Jews (Hebrew: י ְ ה ledu dialect ּ ד ִ י ם Yhudim‎; Jews are an ethnic group widely distributed in various countries. They originated from the Hebrews of the ancient Middle East, and their traditional religion is Judaism The main language is Hebrew. Because of its high correlation with religion and community, the Jewish people are also considered as a religious people by some scholars ^{[1
]} ^[2] ^{[3
]} .

The ancestors of the Jews are ancient Semite The branch established the United Kingdom of Ancient Israel around 1000 BC. It was conquered by the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Ancient Greek and Roman empires in the following centuries, and was driven out of Palestine by the Romans in 70 AD, beginning a period of ethnic diaspora that lasted nearly 2,000 years. During this period, Jews established Jewish communities around the world, which were divided into Ashkenazi, Sephardi and other internal groups, but still maintained national cohesion with religious and cultural unity. During World War II, Jews were subjected to massive persecution, as represented by Nazi Germany, and nearly 6 million Jews died in a campaign of ethnic cleansing that began in the modern era Zionism It got worse and worse. In 1948, the State of Israel was declared under the" Balfour Declaration The resolution officially ended the Great Diaspora, but Jews still lived in Western countries such as the United States, France, and Canada ^{[1
]} ^[2] ^{[3
]} .

The Jews have exerted great influence and contribution in modern business, economic theory, world science, religion and so on, and played an important role in the development of Western culture ^{[71
]} . In 2022, according to statistics released by the Jewish Agency, the global Jewish population reached 15.7 million. The number of Jews living in Israel reached 7.2 million, or about 73% of the country's population, making it the largest Jewish population in the country ^[2] ; The United States has the second largest Jewish population after Israel, with about 6.3 million Jews ^[4] .

Chinese name: Jew
Foreign name: י ְ ה ledu dialect ּ ד ִ י ם ‎ (Hebrew ‎)
Jews (English)
Yhudim (Hebrew spelling)
alias: Shu Hu , Jukh , Main volume , mastermind

Population number: About 15.7 million ^[4] (If those of Jewish descent are considered Jewish under Israel's Law of Return, the number could be about 25.5 million.)
Distribution area: Israel, the United States, France, etc
Have faith in: Judaism
Official language: Hebrew
Variant language: The Yiddish language , Ladino , Judeo-Arabic, Judeo-Belber, Judeo-Greek ^{[23
]}

catalogue

Origin of name

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EDITOR

The word "Jews" in English is derived from the Greek "Ioudaios" (Ioud) and medieval Latin "Judaeus" (Jew), and some sources say it comes from the medieval French "Juiou". In English, the words "Ludea", "Gyu", "Gia", "Luu" and so on were used to denote the Jew, which eventually became the "Jew". The term was originally derogatory, but over time it became a common term for people of Hebrew descent ^{[6
]} ^{[9
]} .

"Yehudi" is a term often used by Jews after the Great Diaspora to define their identity, according to the Hebrew meaning of the people living in the tribe of Judah. Judah was originally one of the 12 tribes of Israel, and when David, the leader of the tribe of Judah, succeeded to the throne, the tribe of Judah began to grow. After the breakup of the United Kingdom of Ancient Israel in 935 BC, "Yehudi" came to refer to the Kingdom of Southern Judah, which was dominated mainly by the tribes of Southern Judah. After the destruction of the Northern State of Israel, the 10 tribes that made up the kingdom were lost, and the Southern State of Judah retained its national identity after the destruction of the state, so later Jews claimed that they were people from the Kingdom of Judah ^{[6-7
]} ^[8] .

The word "Jew" in China began to be used around the Daoguang period of the Qing Dynasty, and as for why it was called "Jew" instead of "Judah", it may be to distinguish the "Jews" from the "Jews". Bible The translated name is generally called "Jew" and "Judas" as a personal name. In addition, in different periods of Chinese history, Jews have appeared in different terms. Kaifeng Jews Claiming to be "Yizi Leye" and "ancient religion", the Han people and other nationalities were called "Qing Hui Hui", "Blue Hat Hui Hui", "Seven surname Hui Zi" and so on because of their customs. In the Yuan Dynasty literature, there were also titles from English transliteration such as "Shu Hu", "Zhu He", "Lord Rong", "Lord Uighur" and so on. The Catholic Jesuits in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties called "Ruwei Ya", "Rude Ya", "Deya" and so on ^{[5
]} ^{[10
]} .

Racial history

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EDITOR

The ancient period of founding

Ethnic origin

According to the Jewish Canon Tanakh It is recorded that the ancestors of the Jews Abraham for The Semites The branch, which originated in Mesopotamia about 4,000 years ago, later led his group to Palestine, during which time it got its name. Hebrews The people of Israel (meaning "those who come") and the people of Israel (meaning "those who wrestle with God") migrated to the eastern Nile Delta of Egypt to escape natural disasters ^[11] . Around the end of the 13th century BC, the Hebrews began to settle in Palestine from Egypt, and the groups were divided into 12 tribes. After 120 years, the leaders of the 12 tribes" judge He was responsible for exercising his duties as a judge and religious prophet, and was involved in years of war with the surrounding Philistines, Midianites and other races ^[2] ^[12] .

In archaeology, 1200 BC The Mellumptah Stele Probably the earliest record of the existence of the Israelites. According to archaeologists, the Israelites were killed by Egyptian pharaohs Amenhotep III Defeated, and still in a semi-nomadic, semi-agricultural stage of development. Some archaeologists believe that the Israelites originated in Palestine and did not travel to Egypt ^{[16
]} .

Nation-building and division

About 1028 BC, the Israelites were in Saul Led by the establishment of a monarchy United Kingdom of Israel . Second king David The capital was Jebus and the name was changed to the City of David (i.e Jerusalem ), the third king Solomon Build in Jerusalem First temple The two men ruled during the Golden Age of the United Kingdom of Israel ^{[17
]} .

Around 930 BC, the United Kingdom of Israel was divided into two states, North and south, and north Jeroboam I established Kingdom of Israel He ruled over the 10 tribes of the north, except Judah and Benjamin, until Hidden profit The capital was not officially established until the reign of the King Samaria ; The south was succeeded by the house of David of the tribe of Judah Rehoboam Master establishment Kingdom of Judah The capital remains Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Northern Israel was superior and populous, but internally unstable, ruled by 19 Kings in nine different systems for more than 200 years; The kingdom of Southern Judah is located in the plateau and barren mountains, with inconvenient transportation and less interference from foreign tribes ^{[18
]} .

In 722 BC, Sargen II of Assyria captured Samaria, the capital of the northern Kingdom, and destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel, and 10 tribes in the kingdom were taken away and disappeared. The southern kingdom of Judah fell in 586 BC Neo-babylonian Kingdom The people of the Kingdom of Judah were taken captive to Babylon, and the history is called" Prisoner of Babylon ". The kingdom of Israel ceased to exist ^{[19
]} .

Second Temple period

Persian reign

539 B.C., Persia Cyrus the Great The destruction of the neo-Babylonian kingdom, the release of the exiles of the Jews in the following year, the reconstruction of the First Temple and Jerusalem, the Jews in Zerubbabel (descendant of King David) and the High priest Jeshua began the national return movement. The campaign lasted for two centuries, during which the governors of Judea Nehemiah And priests and scribes Ezra He led the Jews back to Jerusalem and rebuilt the Temple until 516 BC Second Temple . The returning Jews were no longer independent nation-states, forming a system of administration led by priests and Levites, with political, diplomatic, and economic power in the hands of officials appointed by the Persian king ^{[18
]} ^{20 [22]} .

Hellenistic period

331 BC, King of Macedon, Greece Alexander The capture of the Persian capital Susa officially ended the Persian Empire's control over Palestine, and the Jews began to come under Greek rule. in The Ptolemaic Dynasty During the reign, many Jews emigrated to Alexandria, Egypt, and by the 1st century AD there were 1 million Jews in all of Egypt. During this period many Jews resisted the Hellenistic policies and xenocracy that had arisen since 168 BC The Maccabee Revolt Some Jews got rid of it in 143 AD The Seleucids The rule, the establishment The Maccabees It remained politically independent for about 80 years ^{[18
]} .

