巴黎和会（1919年第一次世界大战战后协约会议）

The year 1914 Austro-hungarian Empire Crown prince Archduke Ferdinand The assassination of the couple changed the fate of the whole world. On July 28 of that year, Austro-hungarian Empire right Serbia Declare war. Immediately, the two countries behind German Empire with Tsarist Russia When Britain and Germany declared war, it meant that the European Theater was in full swing.

Who was in charge at the time Yuan Shikai The government, and the reason it chose to be neutral was that at that time China had leased land from various countries, stationed troops from various countries, and what would happen if a war broke out. The Yuan Shikai government issued several rules prohibiting World War I Belligerent country Chinese territory Air space Any belligerence.

However, Yuan Shikai's government did not achieve its objective of neutrality. Shortly after the start of World War I, Japan, under the pretext of an alliance with Britain, sent troops to attack German leases in China Jiaozhou Bay And be in Shandong Peninsula Excuse me. For various reasons, Yuan Shikai's government set up a battle zone there, and China was drawn into the war.

European countries after the First World War

Paris and the 'Big Three'

The Paris Peace Conference was attended by the United States, Britain , France , Japan , Italy , Belgium , Bolivia , Brazil , Cuba , Ecuador , Nicaragua , Panama , Peru , Poland , Portugal , Romania , Greece , Guatemala , China , Thailand , Haiti , Saudi Arabia , Honduras , Liberia , Czechoslovakia , Uruguay Kingdom of Serbo-Croat-Slovenia (renamed 1929) Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) etc. 27 Independent state And the self-governing territories of the United Kingdom S.Africa , India , Canada , Australia and NZ .

The conference was controlled by a Supreme Council (the "Big Ten" conference) composed of two representatives each from the United States, Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. On March 25, the 10-person meeting for decision-making was reduced to a meeting of the "Big Four" : the President of the United States Wilson , British prime minister Lloyd George Prime Minister of France Crimonceau , Prime Ministers of Italy Orlando. In fact, Major problem All are decided by the representatives of the United States, Britain and France.

The first day of the peace conference, President of France Poincarelli used the opening speech to deliver a long speech. He not only mocked the defeated Germany in the tone of a victor, "born in injustice, and should die in disgrace," but also proposed a basic plan to punish the war culprits and dismember Germany. However, President Wilson of the United States ignored the French proposal and demanded that the peace conference first discuss its establishment League of nations Question.

Thomas Woodrow Wilson He was born in the United States in 1856 Virginia A clergyman's family in Staunton. In one's early years University of Virginia He studied law, politics, and history at Hopkins University and received a doctorate in political science. He later served as a university professor, university president and governor. In 1912 and 1916 Democratic Party of the United States He was elected the 28th President of the United States.

Wilson was handsome, strong-willed, and supremely confident idealist . During his time in office, the United States developed rapidly The richest man in the world . Wilson believed that in light of the changing international balance of power, the United States should abandon the traditional isolationism Policy, take on the responsibility of leading the world. To this end, he made the decision to declare war on Germany, and on January 8, 1918, proposed a League of nations and preservation Open sea Freedom of navigation Based on the "Fourteen points" program for World hegemony.

Wilson was particularly fascinated by the plan for the League of Nations, not only because of its importance to his political reputation and place in history, but also because he saw it as a fundamental and necessary way to replace Britain and France in world domination. That is why, in his first statement at the Paris Peace Conference, he asked for priority League of Nations Covenant issues, emphasized Treaty of union of nations Peace with Germany should be a unified and indivisible whole for all nations Binding force . But Britain and France are not interested. They advocated a separation of the two and prioritized discussion of territorial partition and war reparations. The two opposing sides have each other's words and will not make concessions to each other. afterwards Committee of ten After four days of debate, it was decided that the question of the League of Nations should be examined by a special committee headed by Wilson, which was responsible for drawing up the draft covenant of the League. The Anglo-French plot was to remove the American plan from the agenda. To that end, they suggested that representatives of all small and medium-sized States should also be included in the Committee, making it bloated and inefficient in order to Stall for time .

