	Labial teeth	Anterior lingual	Median apex of tongue	Anterior lingualis	Lingual media	velar	throat
Stop sound	unaspirated	p wave	-	-	t Account for	-	-	k show	Ø hot
	aspirated	P ʰ spectrum			T ʰ super			K ʰ pour	-
	Dull sound	b shiva			d heavy			g pliers
nasal		m hope			-		ȵ language	ŋ The shore
fricative	Voiceless sound	-		s Sue		ɕ cooked	ʂ The poem	-	x grey
fricative	Dull sound			-		ʑ The effect	-		ɣ Don't think
affricate	unaspirated			ʦ rent		ʨ day	T ʂ paper		-
	aspirated			ʦ ʰ vinegar		ʨ ʰ smoke	T ʂ ʰ the
	Dull sound			ʣ only		ʥ revenge	D ʐ late
lateral				-	l the	-	-

The old Xiang Chinese - Loudspeaker first consonants

Loudspeaker initial layout
-		Double lips	Labial teeth	Anterior lingual	Median apex of tongue	Anterior lingualis	Lingual media	velar	throat
Stop sound	unaspirated	p mark	-	-	t casting	-	ʈ chase	k teach	Ø rong
	aspirated	P ʰ white			T ʰ Shaking,		ʈ ʰ smelly	K ʰ basket	-
	Dull sound	b The nose			d with		ɖ dust	g A total of
nasal		m grinding		n brain	-		-	ŋ eye
fricative	Voiceless sound	-	f points	s fine		ɕ flash	ʂ god	-	x grey
fricative	Dull sound		v Tired of	-		-	ʐ The snake		ɣ cross
affricate	unaspirated		-	ʦ paper		ʨ fine	T ʂ The pig		-
	aspirated			ʦ ʰ coarse		ʨ ʰ cutting	T ʂ ʰ smoke
	Dull sound			ʣ hoe		ʥ goldsmith	D ʐ hemorrhoid
lateral				-	l The old	-	-

Mandarin and Mandarin

In the mainstream Mandarin dialects, the middle total consonant Thanh Hoa Make the corresponding initials. In mainstream mandarins, the stops and symbaticals are cleaned into two different consonants according to different tonal tones, and the smooth sounds are cleaned into the same breath (such as "tong" /dung/ word Chinese Pinyin tong /t. Oblique sounds are cleaned into no breath (such as "hole" /dung/ word Chinese pinyin dong /t.) Entering tone "Read" /duk/ Chinese Pinyin du /tu/), Mandarin is so.

However, a very small number of mandarin still retain full turbidity, mainly distributed in Hunan Province Southwest mandarin . Xiangxi Xiguan belongs to Chengyu type in tone, but Jishou , Kawagaki , Defend the pacification , Kochang Total turbidity is retained in other places. Southern Hunan The intonation pattern of southwest Mandarin in Yongzhou city belongs to the GUI Liu type, and the total turbidness is not completely clear.

Cantonese, Gan and Hakka

The Qinghua mode of these three dialects is relatively special, which is not possessed in other Chinese dialects, in these three dialects, it is generally believed that Gan language , Hakka The type of clearing is: the middle total muddy initials regardless of the level or not, after clearing all into the corresponding aspirated sound (such as flat "sugar" word Qinghua tang /t? a /; The oblique "big" word becomes ta /t? a/); And most people would think Cantonese The way of clearing is the same as Mandarin, but it is not. Although mainstream Cantonese The characteristic is that the flat on Qinghua qi, go into Qinghua qi is not qi, but this is obviously the result of the influence of Mandarin. Looking at the oblique tones and oblique tones in ancient and modern Chinese, they have always been one, and it is almost impossible to separate the oblique tones Can't happen Yes. And there are many Cantonese-speaking areas that still remain intact Entering tone character The characteristics of reading the aspirated qing sound (such as Zhongshan dialect), so it can be inferred that the Qinghua way of these three dialects was originally the same.

Min Chinese

Min Chinese The situation is complicated, which Southern Fujian The medieval full dullness is clear, but the medieval nasal ( sub-turbid To stop (or become lateral ). As" Southern Fujian "Words" three words Middle Chinese The sound is originally mrin, nem and any three characters of Minnan sound became ban lam gu.

Ancient Chinese

Ancient Chinese The situation is unclear. Some scholars believe that Middle Chinese Similarly, the stopper and affricate are three points, and some people think that the four points are clear and turbid, that is, the gas is not pumped.