Roman period

Vespasian's "Conquest of Judea" copper coin

In 63 BC, the rising Roman Empire occupied Palestine and established the province of Judea, and the Jews began to be ruled by the Roman Empire. Founded by Rome in 37 BC Herod For the king of Judea. During the reign of King Herod, the Second Temple (also known as the "Third Temple") was rebuilt when the Roman general Pompey invaded, but because Herod was actually a puppet king controlled by Rome, he was extremely close to the Roman empire and culture, and killed Jews who opposed his rule, Orthodox Jews were always reluctant to recognize the legitimacy of Herod's dynasty ^{[18
]} .

For nearly two centuries, the Jews fought several insurrectionary wars against Roman rule. In 132 AD, the Roman Empire captured Jerusalem, which had been occupied by Jewish rebels, and built a foundation called "Jerusalem." Elia Capitolina The city of Rome moved foreigners other than Jews to live in the city, prohibiting any Jews from entering the new city, and the Jews thus entered the Great Diaspora period, and Judaism changed from the original Temple worship to medieval Rabbinic Judaism ^{[18
]} .

The Great Diaspora

Medieval period

After the failure of the last two great uprisings against Roman rule in 70 and 135 AD, the surviving Jews were forced to flee Palestine and disperse throughout the world. In 73 the Temple of Jerusalem, the center of Judaism, was razed to the ground by the Romans, the Jewish sect at the time The Pharisees They fled to various places to establish centers for the study of the Torah and the maintenance of religious life, forming a number of Jewish cultural centers where Jews lived together ^{[19
]} .

After the 6th century, Christianity and Islam Rise. Due to differences in religious beliefs and customs, but also due to economic reasons, the Jews living in foreign countries gradually became unpopular. Discrimination, enslavement, and then persecution and murder of Jews continued. In 700 AD Spain announced a policy of enslaving Jews; The burning of Jews in France at the same time; The deportation and massacre of Jews in England in 1026; The persecution of Jews by participating countries during the Crusades. During this period, Jews became a race that was discriminated against, expelled, and unpopular with the public. Whenever there is an economic crisis or other social unrest in the country where the Jews reside, the Jews are the first to be targeted and scapegoated ^{[19
]} .

Modern period

Beginning in the 16th century, Jews moved to the Near East and Eastern Europe in search of new settlements. The Near East mainly refers to the Middle East, the Mediterranean coast, North Africa and other regions. with Ottoman Empire Part of the Jewish population returned to Palestine and was reused in the Ottoman Empire. In Eastern Europe, Poland, Russia, Lithuania, and Ukraine were the least developed regions in Europe, and Jews brought technology, money, and knowledge to the region to develop ^{[19
]} .

In the 16th century, ghettos began to appear across Europe. This policy was probably first adopted by the Republic of Venice, Italy, where the Jews of the city were banished to a factory that made guns and guns and isolated them from the outside world. This method was later copied and popularized in various European countries, and most Jews lived here for reasons of avoiding mixing with foreigners, maintaining unique customs and ensuring life safety ^{[19
]} .

In the 17th and 18th centuries, under the influence of the Anglo-French bourgeois revolution and the American Revolution of independence, the status and political treatment of European Jews improved in a short period of time, and they were allowed to join the nationality of the host country, obtain citizenship or participate in politics. Under the rule of the Tsar, the situation of Russian Jews had not changed much compared with the Middle Ages, and Jews in various regions of Russia were massmassed due to the murder of the Tsar in 1881 and the participation of the Bolsheviks in 1917 ^{[19
]} .

Auschwitz in Poland

Around the 20th century, the rise of racism in European countries, coupled with political turmoil, economic crisis and other reasons, the wave of modern anti-Semitism in some countries and regions again. Among the anti-Semitic countries, the wave of anti-Semitism, represented by Germany, is the most intense. In 1871, Bismarck His nationalist ideology aspires to an anti-Semitic Christian German state; He came to power after the 1930s Hitler The state policy of exterminating the Jews on a large scale was carried out, and a large number of Jews in the occupied countries were put into concentration camps and slaughtered. During World War II, six million Jews were killed, equivalent to one-third of the world's Jewish population at the time ^{[19
]} .

After the 18th and 19th centuries, Jews in the settlements and the people of the host countries in addition to mutual assimilation, but also strengthen the national consciousness of the restoration of the country, Zionism thus sprouted, Jews began to emigrate to the Palestinian area in large numbers. In 1917, the British published the" Balfour Declaration Support for the creation of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine. After the end of World War I, the British imposed mandate on the Palestinian territories, and Jews from all over the world flocked to Palestine. Between 1919 and 1948, the Jewish population of Palestine ballooned from 60,000 to more than 600,000. On August 29, 1947, the second session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted the resolution on the Partition of Palestine, which provided for the establishment of two independent states in Palestine, Israel and Palestine, with Jerusalem under the trusteeship of the United Nations. On 14 May 1948, the British Governor left Palestine, declaring the end of the British mandate. That afternoon, the State of Israel was proclaimed in Tel Aviv. The Jewish diaspora, which lasted more than 1,800 years, ended ^{[19
]} .

Population group

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EDITOR

Internal population

Jews have been scattered around the world for centuries, and due to the inevitable phenomenon of intermarriage with foreign nationalities, Jews around the world show significantly different characteristics in appearance, skin color, body type and other physical characteristics, and there are differences in language, customs, culture and other aspects. Generally speaking, the most dominant and undisputed ethnic group of Jews is divided into the following two categories ^{[5
]} ^{[25
]} :

Ashkenazi Jews Historically, the majority of Jews lived in Europe (except Greece, Bulgaria, southern Yugoslavia, and parts of Italy), North America, South Africa, and Australia. "Ashkenazi" means "Germany" in Hebrew, and the ethnic origin and historical changes are mostly associated with Germany, so it is also called Ashkenazi Jews. Until the early 20th century, the language of most Ashkenazi Jews was The Yiddish language ^{[26
]} ^{[29
]} .
Sephardic Jews • Descendants of Spanish and Portuguese Jews, living mainly in Greece, Bulgaria, southern Yugoslavia, and western Turkey, but also in Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Northwest Africa, and Latin America. "Sephardi" in Hebrew means "Spain", because the ethnic group began in the Iberian peninsula, it is also called Sephardic Jews. It is commonly used by Sephardic Jews Ladino ^{[27 to 28
]} .

After the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, in order to distinguish Jews from Islamic countries and regions (Iraq, Yemen, Lebanon, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Syria, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq and Iranian Kurdistan, Crimea, East Caucasus, Central Asia, etc.), the State of Israel added the term "ethnic group". Mizrahi Jews ". The word "Mizrahi" means "East" in Hebrew, so it is also called Eastern Jews. Due to the inclusion of the Sephardic diaspora, there was mixed use in religious ceremonies and other aspects ^{30 - [31]} . In addition, there are still parts of the Jewish community that cannot be clearly distinguished or nearly assimilated. Examples include Indian Jews (whose internal communities are divided into "Sons of Israel", Kochi Jews, and Baghdad Jews), and black Jews living in Ethiopia Falassa , in order to Kaifeng Jews As the representative of the Chinese Jews and so on ^{[5
]} ^{[32-34
]} .

identification

During the Jewish diaspora period of nearly two thousand years, Judaism was an important cultural core and spiritual bond of the Jewish nation. Traditional Jewish law, which is based on religious beliefs and community settlements, defines Jewish identity according to the matrilineal principle that any child born to a Jewish woman is Jewish. The American Reform faction of Judaism, however, holds that if one parent is Jewish, the child born to that parent is also Jewish ^{[35
]} . If a non-Jew wants to obtain Jewish identity, he needs to undergo a test of Jewish culture according to Jewish tradition, undergo circumcision and other procedures to establish his conversion to Judaism and obtain Jewish identity ^[36] .

In the State of Israel, the Law of Return, passed on July 5, 1950, is the primary rights law determining Jewish identity. The decree was amended several times and, in addition to clarifying the right of Jews to immigrate to Israel regardless of their location, established the standard of identification that "a person born to a Jewish mother or who has converted to Judaism and is not a member of another religion may be considered Jewish. ^{[37
]} ^[38] .