The special committee had not yet begun its work when Britain and France proposed discussing a partition German colonies Question. Wilson woke up from his dream and was greatly dissatisfied with the tactics of Britain and France, so he once again proposed that the Committee of Ten discuss the League of Nations. "We must not give the world the impression that great powers first carved up the defenseless parts of the world and then built the League of nations," he said. So the committee of ten faced off again. The meeting was tense. Wilson was fierce. So was Lloyd George of England and Clemenceau of France. In this case, Wilson angrily stated that he would withdraw from the conference unless the covenant of the League was established first. Seasoned and greasy Lloyd George He retorted, Only God knows when the complicated process of establishing the Covenant of the League of Nations will be completed. Wilson replied, "The work of the committee can be finished in ten days, as long as there is no deliberate disturbance." The American threat worked, and Britain and France had to back down. In fact, as Wilson had said, after a series of intense consultations, the Special Committee finally produced the draft covenant of the League of Nations on schedule on February 13. On February 14, Wilson reported the contents of the draft to the General Assembly in a solemn atmosphere, and obtained it Unanimous approval In the first round of the struggle, Wilson narrowly prevailed.

French Prime Minister Jean-Francois Clemenceau was another key player at the Paris Peace Conference. Clemenceau was born in France in 1841 Nantes Save. He was studying medicine at the age of 30 handy He was elected to Congress and entered politics. He was Prime Minister from 1906 to 1909. In 1917 he was again asked to form a government.

At the Paris Peace Conference, he was elected President of the Conference in his capacity as Chief delegate of France. Clemenceau had a strong sense of revenge against Germany. His main objective in attending the Paris Peace Conference was to minimize the weakening of Germany in order to establish France in the country Continental Europe The hegemony of... To this end, he proposed at the Conference of Ten that France should not only reclaim Alsace and Lorraine And move the borders of France east to Rhine He advocated the union of the German provinces on the left bank of the Rhine into an independent state.

The Palace of Versailles

But the United States and Britain wanted both to maintain the balance of power between Germany and France and to use Germany against them Soviet Russia And therefore all oppose proposals that would weaken Germany too much. They proposed that the United States and Britain secure the eastern border of France and immediately come to the aid of France if it was invaded. Although he was forced to give up his demand for the creation of the Rhine state, in exchange he offered to allow Allied troops to occupy the left bank of the Rhine for 30 years and to hand over the Saar mines to France. Wilson was furious at the new French demand. He said impatiently that he had never heard of another Saar question. He attacked Wilson as a Germanophile and forcefully declared that no French prime minister would sign a treaty that did not incorporate the Saar into France. Wilson, however, was not weak, saying coldly to Clemenceau: "Do you mean that if France does not get what it wants, it will refuse to cooperate with us?" So you wish I had come home. ' "I do not want you to go home," replied Clemenceau. "I want to go home myself." He stormed out of the office. Since the American position was supported by the British, Clemenceau, faced with a united Anglo-American front, had to lower his demands and propose that the Saarland be given to France first mandate 15 years, then by citizens Vote on Its fate. It also threatened to withdraw from the conference if the demand was not met. Wilson finally relented and sent his representative, Colonel House, to inform him Crimonceau He said that the United States was prepared to reconsider France's position on the Saar and the Rhine. When Clemenceau received the news, he was overjoyed and hugged Colonel House tightly. Colonel House immediately asked Clemenceau to stop the attack on Wilson by the French press. The next day the Paris newspapers were full of articles praising Wilson.