Zang language

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Tibetan (representing Tibetan pronunciation in the 9th century) and Middle Chinese Similar, also Stop sound There are three types of unaspirated sounds and unaspirated sounds, and dulled sounds. latter-day Amdo dialect Still maintain this distinction. while Lhasa Wait a minute Weizang dialect A change rather similar to that of Mandarin took place: Quanqing and harmony subclear Initial consonant retention, become Yin tone, full muddy initial when no before suffix Or when the word is added, it is aspirated, and when the word is added before or the word is added, it is not aspirated, and becomes Yang tone.

Compare Chinese and Tibetan:

Middle Chinese and Tibetan	Beijing dialect Etc. Mandarin dialect	Lhasa dialect Etc. Weizang dialect	Suzhou dialect Wait for Wu dialect	Zang language Amdo dialect
Clear all	Unaspirated sound, flat, upper sound for Yin tone	Unaspirated sound, Yin tone	Unaspirated sound, Yin tone	Unaspirated sound
subclear	The sound of the air is clear, and the flat and upper sound are Yin tones	The breath is clear, Yin tone	The breath is clear, Yin tone	Aspirated clear sound
Total turbidity	Oblique tones are not aspirated. The tones of the upper tones fall into Yang and then merge with Yin, and the tones of the tones become Yang flat	Qinghua, no front, on the word is aspirated, there is a front, on the word is not aspirated, are Yang tone	Dullness, positive tone	Dull sound
sub-turbid	Still for the second turbid, flat sound Yang tone, the sound with clear initials on the sound	Still for the second turbid, there is no front, the word on the Yang tone, there is a front, the word on the Yin tone	Still secondary turbid, Yang tone (occasionally Yin tone, called "Yin secondary turbid")	Still for the second turbid

Other Oriental languages

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Japanese

In Japanese, there is a clear and voiced difference between stop and fricative, and the difference between aspirated is not considered as phoneme. In addition, although the lines な, ま, and ら are treated as voiceless in Japanese, some kana are actually voiced. The clear stop and some affricates, including the lines か, た, and ぱ, are aspirated at the beginning of the word, but aspirated in the word is very weak, which is not turbid. The Japanese "semi-voiced" pa line is actually unvoiced. The ancient Japanese language has the phenomenon of turbidity, that is Compound word If the first word of the second word is voiceless, it may be clouded (depending on the word), especially before Dial tone (は line may become ば line, may also occur "semi-turbid", that is, become clear stop sound ぱ line).

Chinese words in Japanese, Wu Yin reserve Middle Chinese The difference between clear and turbidity, all clear, subclear Mix up. while Han Chinese pronunciation In the Full voiced initial Also clear, with the whole clear, secondary clear mixed, and part nasal Initial plug becomes Dead stop . while Tang style It also retains the full voiced initial to a considerable extent.

Clear contrast between Japanese and Chinese (simplified, without considering other changes) :

Middle Chinese	Clear all	subclear	Total turbidity	sub-turbid
Middle Chinese	/p, t, k/	/p ^ b, t ^ b, k ^ b /	/b, d, g,z/	/m, n, any quantity
Mandarin Chinese pinyin	b, d, g /p, t, k/	p, t, k /p ^ b, t ^ b, k ^ b /	There is no	m, n, ng
Japanese Wu Yin	h, t, k		b, d, g, z	m, n, g
Japanese Han Chinese pronunciation	h, t, k			b, d, g, or m, n, g

Vietnamese (Ting Vit)

Vietnamese (Ting Vit) Also more or less clear dullness, but in Vietnamese, the situation of clear dullness is more complicated, in addition to clear dullness, aspirated and unaspirated Qing Stop sound Yosei affricate Some phonemes are sometimes isolated phoneme That is to say, these languages are stopped in some Articulatory site It's actually three, not two.

In the 17th century, the clear stop sound in Vietnamese was three parts, and the modern ph changed from /p? / to /f/, kh to /x/, and most of the stop sounds became clear and muddy.

Also, in Vietnamese, only Labial sound and gingival There are clear dullness differences, while the lip sounds of the two languages and gum The "dullness" of the sound is actually Implosion sound And not just in general Voiced consonant .