Genetic research

Some scientific evidence suggests that modern Jews have not only inherited pre-Diaspora Jewish cultural traditions, but that many members of their ethnic group actually have biological genes from their ancestors. Although they are still very different genetically from the Jews who left Israel, methods such as Y chromosome studies can explore whether the genetic inheritance of their populations has anything in common. Since males pass on their Y chromosomes to their sons, the original haplotype should still be visible, tracing it back to a common ancestor, although genetic mutations may occur over multiple generations as a result of lineage development, making the original nucleotide sequence slightly different ^{[13
]} .

A pre-ancient Israelite priest recorded in the Jewish scriptures Aaron It is one of the main targets of genetic research. According to the Tanakh, Aaron and all his male descendants were commanded by God to serve as priests for the people of Israel, and to this day, people claiming to be descendants of Aaron's male descendants play a role in many synagogues, such as presiding over certain blessing ceremonies. Geneticists at the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, the University of London, and the University of Arizona took cells from the faces of 200 Jewish men from Israel, North America, and England, and used them to look for specific markers in each man's Y chromosome. In their study, they found that about 50 percent of people of so-called priestly descent had a special set of markers indicating that their Y chromosome came from a common ancestor, which the researchers called "Cohen Modal Hap-lotype." Although there may be other explanations, it is possible to argue historically that Aaron was real, and that Jews who claim to be descendants of Aaron may also be related to him ^{[13
]} .

Geneticist Harry Ostrer conducted one of the world's largest and longest-running genetic studies of the Jewish people, estimating genetic similarity among Jewish populations based on comparative surveys of genomic haplotypes. The genomic haplotype is a unique set of genetic markers in the human genome, and people with the same haplotype are more closely related than people without the same haplotype, so it is also used in genetics to determine the relationship between two individuals ^{[14
]} ^[15] .

Ostler and his team traveled around the world to collect DNA samples from hundreds of Jews, mainly Ashkenazi, Mizrahi, and Sephardic Jews. They analyzed the data using a variety of statistical methods over several years, comparing long and short strands of DNA in the volunteers. The results of Ostler's team suggest that individuals within each Jewish population still have a high level of genetic similarity. Although each Jewish ethnic group exhibited genetic mixing with surrounding non-Jews, they all shared many genetic traits. The team believes this indicates their common origins go back more than 2,000 years, with Ashkenazi Jews having a genetic profile that suggests a 30 to 60 percent mix with Europeans, but they are more closely related to Middle Eastern Jews and Sephardic Jews ^{[14
]} ^[15] .

Population number

While Jews have historically spread across the globe, with World War II and the creation of the State of Israel in the decades following, the Jewish population began to be concentrated primarily in a small number of countries. According to the American Jewish Almanac, a large number of European Jews began to move to the United States in 1881, and in 1980 there were 5.9 million people, which was the largest Jewish population in the world at that time. The Jewish population of Israel in the same year was approximately 3.3 million, making it the second largest Jewish country ^{[39
]} .

World Jewish population and geographical distribution, 1948-1980 (in tens of thousands)
Region/country	The year 1948	The year 1967	1979-1980
Europe	378	368.8	410.2
Austria	3	1.2	1.3
Belgium	4.5	4	4.1
Bulgaria	4.5	0.7	0.7
Great Britain	34.5	41	41
Hungary	17.4	8	8
Germany	15.3	3	3.8
Türkiye	8	3.9	2.4
Greece	0.8	0.6	0.6
Denmark	0.6	0.6	0.7
Ireland	0.4	0.5	0.2
Spain	0.3	0.7	1.2
Italy	5.3	3.5	4.1
Netherlands	2.8	3	3
Poland	8.8	2.1	0.6
Romania	38	10	4.5
The Soviet Union	200	215.7	263
France	23.5	53.5	65
Czechoslovakia	4.2	1.5	1.2
Switzerland	3.5	2	2.1
Sweden	1.6	1.3	1.7
Yugoslavia	1	0.7	0.5
America	577.8	695.2	684
Argentina	27	50	30
Brazil	7	14	15
Venezuela	0.3	1.2	1.5
Canada	18	28	30.5
Colombia	0.6	1	1.2
Mexico	2.5	3	3.7
America	500	587	592
Uruguay	3.7	5.4	5
Chile	2.5	3.5	3
Asia	93	254.4	336.9
Israel	65	238.4	328.3
India	3	1.5	0.8
Iraq	9	0.2	0.04
Iran	5	8	0.7
Yemen	4.5	-	0.05
Lebanon	-	0.3	0.04
Syria	2	0.4	0.45
Africa	74.6	19.6	17.3
Algeria	13	0.2	0.1
Egypt	6.5	0.3	0.04
Morocco	28.6	5	2.2
Rhodesia	0.4	0.6	0.24
Tunisia	7.2	1	0.7
Ethiopia	5.1	1.2	2.2
S.Africa	10	11.5	11.8
Australia and Oceania	4.1	7.5	7.2
Australia	3.2	7	6.7
NZ	0.4	0.5	0.5
World total	1127.5	1345.5	1428.6

(The above information is for reference ^{[72
]} . Countries/regions overlap with the actual statistics, and the population is more dispersed, so the data are inconsistent. The numbers are disputed, and some demographers say they are too high.)

As of 2022, according to estimates by the Jewish demographer Sergio Della Pergola and the Jewish Agency, the global Jewish population has reached 15.7 million. The Jewish population of the State of Israel reached 7.2 million people, accounting for about 73% of the national population and 46% of the world's Jews, making it the largest Jewish population in the country. The United States has the second largest Jewish population after Israel, with about 6.3 million Jews. The remaining states with large Jewish populations are: France (440,000), Canada (398,000), the United Kingdom (312,000), Argentina (171,000), Russia (132,000), Germany (125,000), Australia (117,200) and Brazil (90,000) ^[4] .

National culture

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EDITOR

Religious belief

Judaism (Hebrew: Teixews wager at ‎) is a monotheistic religion of the Jewish people. The object of its belief is called" Yahweh Believers worship God as the only true God in the universe. For Jews, Judaism is not only a religious belief, but also a form of expression of national culture, which is manifested in religious documents and religious views, but also in customs, social institutions and unique culture. The religious classics are Tanakh "" Talmud ". Its basic teachings include: belief in the one true God of the universe, Yahweh, who created and controls all things in the universe; The Jews were the chosen people of the covenant between Avraham and Jahweh; The Jews had to obey the ten commandments and other laws that Yahweh had given through Moses; At the end of the world, the Messiah will come to save the Jews, and the new King David will restore the kingdom of Israel in Jerusalem, ruling with justice, justice, and truth, and establishing a holy kingdom.

Jewish etiquette and canons stipulate that a boy must be circumcised on the eighth day after birth, that boys and girls must go to the synagogue for a bar mitzvah when they are 13 years old, that Saturday is the Sabbath (from sundown on Friday afternoon to sundown on Saturday), that they do not do secular things, and that they must observe the rituals set by the Sabbath; Jewish food, according to the law, Leviticus It is divided into clean and unclean food varieties, and any unclean food shall not be eaten or touched; Maternity and persons with leprosy are considered unclean; Idolatry is strictly prohibited; Jews may not marry unbaptized foreigners; Foreigners who convert to Judaism must undergo circumcision, etc. The main festivals are Passover, Sukkot, 77, Yom Kippur and so on ^{[24
]} .

National symbol

Flag of Israel

Large satellite (Hebrew: Judaism and Judaism: ‎, English: Star of David), is a mark of Judaism and Jews, consisting of two equilateral triangles with hexagonal stars, which can be seen on the synagogue building and Jewish tombstones. The specific origin is unknown, according to legend, it first appeared on the David shield used by King David, but it is not recorded in the Jewish classics "Tanakh" and "Talmud". It was widely adopted by Jewish mystics in the Middle Ages, appeared in the Jewish community of Prague in the 17th century, and became the official emblem of the Jewish community and the universal symbol of Judaism after the 17th century.