In order to completely weaken Germany, France also made three demands: first, the establishment of an inclusive in the east of Germany Poznan And Danzig within the mighty Poland. The reason is to deal with the coming Russia The red menace; The second is to drain the Germans as much as possible purse Germany must pay 600 billion to 800 billion Kinmark War losses; The third is to completely destroy the German military machine, in particular to limit the number of German armies and the production of arms. To varying degrees, these French demands were opposed by Britain and the United States. Britain and the United States believed that the creation of a new Poland in accordance with the French blueprint would mean the strengthening of France's position in Europe, and they did not agree with France. Lloyd George said to Clemenceau, "Do not build a new Alsace-Lorraine." Neither Britain nor the United States wanted to use Germany's reparations to strengthen France's power, especially the United States was more worried that France's excessive demands would kill the German egg Hen . Lloyd George argued that reparations should not be excessive and should be borne only by the generation who fought in the war. Wilson argued that the amount of reparations should not be determined and that the question should be referred to a special commission. On the question of the limitation of German armaments, Britain, the United States and France had different intentions. Their main interest was to weaken the German naval power, while they advocated leniency with the army, reserving a force for German suppression The Bolsheviks The necessary strength.

British Prime Minister Lloyd George was also active at the Paris peace Conference. Lloyd George was born in England in 1863 Manchester . Early harvest University of Wales Doctor of Laws. Used to be a lawyer. After politics, he served as Minister of trade, finance, quartermaster, and Army. In 1916 Liberal Party As leader of the cabinet of Prime Minister.

Scheming and calculating, he manoeuvred as much as he could at the Paris Peace Conference to preserve Britain's shaky supremacy. He sometimes sided with France against the United States, and sometimes formed an alliance with the United States to suppress France. When the United States and France were at loggerhead with each other, he often acted as a mediator, thereby benefiting Britain.

Italy's chief representative is Prime Minister Orlando. He came to Paris with an agenda of his own. Orlando's main purpose was to get to the port of Fiume in order to make it Italy in Balkan The expansion base. Because in terms of strength, Italy is only a second-rate country compared with the United States, Britain and France, plus it is in Early days of the war Both feet, after the war did not play much role, so Orlando's request was rejected by the United States, Britain and France. At the meeting of the five Powers on April 23, Orlando threatened that he could not return home without Fiume, and even that there would be riots in the country, while the United States, Britain and France still opposed his demands. Orlando stormed out of the meeting, and the other attendees ignored him. Orlando helpless, after a few days and quietly returned to the venue, continue to serve as a walk-on role.

Japanese delegate Baron Makino Nobukai

The Japanese delegation, one of the five, was led by Baron Makino. Makino wasn't Head of government , but wily, Good at reading the wind . His main objective in attending the Paris Peace Conference was to seize the German occupation of Shandong in China Leased territory And important islands in the Pacific Ocean to establish Japan in East Asia The advantage of the region. Wilson refused Makino's request to limit Japan's expansion in East Asia. On the second day of Orlando's withdrawal from the peace conference, Makino lost no time in making a sudden speech, insisting that the Shandong issue be resolved on his terms, or Japan would refuse to sign the peace treaty.

At the meeting of 27 and 28 January 1919, the Chinese delegates to the Peace Conference Wang Zhengting and Vicky Koo He argued for the return of Shandong, but the deputy foreign minister of the Beiyang government Cao Rulin Under the pressure of Japan said that the move is purely Wang, Gu two people "unauthorized action". Wilson was concerned that Italy had already withdrawn from the peace conference and that Japan's withdrawal would cause serious damage to the peace conference bruise .

Britain and France, which had secret treaties with Japan, also supported Japan's demands. At the three summits of the four countries on April 22, 29 and 30, the three powers of the United States, Britain and France finally made a decision to agree to the transfer of German ownership in Shandong Assignment of interest To Japan. The news spread and aroused strong indignation among the Chinese people. On May 4, a huge demonstration was held in Beijing against the handling of the Shandong issue at the Paris Peace Conference. This is the famous "May Fourth" movement. This movement forced representatives of the Chinese government not to dare to sign the Paris Peace Treaty.

In order to facilitate the manipulation of the conference, the main victors such as Britain, France, the United States, Italy, and Japan made many unequal regulations on the opening of the conference.

First of all, the countries attending the conference are divided into several categories.