Indo-European

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The Germanic language family

English Stop sound , affricate and fricative Distinguish between clear, such as p/p/ and b/b/. The English stop sound is strong, especially before the beginning and the stress in the word, as in pin p is [p?], same Chinese p of... And the English b[b] is also unaspirated, with no voiced stops in Chinese dialects (except Wu language old Xiang Chinese For native speakers, there is no difference between the sound and the unaspirated clear stop sound. When learning, the English turbid stop sound will be changed into the unaspirated clear stop sound by the influence of the mother tongue. It is necessary to pay attention to the difference between clear and voiced sounds and practice more to pronounce the turbid stop sound well. However, since English is a grammatical term caused by historical reasons, and has no practical meaning, English is actually a language of aspirated opposition, so although the real voiced consonants can not be pronounced, it will only cause the accent is not authentic, and will not cause real semantic interference.

There are two experiments for qualified people to verify this, one is to record the words beginning with st/sp/sk and use software to intercept them prefix S is dictated by a native English speaker. The result is (s)d/(s)b/(s)g, not (s)t/(s)p/(s)k.

The second is to select several groups of Chinese words beginning with pinyin bp/kg/td, read by Chinese native speakers, and identify whether it is aspirated or unaspirated by English native speakers; And it turns out that they were able to distinguish between all aspirated and unaspirated consonants. In contrast, groups of words beginning with the letters am/an+bp/kg/td were selected and assigned to French, Japanese, Spanish Native speakers of other languages are asked to distinguish between clear and voiced consonants, and the result is that they consider all stops to be voiced consonants.

German is similar to English in that it distinguishes between voiced sounds, and the clear stop is usually aspirated, while the clear stop after the s is aspirated more freely, but some southern dialects, such as Austria German clear stops also tend to be unaspirated. In addition, German suffix Of the dulled letters, e.g. Tag[t? a̙ k?].

Swedish Language The beginning and end of the word are aspirated, and the S-after and in the word are not aspirated.

Icelandic The change is similar to Chinese, that is, the turbid stop sound is completely clear. The spelling is similar to Chinese pinyin, that is, at the beginning of the word, the original unvoiced sound is aspirated, and the original voiced sound is not aspirated. Double written stopper pp, tt, etc. have the phenomenon of forward aspiration, that is,[hp],[ht]. while trill , nasal and lateral It is also clear in some cases, for example mb is pronounced [mp] and mp is pronounced [m̥p].

Dutch Similar situation Romance group In other words, the opposite is clear and turbid, and the sound is not aspirated. In addition, the voiced initial at the end of the word is cleared. However, within Germany Low German Dialects are mostly similar Standard German That is, clear stop sound is aspirated (no aspirated after s), and turbid stop sound is not aspirated.

Romance group

Latin Clear but not Aspirated sound But when spelling Greek language loanword The use of ph, th, ch to express the original Greek φ /p? /, θ /t? /, χk? /, modern European countries follow the custom of their own languages in Latin pronunciation.

modern Romance group (including French, Italian , Spanish, Portuguese , Romanian (etc.) also distinguish voiced sounds, but its clear stop sound is not aspirated, such as ta pronunciation similar to the Mandarin "tan" rather than "he". To those who do not have a voiced stop in their native language, ta and da are indistinguishable. Native speakers of these languages also often speak English with an unaspirated sound that sounds like "pig[p] -" a sound that is close to big[p] - "big[p] -" with a Chinese accent. French is weakened by the letter r uvula Fricative, /kr/, /tr/, /pr/ and other consonant clusters are close to aspirated sounds. Italian is aspirated when /p/, /t/, /k/ immediately before /r/ or /l/.

In French plosive : /p b/, /k g/, /t d/ are the most common words in French Asia One of the most difficult pronunciation classes for a person to learn. It's not clear that many Asian learners of French can still hear it decades after learning it, but the problem is that the French are particularly sensitive to it, and this distinction plays a key role in distinguishing certain words. The difficulty is to distinguish between the left and right sounds in each group Voiceless consonant On the right is Voiced consonant . The reason for this is that in some Asian languages (such as Mandarin Chinese) there is usually no distinction between clear consonants, only between aspirated and unaspirated consonants.

Slavic group

Russian is clear and unaspirated. The voiced initial at the end of a word becomes clear. Consonant clusters have a continuous or continuous change in the forward direction.

Indo-iranian language family

Sanskrit There are four parts of the stopper sound, and each has aspirated and unaspirated, such as: : ख kha, : :. ^[3]

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