Since the 19th century, it has begun to appear on synagogue buildings and become a prominent symbol of Judaism. In 1897, the first Zionist Congress adopted it as its flag. After the establishment of the State of Israel, the Great Satellite became the central image on the Israeli flag. In Jewish worship, it symbolizes God's blessing. Some scholars believe that one triangle of the great moons represents God, the world, and man, and the other triangle represents creation, revelation, and redemption. Some scholars believe that one triangle symbolizes the man and the other symbolizes the woman, and the combination of the two symbolizes the combination of Yin and Yang. During World War II, the Nazis forced Jews to wear yellow strips of cloth with David's shield on them as an insult to the Jewish nation. Therefore, the shield of David became a symbol of martyrdom ^{[44
]} .

Jewish calendar

Adar calendar for the years 5687-5687 (corresponding to 1927-1948)

Jewish calendar (Hebrew: ּ ַ code ּ ּ 16:ַ flanָ tsingִ 72ְ occlusal), is an ancient Jewish calendar, which belongs to the lunar calendar and calculates time according to the cycle of the moon. It may be reformed on the basis of the ancient Babylonian calendar. The Jewish calendar year is divided into 12 months, the number of days in the month is 29 or 30, the current common Babylonian month names, respectively: The month of remembrance ), Masiban ( Buhler ), Kisliu , Tebet , Fine fine special month , Yadda , intercalated Yada month, tail scattered month ( Abian month ), the month of Ir ( Severn ), Western crescent , Tan Mo Si Moon , Abyue (Abbot month), Elok . The name of the month in parentheses refers to the usage of the Jews before they became "Babylonian prisoners. ^{[40
]} .

The normal year in the Jewish calendar year is the "common year", 12 months, between 353 and 355 days, due to a common year in the Jewish calendar Solar calendar In order to keep the seasons consistent, additional months (i.e., leap months) are inserted periodically. According to the calculations of astronomers, a solar year is equal to 12 and 7/19 lunar months, that is, seven lunar months must be added to the 19 solar years to make the solar year and the lunar year roughly the same. In the Jewish calendar, there are 12 common years and 7 leap years in every 19 years. In addition, in order to avoid the meeting of certain religious festivals with certain days, the New Year and the New Year are set up based on complex rules. The year in the Jewish calendar has 355 days, or 385 days if it is a leap year. The year is 353 days, or 383 days if it is a leap year ^{[40
]} .

The Jewish calendar uses Anno Mundi (A.M.), the first year of which is said to be the day of God's creation of Adam, which corresponds to the solar calendar at 11:one-third of October 7, 3761 BC, 5784 years old (as of 2024, The year 5784 corresponds to the solar calendar beginning at sunset on September 15, 2023 and ending at sunset on October 2, 2024). Since the year of Jesus' birth is regarded as the Epoch, there is a 3,759 year difference between the Jewish calendar and the Epoch, and the year 3760 of the Jewish calendar is the Epoch. Because the Jewish calendar changed years in 9 AD, it was calculated in two sections when converting the Jewish and Gregorian calendars, with one year lost before September 15. When converted to the Jewish calendar, an additional year is required after September 15 in the Gregorian calendar ^{[40
]} ^{[42
]} .

Historically, the Jewish people had two divisions of the Jewish calendar: the temple calendar and the people calendar. The temple calendar, also known as the religious calendar, refers to the first calendar year before the Second Temple Period (beginning in 516 BC), with the month of Nisan, when Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt, as recorded in the Tanakh. In the sense of Jewish culture, it is regarded as a sign of the nation's liberation from slavery and rebirth. The People's calendar is a common Jewish calendar after the Second Temple period, with the month of Tisli as the first year. Tisli is harvest time in the Palestinian territories, and the harvest is considered to be the beginning of the New Year. In modern times, the people's calendar is the common Jewish calendar, and the first day of the month of Tisli is Rosh Hashanah ^{[40
]} .

The Jewish calendar
month			Number of days			Major festival	Gregorian calendar contrast
Folk calendar	name	Buddhist calendar	Last year (of a lunar year)	Common year	Bumper year	Major festival	Gregorian calendar contrast
The first month of the lunar year	Tisli	July	30	30	30	1st New Year's Day, Feast of trumpets 1-10 days Repentance 10th High Holy Day 15th to 21st The Feast of Tabernacles	September-October
February	Masiban (Buhler month)	August	29	29	30		October - November
March	Kisliu	September	29	30	30	25th candlelight	November-December
April	Tebet	Oct	29	29	29		From December to January
May	Fine fine special month	November	30	30	30		January - February
June	Yadda	Dec.	29 or 30	29 or 30	29 or 30	14-15 Purim	February - March
June	Leap of Adar month	Dec.	29	29	29	fourteenth Purim	February - March
July	The end of the month (a pen month)	January	30	30	30	fourteenth Passover The first day 15-21 Feast of Unleavened Bread	March-April
August	Ir (Month of Seph)	February	29	29	29	The 5th is Israel's Independence Day	April-May
September	Western crescent	March	30	30	30	6th Shavuot	May-June
Oct	Tan Mo Si Moon	April	29	29	29		June - July
November	Abul (Month of Abel)	May	30	30	30	9 commemorating the day Jerusalem was destroyed	July-August
Dec.	Elok	June	29	29	29		August - September
Total days of the year		Non-leap year	353	354	355
Total days of the year		Leap year	383	384	385
annotation	Every leap year, Purim is celebrated in the month of Adar, and the 14th and 15th of Adar become Minor Purim, and the celebration is considered informal in nature.

(The above information is for reference ^{[43
]} )

Language and writing

The ancient Hebrew spelling of the word "Hebrew"

The national language of the Jews is Hebrew , belongs to the northwestern branch of Semitic, and Phoenician It is closely related to the Moabite language. The language uses 22 consonants and is written from right to left. Hebrew usually uses three consonants to form the root of a verb, and different words are derived by changing vowels or other consonants. When written, consonants are not connected to each other, and letters are not divided into upper and lower cases, so Hebrew words are not easy to distinguish between general nouns and special nouns such as personal names and place names. The common spoken Hebrew of the Middle Ages gradually declined and was used only for religious ceremonies or literary records, but continued to develop with the absorption and borrowing of other languages. After the establishment of the State of Israel in 1949, Hebrew was adopted as the official language, and innovations based on the Tanakh language and borrowings from English homonyms made Hebrew more relevant to modern needs ^{[41
]} .

At various stages of Jewish history, based on diaspora and foreign cultural influences around the world, local Jews learned Aramaic, Italian, German, English, Polish, and other languages, while developing the original Hebrew language The Yiddish language , Ladino , Judeo-Arabic Jewish dialects, such as Judeo-Belber, Judeo-Greek, etc., are blended with local languages. In the long-term contact with other regional languages, it also has a significant impact on German, English, Polish and other regional languages ^{[23
]} .

Jewish literature

The medieval bound manuscript of the Tanakh "Codex Alepo"

Jewish literature has a history of more than three thousand years since its emergence. Because of the unique history of the Jewish nation, its development trajectory is different from that of other national literature. Literary works based on and mediated by different Jewish languages, although most of them have greater regional limitations, often find their way through other languages. The center of Jewish literature also showed a state of change and flow - from Palestine, where it originated, to Babylon, then to Spain, then to Italy, France and Germany, from there gradually to Eastern Europe, from Eastern Europe to the Americas and the Middle East, and finally back to Palestine. This cycle of language medium and central region makes Jewish literature present a diversity rarely seen in other literature, and increases the complexity of its content ^{[52
]} .

Among the various languages used by Jews, Hebrew, Yiddish, Judeo-Arabic and Ladino are widely used and have strong universality, and the literature created in these languages has become the main body of Jewish literature. According to the development of The Times, it can be classified as:

1.
Early literature (c. 1000 BC - AD 500) : includes classical literature (the" Tanakh "" deuteronomy "" apocrypha "" The Dead Sea Scrolls "), interpretive and philosophical, historical literature (History of the Jewish War, The Jewish Annals ") and" Talmud Literature (" Mishna "" Gemala "Etc.).
2.
Medieval literature (500-1750) : Characteristic of medieval Jewish literature, as in earlier Jewish literature, a religious-dominated literary tradition dominated. Most of the works are not commentaries and interpretations of classics such as Tanakh and Oral Torah, or philosophical works or mystical works developed around Jewish theology and philosophical ideas, or poems preaching liturgy and Jewish teachings. The more famous literary works of this period are The Book of the Law "" Tosappho "" A lost path leads to a lost path "" The Book of Radiance ", etc.
3.
Enlightenment and Modern Literature (1750-present) : In the second half of the 18th century, the Jewish Enlightenment began in Germany under the advocacy of Mendelssohn and others, and gradually expanded to the entire Jewish community in Europe. The science and rationalism brought by the Enlightenment led the Jewish people to begin to get rid of the shackles of traditional Judaism. There was a fundamental turning point in Jewish literature, which began to get rid of the shackles of traditional Judaism and gradually transitioning to secular literature. The greatest feature of Jewish literature during this period was that it began to truly reflect the real life of the Jews, and various genres and styles of works gradually converged with the world literature, developing in both Yiddish and Hebrew ^{[52
]} .