The first is "to enjoy the whole interest. Belligerent power Britain, France, the United States, Italy, and Japan had the right to attend all meetings.

The second is the belligerents with partial interests, such as Belgium, Brazil, China, Greece Most countries fall into this category and can only attend meetings where issues of concern to them are discussed.

The third is with Germany, Austria Group Sever diplomatic relations Countries such as Peru, Bolivia, etc., which can send delegations to the Conference only when the issues under discussion directly concern those countries.

The fourth level is Neutral state And soon-to-be independent States, which could attend the relevant meetings only at the invitation of one of the five Powers.

Second, the number of countries represented is also unequal.

The meeting stipulated that Britain, France, the United States, Italy and Japan would each send five representatives.

Belgium, Brazil and Serbo-Croat-Slovenia each had three representatives.

China, Greece, Saudi Arabia Poland, Portugal, Thailand and Czechoslovakia each contributed two members. The Chinese delegation consisted of officials from Beijing and Guangzhou, including Beijing's foreign affairs chief Lu Zhengxiang Minister to the United Kingdom Shi Zhaoji Minister to the United States Gu Weijun, Minister to Belgium Weichen formation And Wang Zhengting in Guangzhou.)

Anglican dominion Two each from Australia, Canada, South Africa and India, and one from New Zealand; One from each of the other countries.

The scene of the Paris Peace Conference

The Paris Peace Conference was conducted from beginning to end under the control of the imperialist victors.

More importantly, the rules of procedure of the meeting have been completely complied with Power politics Do it. According to the provisions of the Peace Conference, the entire conference is divided into three forms: the supreme meeting, the special meeting and the plenary meeting. The Supreme Council is composed of the five heads of state and foreign ministers of the United States, France, Britain, Italy and Japan, also known as the Conference of Ten, and all major issues are made up of it Discuss and decide . Later, the ten-person meeting evolved into a three-person meeting composed of the heads of the United States, Britain and France. More than 60 meetings were held during the peace conference.

On January 18, 1919 Paris city French Ministry of Foreign Affairs The first plenary meeting was held. The second plenary meeting, on 25 January, adopted a resolution establishing the League of Nations. Adopted by the 5th plenary meeting, on 24 April Covenant of the League of Nations ".

AD hoc meetings are composed of representatives and experts of interested States and consider only specialized issues designated by the Supreme Conference. The General Assembly is composed of representatives of all participating States. Only seven plenary meetings were held during the entire conference, and all of them only allowed resolutions to be adopted by a show of hands, without any intention of making them work.

After more than four years of fighting, the First World War was finally coming to an end. In 1919, the victors held a peace conference in Paris. It was at this peace conference, controlled by the big four of Britain, France, the United States and Italy, that the world order was defined, and Germany's pre-war rights to Jiaozhou Bay in Shandong Province became a focus of contention between China and Japan.

China's diplomacy at the Paris peace Conference was hardly a failure. At that time, Japan believed that it should inherit the rights and interests of Germany, because it sent troops to fight against Shandong Jiaojia-jinan railway At the same time, the Chinese government signed" twenty-one So China has to acknowledge this. Gu Weijun, a famous diplomat, argued his case with his profound research on international law.

Gu rejected Japan's demands point by point. He believes that the content of Article 21 does not count, because the validity of the treaty is still in doubt according to the principle of force coercion in international law; And international law provides that" Principle of vicissitude of circumstances China had not participated in World War I, but later declared war on Germany, so the treaty lapsed. According to the analysis of the historical materials found, Gu Weijun did not impress the participants with the rumored words such as "Shandong is China's Jerusalem", but refuted Japan based on solid international law.

But although China had the upper hand on the issue, it was hampered by the complicated international situation at the time Political situation Japan has taken a variety of other measures. At the same time, some factions in the Chinese government struggle. Japan eventually gained some of Germany's interests in Shandong. According to Gu Weijun, after the relevant news was published in the newspaper, it eventually triggered the "May Fourth Movement" and the Chinese delegation eventually refused to sign the peace treaty.

Three big men in the interests of their own country, launched a marathon "debate contest".

Thus, an interesting situation arises, in which each country is antagonistic to the other two, and can join forces with either of the other two.

Later, the United Kingdom and France opposed the formation of the League of Nations, and Wilson was angry about withdrawing from the peace conference.

At one moment, the United States and Britain joined forces to prevent France from weakening Germany too much, and Clemenceau slammed the door.

Lloyd George, a lawyer by training Vertical integration Sometimes pulling France together to deal with the United States, and sometimes forming an alliance with the United States to suppress France, and obtaining a lot of benefits for Britain.

The conference lasted more than five months.

British Prime Minister Lloyd George and French Prime Minister Clemenceau quarreled bitterly over reparations for the defeated country.

"How about you get 50% for France and we get 30% for England?" "No, absolutely not! In this war, France lost the most. We should get 58 percent."

"This is too much. We don't agree."

"Then we don't agree." At the age of 78, although he has a full head of white hair, he is still as fierce as a beast, really worthy of his nickname of "Tiger Prime Minister". And Lloyd George is all about it, not sacrificing his own interests at all.

President Wilson of the United States had no choice but to circle between Britain and France, and was busy negotiating: "We don't want a penny in the United States." Is it ok for both of you to sacrifice something so that the other countries get something, 56% for France and 28% for England?"

"Yes," cried Clemenceau sharply. But the border between France and Germany shall be bounded by the Rhine: in addition to Alsace-Lorraine to France, the Saarland in Germany shall also be ours!" If France gets the Saar, it will mean that it controls the most important military industrial zone in Europe, and will be able to dominate the European continent in the future. Britain and the US, of course, disagree. They quarreled from January to April, and neither of them would back down. Both Wilson and Clemenceau threatened to withdraw from the peace meeting.

The Paris Peace Conference had other agendas besides dividing spoils. The main ones are:

Conspiring to stifle new life Soviet Russia Decided against Soviet Russia Economic blockade .

Prepare and organize League of nations To oppose the Communist International created by Lenin.

The League of Nations commands the nations reactionary The bloody repression of the revolutionary people and the repartition of the former German colonies.

Although Soviet Russia was excluded from the Paris Peace Conference, the question of Soviet Russia was always involved in the Paris Peace Conference. In opposing socialist Russia, although the imperialist countries are in agreement, they differ in their methods of opposition. The French advocated a hard hand, and Marshal Foch proposed an expeditionary force of two million to suppress the revolution openly, with the United States providing the troops primarily. He said U.S. troops entered the war late and had high morale.

But Wilson disagreed with Foch's suggestion. He retorted that if it had to be done, it would be better for the French army to undertake the task. Because to accomplish this task requires an experienced army, and United States Army Is inexperienced. As a result of the debate, British Prime Minister Lloyd George's advice was adopted, namely, economic blockade and support Opposition faction And at Baltic Sea Coastal countries have established "epidemic prevention zones" and other measures to curb Russian revolution The expansion of influence.

At first, the Chinese delegation had great hopes for the peace Conference. Therefore, it proposed the following seven conditions in its motion:

Abolish spheres of influence.

Withdraw foreign troops, patrol officers.

Abolish foreign post offices and wire and wireless telegraph offices.

cancel Consular jurisdiction .

return Leased territory .

Return the concession.

tariff liberty .

June 28, 1919, the last day of the Paris Peace Conference, was also the day that all the victorious nations signed the peace treaty. However, the representative of China, the victors of the war, did not attend the meeting and refused to sign.

It turns out that three of the Paris peace treaties are about China. That is, the territory occupied by Germany before the war in Jiaozhou Bay, Shandong Province, and its railways, minerals, Submarine cable Etc. Japan owns it all.