National art

The statue Nimrod by Yitzhak Danziger

Before the 19th century, the development of Jewish art was slow. Because of the prohibition of making idols in ancient Judaism, the development of Jewish art, especially plastic art, was greatly influenced and limited. According to the Tanakh, there were art activities among the Jews in ancient times, such as Moses leading the Hebrews to Mount Sinai, and the people casting a golden calf from women's gold earrings; When marching in the wilderness, they cast bronze snakes to prevent green snakes from biting people. This shows that there were already highly skilled craftsmen among the Jews. The detailed description of the production of religious ritual articles such as the Tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant also shows the ancient Jews' love and activity for art. According to archaeological excavations since the 20th century, works of art have been unearthed in the remains of ancient synagogues in Palestine, Turkey, and Tunisia, and frescoes based on the story of Tanakh have been found on the walls of a synagogue in Syria in the 4th century, which also indicates that Jews used to create art and paint ^{[40
]} .

Jewish artisans in the Middle Ages were mostly engaged in the production of various utensils, while sculpture and relief art were rarely engaged in because they were close to idol production. In the case of art such as painting, the representation of human faces is avoided in order to violate Canon law. Until the end of the 18th century, with the development of the Jewish Enlightenment and change, Jews began to emerge in the field of art. In the 19th century, the German Jewish artist Moritz Oppenheim made pioneering contributions in portrait painting and genre painting, and the painting art with Jewish life as the theme was greatly developed. At the same time, Jewish restrictions on architectural art were also broken in the 19th century, and artists began to apply modern aesthetic concepts to the design and construction of synagogues, and some Jewish liturgical articles began to reflect people's pursuit of art ^{[40
]} .

Educational idea

Ancient development

Yeshiva education

The education of the Jewish people began in ancient times, and the Tanakh appeared many times to require the education of the people and children. Jewish tradition states that fathers have three duties towards their sons, one of which is to teach their sons the Jewish scriptures. In order to learn the Jewish scriptures, literacy is required, so many children learn to read from their fathers in early childhood, reciting the Torah.

Beginning in the 3rd century BC, synagogues opened schools to enroll children. In the 1st century AD, non-synagogue schools began to appear to teach children the basic skills of reading and writing. Older children are sent to specialized schools where they are systematically taught Jewish religious texts. As a result, a compulsory education system began to take shape among the Jewish people ^{[53
]} .

In 75 BC, Simeon Ben Zeich, the chief justice of the Senate of Jerusalem, instituted an educational program, decreed that the Jewish community must fund public education and that parents must send their sons to school. In 64 AD, Rabbi Joshua Ben Gamala reaffirmed the decree of Simeon that every Jewish community must have a school for children over the age of six, and that children between the ages of six and ten must attend school and study under the supervision of a teacher. Joshua's practice marked the beginning of formal schooling, giving fatherless orphans and children with only paternal guidance access to education, and completing the compulsory education system by legislation. This tradition has been inherited by the Jews and gradually accepted by other nations in the world, becoming the forerunner of the modern compulsory education system ^{[53
]} .

Medieval development

From the beginning of the Great Diaspora period, the original Jewish priesthood group was replaced by rabbis, and the Jewish Academy, an educational institution to train Jewish rabbis and preserve and study Jewish traditions, was born, thus laying the foundation for the traditional education model of the Jewish nation. In the course of several centuries, Jewish education developed an educational system that focused primarily on religion, supplemented by subjects such as astronomy, some Jewish communities opened Torah schools, and occasionally taught secular subjects such as mathematics and history.

Modern development

In the 19th century, the Jewish community began to open a large number of Jewish academies, and many Jewish communities formed Jewish law research centers. After the Enlightenment, Jewish education again involved and popularized more secular subjects, such as languages, mathematics, and other sciences. Later, when Jews began to be admitted to local public schools, yeshivas began to lose their appeal, but were revived by the need for religious education. Classes range from two to 12 hours on Sundays or in the afternoon after school in public schools. This form first appeared in Western European countries and was later accepted by the vast majority of Jewish communities ^{[53
]} .

National custom

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EDITOR

circumcision

Because of the inextricable connection between the Jewish people and Judaism, several important rituals passed down with Judaism are preserved in Jewish customs. Among them, circumcision As a custom and tradition with a long history, it is widely accepted by Jews and is an important part of Jewish life. In Judaism, circumcision has the concept of "blessing" and a symbol of Jewish identity ^{[46
]} .

According to Judaism, Jewish men must be circumcised. The ritual of circumcision varies in Jewish communities around the world, but generally follows the same procedure. The typical circumcision ceremony involves the mother carrying the baby boy, born about the eighth day, and the father leading the way synagogue Or designate a place to give gifts. The number of people present must meet the Jewish ceremonial quorum, which is 10 adult Jewish males. The child is placed on a designated chair or on the father's lap and is circumcised by a professional circumciser. After the completion of the corresponding circumcision ceremony, the father or the circumciser announces the Jewish name of the child, and those who participate in the ceremony are required to call the child's name and say the prayer "He has made a covenant and therefore entered into the Torah and is permitted to enter into marriage." A religious feast is usually arranged to commemorate the circumcision ceremony ^{[46 and 47
]} .

Wedding

Modern Jewish wedding

Judaism views marriage as the most voluntary condition of man and as a social union created by God at the time of creation. According to the Tanakh, the purpose of marriage is, first, mutual assistance between men and women, second, sexual intimacy, and third, the continuation and reproduction of the race. Although polygamy was also popular among the upper classes at the time of the Tanakh, there are many references to a single wife, indicating that monogamy is still the basic form of marriage. To bear many children is considered a great blessing, to be barren is considered a tragedy and shame, and the Talmud regards non-marriage as an unnatural state ^{[48
]} .

Jewish weddings are usually concluded through an act of betrothal, which specifies in writing the time, place, financial obligations of both parties, including the bride's dowry, etc. Depending on the Jewish community, the location of the wedding usually varies, such as open air, synagogues and other venues. Every day is suitable for marriage except the Sabbath, festivals, and some other days. There are no special rules about what the bride and groom should wear ^{[48
]} .

In terms of the wedding ceremony of the day, there may be differences depending on the Jewish community. For example, the marriage document is made and publicized on the spot, the groom is presented with a gift, or the wine is drunk under a canopy, supported by two or four men. Usually, a wine cup is thrown to the ground by the bride and groom or their family during the wedding ceremony to commemorate the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and the displacement of the Jews. The wedding ceremony is followed by the wedding reception, which often lasts a week or more ^{[49
]} .

funeral

Jewish tombstone

Jews respect the custom of a simple, speedy burial. But it's generally not allowed on Shabbat, Yom Kippur, and festivals. There are no sacrifices at the funeral, only prayers and the recitation of the Tanakh. The dead are wrapped in shrouds, not coffins. They were buried within a day or two of death, and there was a rule that those who were put to death could not spend the night at the stake ^{[48-49
]} .

Before the burial, Jews hold a memorial service in the synagogue, and several months after the burial, a memorial gathering is held in the cemetery to sacrifice the gravestone. After the burial, the family of the deceased to stay at home for a week, relatives and friends often come to the door during this period, as a mourning for the deceased and condolences to the relatives of the deceased ^{[48-49
]} .

The Jewish people attach great importance to "burying in the homeland", that is, burying in the homeland of Israel after death, with the Jewish diaspora around the world, "burying in the homeland" is practically impossible, but many Jews with strong religious ideas carry a small bag of soil from Zion and bury it with them after death symbolize the custom of "burying in the homeland" ^{[48-49
]} .

Judaism does not advocate the sacrifice of life to sweep away life, so Jews do not lay a wreath when they sweep the tomb, but use inanimate objects, such as small stones, instead, to express grief ^{[48-49
]} .

The Jews did not use cremation; they regarded the burning of bodies as an act of extreme cruelty, and considered that only notorious criminals and mortal enemies deserved this punishment. Dead bodies in the wilderness are also seen as God's worst curse on the dead ^{[48-49
]} .

Eating habit

The staple food of the Jews was bread products, made of wheat or barley flour. The bread is regarded as the lifeline by the Jews, so people usually eat the bread without cutting it with a knife, only breaking it with their hands, lest they cut the lifeline with a knife ^[45] .

Many devout Jews have been following the rules of Leviticus Chapter 11 and" Deuteronomy Chapter 14 of the Jewish dietary commandments, these commandments are called Kashrut (Kashrut). They refrain from pork and certain other meats, shellfish, scaleless fish, and any kind of scavengers. Meat and dairy products are also prohibited. These people can only eat out at restaurants that meet Kashrut regulations, and restaurants need to obtain an annual certificate from a special agency composed of rabbis ^[45] .

Traditional festival

Sabbath bread and Sabbath candles

The Jewish people have many traditional holidays, the most typical of which is" The Sabbath ". The word "Sabbath" in Hebrew means "rest" or "cessation of work," and is derived from the Tanakh account that "God completed the creation of the world in six days and rested on the seventh day." The Sabbath begins at sunset on Friday and ends at dusk on Saturday. Shabbat people eat three meals, namely Friday dinner, Saturday lunch (breakfast and lunch in one) and Shabbat end meal, Friday dinner should be the biggest of the week. All shops are closed and buses are not running on the Sabbath. Strictly speaking, it is not allowed to switch electrical appliances on and off on the Sabbath, and if you want to use lights, televisions, etc., you must turn them on before the Sabbath and keep them on until the end of the Sabbath ^[45] .

Although the origins and meanings of traditional Jewish holidays vary, they share the following two basic characteristics:

All festivals are associated with the Jewish people as a whole, not with the merits and life of any one person. Passover It is to recall the liberation and liberation of entire peoples from slavery; Shavuot It is to thank the Jewish people for receiving the Holy Book; The Feast of Tabernacles It is a remembrance of God's protection for the Jewish people wandering in the wilderness; candlelight and Purim It commemorates the survival of the Jewish nation and its eventual victory over its opponents. Rosh Hashanah and High Holy Day It focused on Jewish repentance and hope for a new life.
All Jewish holidays have strong religious overtones, and none of them are secular, clearly reflecting Jewish cultural norms. Even Rosh Hashanah is seen as the beginning of the "Ten days of Repentance" and as the "day of fear," standing before God for judgment. This national and religious nature makes the annual periodic festival become a year after year for the Jewish people to review their national history, receive their national religious education, and reflect on their historical mission. It played an important role in maintaining national unity and maintaining the inherent culture of the Jewish nation.

Because of the existence of these two characteristics, the Jewish national holidays are essentially different from other national holidays on the whole, and at the same time, these festivals have more strong Jewish attributes. With the creation of the State of Israel, modern festivals such as the Day of Remembrance for the Victims and Heroes of the Holocaust, the Day commemorating the outbreak of the Israeli War, Independence Day, and the Lagua Ba 'Ommer Festival have emerged. When different Jewish groups moved to Israel, they also used to celebrate traditional festivals, such as Sakhalana for Kurdish Jews, Sigurd for Ethiopian Jews, and Minona for Moroccan Jews ^{[50
]} ^[51] .

War conflict

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EDITOR

Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the Palestinian-Israeli conflict (abbreviated as: Israeli-palestinian conflict Has been at the heart of the Middle East problem. The Palestinian-Israeli conflict is not only a conflict of political and economic interests between nationalities, but also a conflict of religious beliefs, and it is involved in international political forces. It is not only a territorial issue, but also a typical national, religious and cultural issue.

Historical root

Ancient times

According to the Tanakh, by 1800 BC the Jews had settled in Canaan (i.e. Palestine) and established a state in Jerusalem. In 722 and 586 BC, the kingdom established by the Jews was destroyed by the Kingdom of Babylon, the temple was destroyed, and the Jews were exiled to Babylon as "prisoners of Babylon." In 538 BC, Babylon was conquered by the Persians, and the Jewish exiles returned to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. But in 135, Jerusalem was destroyed again, and thousands of Jews were expelled from Palestine. "The history of the Jews is no longer the history of the Palestinians....." . The Jews lost their edge in Palestine and were greatly reduced in number. Around the 7th century, after the Arab conquest of Palestine, the local Canaanites converted to Islam and became part of the Arab Empire. Subsequently, the Canaanites and Arabs merged into the Palestinian Arabs. Since then, Palestine has become the homeland of the Arabs, which has caused the historical root of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict ^{[55
]} .

Modern times

1947 partition of Israel and Palestine

At the end of the 19th century, due to the rise of the Zionist movement, Jews from all over the world began to emigrate to Palestine. During World War I, the British occupied Palestine and obtained a "mandate" over the territory at the Paris Peace Conference after the war. Since then, a large number of Jews have moved to the Palestinian area, while the Arabs, as the historical inhabitants, have been driven out of their homes in large numbers, and conflicts and bloodshed between Arabs and Jews continue to occur.

After World War II, the United States replaced the United Kingdom and continued to support the Zionist movement. With the support of the United States, the United Nations passed a resolution in 1947 to partition Palestine, i.e UN Resolution 181 . The establishment of Arab and Jewish states in Palestine and the annexation of 58.7 percent of the area of Palestine to Israel also laid the fuse for the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. 1948 Israel was established with the support of the United States ^{[55
]} .

History of conflict

After the establishment of Israel, from 1948 to 1982, it fought five large-scale wars with Egypt, Syria, Iraq and other neighboring Arab countries. In addition to the conflicts caused by history, the two major blocs of countries led by the United States and the Soviet Union also played an important role. With the Soviet Union supporting the Arab states and the United States supporting Israel, the Middle East war was fought simultaneously during the Cold War Proxy war Nature.

time	name	combatant		Blasting fuse	Outcome of war
1948-1949.	The First Middle East War	Israel	Egypt Syria Jordan Lebanon Iraq Saudi Arabia Yemen	When Israel was created, the Arab states launched a joint military attack on Israel	Israel occupies most of the 5,731 square kilometers allocated to the Arab State under the UN partition resolution, with a total area of 20,673 square kilometers. Nearly 1 million Palestinians have been displaced as refugees and property damage is estimated at £2 billion.
1956	The Second Middle East War	Israel France Britain	Egypt	Anglo-french capital Suez Canal Nationalized by Egypt, Israel went to war with the support of Britain and France	The British and French colonial system suffered a severe blow, Egypt was defeated militarily but won politically, and Israel secured the free passage from the southern tip of Eilat to the Red Sea via the Gulf of Aqaba.
1967	The third Middle East War	Israel	Egypt Syria Jordan Iraq Palestine Liberation Organization	The conflict on the border between Egypt and Israel intensified, and the military conflict continued to escalate, and Israel took the lead in launching air strikes to launch the war	Israel occupied about 61,000 square kilometers in Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, more than 5,200 square kilometers in the West Bank and more than 1,150 square kilometers in the Golan Heights. It took East Jerusalem from Jordan, merged it with West Jerusalem, which it had captured in the First Middle East War, and declared all of Jerusalem the capital of Israel. The Palestinian-Israeli conflict escalated again, and Egypt and Israel began a tense military standoff for a long time.
1973	The fourth Middle East War	Israel	Egypt, Syria and other Arab countries	Egypt mobilized for war in order to recover the lost territory, and the Arab coalition forces including Egypt took the lead in launching the attack	Because the Arab countries use oil as a strategic weapon, the United States, which supports Israel, emerged The first oil shock . After the war, Israel suffered huge losses in human, material and financial resources, and was isolated internationally, further strengthening Israel's dependence on the United States.
1982-1985.	The fifth Middle East War	Israel The Lebanese Phalangists	Palestine Liberation Organization Syria Hezbollah	The attack on Israel's ambassador to Britain, David Argov, prompted Israel to invade Lebanon	During the Israeli occupation of Lebanon, the Lebanese economy was severely damaged, the total number of deaths was 17,800, and the number of injuries was approximately 30,000.