China joined the Allies during the First World War, declaring the right Allied countries He also sent 175,000 laborers to Europe to support the Allies and lost more than 2,000 people. Made great contributions and sacrifices to achieve the final victory. It is only natural that China, as the victor of the war, should claim back the sovereignty of the Shandong Peninsula forcibly occupied by Germany. ^[1]

However, at the beginning of the Paris Peace Conference, Japan, out of ulterior motives, repeatedly questioned China's qualification to participate in the conference as a victor, and attempted to exclude China from participating in the conference as a victor. Failed to succeed, and coerced Common law Agreed to transfer the German-occupied Shandong Peninsula to Japan.

After hearing the news, the Chinese people finally could not bear it, and on May 4, 1919, the vigorous "May Fourth" Movement broke out.

With the support and influence of the people of the whole country, the Chinese delegation put forward two proposals to the Peace Conference: the abolition of imperialist privileges in China; Cancel the "21 Articles" that Japan forced China to recognize, and recover the rights and interests of Shandong. But the proposal was rejected.

In the early morning of June 27, Chinese laborers and Chinese students in Paris held a huge protest.

On June 28, more than 30,000 Chinese gathered outside the residence of the Chinese delegation.

'You can't sign! Thirty thousand people raised a common voice. "Anyone who signs will be killed!" Fifteen young Pesh Merga men are ready to give their blood and heads to defend the dignity and rights of China.

The Chinese delegation finally issued a statement: "We will not sign the peace treaty until the Shandong question is resolved!"

Under the impact of the "May Fourth" movement, the Chinese delegation refused to attend The Treaty of Versailles Sign it!

The essence of the Paris Peace Conference is imperialism Split the spoils meeting.

The Paris Peace Conference was World War I The product of the post-war arrangements by the imperialist countries World order The essence of the meeting is an imperialist spoils sharing meeting. The First World War was essentially fought over by the imperialist powers Sphere of influence And the colonies happened Conflict of interest . In Lenin's book Imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism Through extensive data and rigorous academic analysis, it is proved that the war was "an imperialist (i.e., aggressive, predatory, bandit) war on both sides, aimed at the division of the world, at the division and redivision of colonies, Financial capital 'spheres of influence' and so on." He clearly defined the nature of the First World War as: "The present war is Imperialist war That is the basic nature of this war."

The First World War was new imperialism The result of competing with the old imperialists for spheres of influence is capitalism The product of the development to the stage of imperialism. Lenin said, "Capitalism has reached its highest form and no longer exports commodities, but capital." Capitalism has outgrown its capacity within its own borders, so that it can compete for the last unoccupied territory left on Earth ", "in this case, imperialist war, i.e Struggle for world hegemony , contest Bank capital The market and the wars that strangle the weaker nations are inevitable. The First imperialist War of 1914-1917 was just such a war." Sun Yat-sen also believed that" World War (which was largely confined in Europe) This is a dispute of interests."

The Paris Peace Conference decided the status and role of the conference according to the "contribution" of the countries in the war. Therefore, the decision of the meeting is the United Kingdom, France, the United States, Italy, Japan and other countries composed of the five-nation conference. China Chief representative Lu Zhengxiang Reported to the Foreign Office, Prime ministers of France When Clemenceau spoke at the conference, he was "eloquent, The tip of a ci Sharp. To play with its meaning, if this peace conference, in addition to the United States, Britain, France, Italy (Italy), Japan, the other countries have been invited to the conference, it is already a good intention, and there is no room for negotiation. His spirit is aggressive." Lu Zhengxiang already felt that "with such an attitude of the French Premier, the future can be considered." This shows that the Paris Peace Conference is a meeting for powers to share their spoils, rather than a carrier for weak and small countries to fight for their own rights and interests.

At first, China was not even eligible to participate in the peace Conference, and later, with the support of the United States, it was reluctantly allowed to participate, but it was looked down upon everywhere and could not expect the great powers to agree to the many conditions that China put forward. China's status as a "victor" is illusory, the great powers have never regarded China as an equal, and American "patronage" is merely lip service. For the sake of its own interests, the United States broke its word and fattened itself by changing the policy proposed by President Wilson. Fourteen points In the first article, "Opposing secret treaties", that is, the original attitude of support for China's Shandong issue.