(The above information is for reference ^{[56-59
]} ^{[61
]} )

In addition to the five Middle East wars, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has also led to many bloody conflicts of war and non-war. Such as the Palestinian Intifada, which broke out in the Israeli-occupied territories in December 1982, since the creation of the "Palestinian Uprising" in February 1988. Islamic resistance Hamas continued its conflict with Israel on September 5, 1972 Munich massacre And assassinations in retaliation against Palestinian militants God's revenge And so on ^{[62-63
]} .

Status quo

Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat shake hands during the Oslo Accords in 1993

After the Palestinian Arab territories were occupied by Israel, the Palestinian people began their struggle against the illegal Israeli occupation. In May 1964, in order to establish a state and rebuild their homeland, the Palestinian people, who had been displaced in the neighboring Arab countries, established the Palestinian Government Arafat chief Palestine Liberation Organization ", form" Al Fatah The guerrillas began their armed struggle against Israel in the occupied territories.

After a long period of war and conflict, Arab countries gradually began to recognize the existence of Israel and were willing to resolve the conflict on the basis of the relevant resolutions of the United Nations and the principle of "land for peace". In November 1977, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin invited Egyptian President Anwar Sadat to make a historic visit to Israel. This was followed by direct negotiations between Egypt and Israel, mediated by the United States, which resulted in the signing of an agreement in September 1978. Camp David accords Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, and Egypt became the first Arab country to establish diplomatic relations with Israel. The realization of Egyptian-Israeli peace has put an end to more than 30 years of all-out war and confrontation between Arab-Israel and launched the Middle East peace process for a political settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict.

November 2023, Damascus, Syria, after an Israeli air strike

On October 30, 1991, thanks to the long-term efforts of all parties concerned, the Middle East Peace Conference was held in Madrid, the capital of Spain, setting a precedent for the two sides to sit at the negotiating table to resolve the Middle East issue. Since then, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and the Palestinians have each embarked on lengthy and arduous bilateral talks with Israel. After that, the 1993" Oslo Agreement The Cairo Agreement of 1994 and the Cairo Agreement of 1995. Taba agreement ", 1998" Wye agreement All these indicate the stability of peace talks between Palestine and Israel in a certain period of time ^{[55
]} ^{[60
]} .

However, the two sides are divided on many major issues, such as the final status of Jerusalem, the demarcation of Israeli-Palestinian borders, Jewish settlements, and the return of Palestinian refugees, and the two sides have never reached a permanent peace agreement. Since 2006, Hamas, which is based in the Gaza Strip, has engaged in several large-scale military clashes with Israel. The outbreak of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict on October 7, 2023 ( October 2023 Israeli-Palestinian conflict By December 16, 2023, at least 20,288 people had died on both sides ^{[55
]} ^{[60
]} ^[64-66] .

anti-Semitism

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EDITOR

During the Nazi occupation of France, Jews were required to wear yellow stars to identify themselves

anti-Semitism Antisemitism, or Anti-Semitism, is the thought and practice of hating, hating, rejecting, and hating Jews. Antisemitism as a term was coined in 1879 by a German agitator named Wilhelm Marr. He coined the word anti-semitism in a combination of the Greek word anti and semitie to summarize the general anti-Jewish movement in European society at that time ^{[54
]} ^{[67-68
]} .

Anti-semitism has different forms and meanings in different historical periods, and the reasons leading to the emergence of anti-Semitism are different. According to its manifestations, it can be divided into cultural anti-Semitism, religious anti-Semitism, economic anti-Semitism, racial anti-Semitism, and political anti-Semitism ^{[54
]} ^{[67-68
]} .

Cultural anti-Semitism

Cultural anti-Semitism is the earliest form of anti-Semitism, dating back to the time when the Jews were under Greek and Roman rule. Because Jews were unwilling to adopt the culture of the Greco-Roman Empire, the authorities adopted various repressive policies to restrict or attempt to assimilate Jews, such as outlawing Judaism, requiring the erection of statues of rulers in Jerusalem, and forcing Jews to eat pork. This anti-Semitism culminated in the 2nd century when the Roman emperor Hadrian decreed the legal expulsion of the Jews from Jerusalem ^{[54
]} ^{[67-68
]} .

Religious anti-Semitism

With the rise and expanding influence of Christianity and Islam, in order to show their uniqueness, the two religions adopted a way to degrade the homologous Judaism to stabilize religious belief, which gave birth to religious anti-Semitism ^{[54
]} ^{[67-68
]} .

Christian theologians, based on quotations from the New Testament, point out that the Jews are no longer God's chosen people and are directly responsible for Jesus' death. In 391 AD, after Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the Roman emperor applied theologians' views and accusations against Jews to real life, further depriving Jews of political and civil rights. In 613 AD, Spain, with Christianity as the state religion, launched a brutal persecution of the Jews, requiring the Jews in the territory to be baptized or exiled. During the Crusades in the Middle Ages, there were many incidents of looting and massacring Jews by Crusader teams ^{[54
]} ^{[67-68
]} .

In Islam, because the Jews refused to recognize Muhammad as God's messenger and prophet, the Islamic countries began to fight and persecute the Jews. In addition to the execution of all men, women and children as slaves, special legislation was passed requiring non-Muslim religious groups to pay special taxes, prohibiting the construction of synagogues, and imposing a poll tax on Jews ^{[54
]} ^{[67-68
]} .

Economic anti-Semitism

Anti-semitic poster in Slovakia during World War II warns viewers not to be servants of Jews

Due to cultural, religious and other restrictions on occupation and citizenship rights, the original social and economic structure of the Jews was severely persecuted, so that they could only engage in merchants and financial loans. However, due to excessive wealth or unavoidable commercial conflicts, economic anti-Semitism is born, combined with cultural and religious differences. Beginning in the Middle Ages, France, Britain, Germany, Italy and other countries caused by political or economic unrest, in order to quell popular resentment, the unrest was blamed on the Jews, and took mass deportation, confiscation of property, looting of communities and other measures ^{[54
]} ^{[67-68
]} .

Racial anti-Semitism

From the late 19th century to the early 1920s, human eugenics classified Jews as inferior. On the other hand, the Jewish Zionist ideology that had sprung up as a result of the Enlightenment was seen as a hidden danger that could subvert national politics. For this reason, the prejudice and exclusion of Jews in the country where Jews live have been greatly deepened. The public began to launch verbal attacks on Jews spontaneously, and with the influence of anti-Semitic propaganda, there were many activities such as looting Jewish shops and besieging Jews in France and other countries ^{[54
]} ^{[67-68
]} .

Modern anti-Semitism

The 20th century was the most brutal center for the killing of Jews in Europe, and anti-Semitism reached an all-time high, with the persecution of Jews unmatched in previous history. In addition to the economic anti-Semitism caused by Jews engaging in business, eugenic-based racial anti-Semitism was also a major core of this anti-Semitism. It happened after the First World War Soviet-polish War Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed or deported during the mass persecution. In countries such as Romania, Jews were persecuted at the instigation of the national government. After Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933, six million Jews were killed as a result of his policy of persecuting Jews ^{[54
]} ^{[67-68
]} .

Status quo

In the 21st century, the manifestations of anti-Semitism mostly come from the modern anti-Semitism with the characteristics of economic anti-Semitism and racial anti-Semitism. In terms of ethnic anti-Semitism, the years of Israeli-Palestinian conflict since the establishment of the State of Israel have led radical Islamists to call for the destruction of Israel and to advocate radical rhetoric of the extermination of the Jewish race ^[69] . In the United States, the success of the Jewish elite in various fields, due to the mass immigration of Jews after the 19th century, also gave rise to Jewish conspiracy theories such as Jewish attempts to control the world ^{[70
]} .

Development status

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EDITOR

commerce

David Ricardo, Jewish British economist (1772-1823)

From the beginning of the diaspora period, the Jews, who could only engage in commercial activities due to numerous restrictions, achieved success in economic activities such as leasing and exchange, and invented commercial activities such as stock trading, negotiable notes, and government bonds. Because medieval Europe generally disdainful of business and profitable industries, European countries created many economic images of Jews, equating Jews with rich businessmen, bank bosses and even cruel loan sharks and misers. By William Shakespeare Merchant of Venice A Jewish loan shark Shylock For later generations, it has shaped a "typical Jewish" image of the European world. In the slang and proverbs of Western society, there are also a lot of slanderous words and proverbs that associate Jews with money. With the development of capitalism, some famous Jewish plutocrats, bankers and banking institutions emerged in modern times. Like a banker Moritz Hirsch , The Rothschilds Basel Commercial Bank, founded by Y Dreyfus and others in Switzerland, M in Warsaw, Poland. The "Warsaw Discount Bank" established by Epstein and so on ^{[73
]} .

In modern times, Jews living around the world (outside of Israel) tend to earn more than the average income of the people they live in, and the American economist Thomas Sowell has noted that American Jews have the highest household income of any American ethnic group. According to relevant statistics, Jews, who account for about 3% of the total population of the United States, control far more than this proportion of American enterprises, especially in some industries where Jews are good at, this situation is more obvious, such as Jews control 90% of the United States fur industry, 60% of the grain processing industry, and control about 25% of the United States steel industry. In Israel itself, gross national product (GNP) and per capita GNP have grown rapidly for decades, with an average annual growth rate of nearly 8% and an average annual growth rate of 4%. Combined with the fact that Jews are the majority of the population in the State of Israel, it can also be seen that the rapid development of Jews in commercial and other economic activities ^{[73-75
]} .

political

Former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (1923-2023)

As the status of the Jews improved after the 18th century, some Jews began to enter the political arena. Britain, for example, has allowed Jews to be elected to Parliament since the mid-19th century; France gave Jews an oath of national citizenship; Jewish senators and congressmen who appeared in American politics in 1845. Among the more notable figures during this period: the British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli Leader of the German Communist Party Rosa Luxemburg The former Soviet Union famous politician and theorist Lev Davidovich Trotsky Et al ^{[19
]} ^{[75
]} .

In modern times, in addition to Jewish politicians in Israel, Jews have played a prominent role in the politics of other countries. Consider American Jews who have held many key political positions, including two secretaries of State Henry Kissinger The first female secretary of state in U.S. history Madeleine Albright Et al. In the 111th Congress in 2008, there were 14 Jewish senators and 31 Jewish House members out of 100. Although that number has declined in the years since, it is still a larger proportion of lawmakers than the population in the United States ^{[75
]} .

culture

In addition to the above two major fields, Jews living in the United States have made certain achievements in the cultural field of press and publication, film industry and so on. For example, the Jewish family-run magazine New York Times "And" Washington Post ", a publishing house founded and run by Jews Random House (Random House), Alfred A. Knopf, Simon & Schuster (Simon & Schuster) and so on. Moreover, the American film industry was almost founded by Jews, Warner , Paramount and Metro-goldwyn-mayer (MGM) Film companies and other companies are founded by Jewish people, two of the three major television networks in the United States National broadcasting Corporation (NBC) and CBS (CBS) are all run by Jews, while American broadcasting company (ABC) was acquired and operated by Jews for many years after its creation. In addition, it covers many media giants in cable TV, Internet, film and other fields The Viacom Group It's also a Jewish family business ^{[75
]} .

Jewish notables

According to statistics, between 1901 and 2004, 167 Jews or people of Jewish descent won the Nobel Prize, accounting for 22% of the total number of Nobel Prize winners.

Domain	Achievements	character
Religious circles	God Christ	Jesus
	Twelve disciples	Peter
	Twelve disciples	Jacob
Fringe science	Austrian psychiatrist, psychologist, and founder of the psychoanalytic school	Sigmund Freud
Natural science	One of the great giants of science, the father of modern physics	Albert Einstein
	He is a famous Hungarian aerodynamics and physicist	Von Karman
	Father of the atomic bomb	Robert Oppenheimer
	Father of the hydrogen bomb	Edward Taylor
	Nobel Laureate in physics, founder of condensed matter physics	Lev Davidovich Landau
	Author of Noether's theorem	Noether
	The father of cybernetics	Norbert Wiener
	The giant of mathematics in the 20th century, the father of the computer	John von Neumann
	One of the important founders of quantum mechanics	Max Born
	American astronomer, co-founder and president of the Planetary Research Society	Carl Sagan
	French mathematician and founder of the Bourbaki school	Andre Weil
	Russian Jewish mathematician who solved Poincare's conjecture	Grigory Perelman
	A woman of nuclear science	Lizer Meitner
	Nobel Prize in Physics	Niels Bohr
	botanist	Aloalosus
	Doctors and educators	Janusz Kozak
	Nobel Prize winner in Physiology and Medicine	Barany
	The pioneer of organoborate compounds	Herbert Charles Brown
	Nobel Prize winner in medicine	leptobrychus
	Nobel Prize winner for the discovery of synthetic ammonia	Fritz Haber
	Creator of the lush Gottingen Gardens	James Frank
	Nobel Prize winner in medicine, authority on phagocytes, father of lactic acid bacteria	Eliye Elih Metchnikov
	Master of anatomy and pathology	Henle
	German physicist, father of electromagnetism	Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
	Nobel Prize winner in physics	Richard Feynman
	dermatologist	Kaposi
	Dermatologist, namesake of the Unna tumor	Oona
	Medical scientist, namer of Schammberg's disease	Schamberg
	Dermatologist, founder of Lassa Salve	Lasha
	One of the discoverers of penicillin	Chain
	Discoverer of streptomycin	Waxman
	World-renowned scientist	Schwinger
	American scientists	Philipmann
	The inventor of the helicopter	Henry Fina
	Mother of CDMA	Hedy Lamarr
Political circles	Leader of the October Revolution, founder of the Soviet Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, founder of the Third and Fourth International	Lev Davidovich Trotsky
Political circles	Former US Secretary of State	Henry Kissinger
Business circles	Founder of Dell Computer	Michael Dell
	Founder of the social networking site Facebook	Mark Zuckerberg
	Co-founder of Google Inc	Sergey Brin
Literary thought circle	17th century philosopher, one of the three recognized rationalists in modern Western philosophy	Baruch Spinoza
	The great teacher of the proletariat and the working people of the world	Karl Marx
	Great German poet of the 19th century	Heinrich Heine
	The great critic of the 19th century	Georg Brandes
	A great thinker and political theorist of the twentieth century	Hannah Arendt
	He is the founder of the "power politics School" of international law and the master of the realist school of international relations	Hans Morgenthau
	The original monologue	Schnitzler
	One of the most successful and prestigious American artists of all time	Barbra Streisand
	The great innovator of the art of fiction	Marcel Proust
	Israeli poets	Yuri Kivi Greenberg
	"Writer's Writer"	Mark Olaire Stein
	A world-renowned writer	Stefan Zweig
	Founder of western modernist literature	Franz Kafka
	Using history to play the strongest tone of The Times	Leon Feuchtwanger
	A literary genius nurtured by the Bible	Samuel Joseph Agnon
	The science fiction master who formulated the three Laws of Robotics	Isaac Asimov
	The philosopher on the riverbank	Paulis Leonidovich Pasternak
	Big "reporter" writer	Ilya Ehrenberg
	Jewish writers	Sharon Areem
	Early Hebrew poets	Chaim Nachman Bialik
	Jewish poets	Abraham Mapp
	The 'Watchmen' of Alienated Youth	Jerome David Salinger
	Master of small subject matter	Eichinger
	WRITER	Sholom Alleham
	The most qualified American writer of his time	Norman Mailer
	The first author of "black humor" literature	Joseph Heller
	Winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1991, a comet in South African literature, a woman writer	Nadine Gordimer
	"Beat Generation" surfer, Beat leader	Allen Ginsburg
	Poet meditator	Joseph Brodsky
	Author of Black Sunday	Rourance Charles
	Author of The Diary of Anne Frank	Anne Frank
	WRITER	Susan Sontag
	linguist	Noam Chomsky
	Jewish scholar	Walter Benjamin

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