The nature of the Paris Peace Conference determined that China, as a weak country, semi-colonial The state cannot achieve its purpose through it. Japan invaded China's Shandong province in the name of declaring war on Germany, resulting in the fact that Shandong was forcibly occupied and exploited Beiyang government They forced and enticed them to sign the "treaty", obtained the so-called "jurisprudence" basis, and colluded with the great powers to obtain their recognition. As early as before the Paris Peace Conference, Japan negotiated with Britain, France and other countries to obtain their guarantee for Japan to inherit Germany's rights and interests in Shandong after the war. These actions of Japan are themselves the manifestation of imperialist power. in Era of imperialism Compromise deals between great powers have always cared little for the interests of the weaker countries being traded. In order to expand its influence on China, the United States made a commitment to China. China's professional diplomats were confused by the surface promises of the United States, and failed to recognize the nature of imperialism, hoping to "rule by the elements", only to be betrayed by the great powers. At the Paris Peace Conference, China put too much faith in the United States, hoping to use the United States to suppress Japan, but the result can only be failure.

The Paris Peace Conference

Long before the Paris Peace Conference, France, Great Britain and the United States had made clear their different aims for the conference. France was deeply hurt by the war and severely punished Germany's several claims of aggression against France in history and weakened Germany as much as possible; The British, for traditional policy reasons, wanted to maintain a relatively strong and economically viable Germany in order to maintain the continent Balance of power ; The United States wanted to establish and benefit from a system that would guarantee lasting peace as soon as possible, and urged Germany to do so War reparation .

The aims of the three major Allies were different and even contradictory. Although all three countries made concessions and finally reached an agreement, the result was that all parties made compromises but none of them fully achieved their aims. While Germany was neither completely weakened nor pacified, the result bodes well for either war Katsukuni Or the defeated country, so that the whole of Europe and even the world is a factor of instability.

France paid a huge price for the war, with more than five million soldiers and civilians killed or wounded, and the vast majority of the Western Front was fought in France. So France wants to take over German industry Right of control To compensate for their losses. The views of Prime Minister Clemenceau are also representative of French public opinion. ^[2]

The French army quickly took control after the war Ruhr Industrial zone Important cities such as Gelsenkirchen Many people were left homeless, and coal from the region was shipped to France by rail. German railway workers organized a strike against the French occupiers, about 200 of whom were executed by the French authorities.

Clemenceau's claim can be simply summarized as follows: Germany should pay war reparations to France for its losses (including personnel, property, etc.) during the war Military strength To the point where it no longer posed a threat to France, symbolically punishing Germany militarism So that Germany could never again return to the pre-1914 political pattern Kaiser at End of war He abdicated and went into exile Netherlands ). France reclaimed Alsace-Lorraine, established The Rhine Demilitarized Zone Germany's overseas colonies were divided among the victors. The reduction of German military strength to a lower level. He also wanted a secret treaty to seal off the German coastline so that France could take control of Germany Import and export trade . These harsh conditions earned him the nickname "The Tiger."

Although Britain was not at war, many British soldiers were still killed in the war, and there was widespread public opinion in Britain that Germany should be severely punished. British prime minister David Lloyd George Support for punishing Germany, but in terms of specific measures lighter than France. George realized that if all of France's conditions were met, it would become a continental superpower and disrupt the continental balance of power, contrary to the traditional British policy of maintaining a balanced Europe. Meanwhile George spoke to the president of the United States Woodrow Wilson 's" National self-determination The policy was worried because Britain had a large overseas colony. But he favored a secret treaty to seal off the German coastline.

It was generally thought that George wanted to be at Wilson's idealism And Clemenceau's insistence on severe punishment of Germany found a middle way, but it was Political status It's pretty subtle. George himself won the 1918 general election by appealing to the British public with the idea that Germany was responsible for starting the war, while serving in the coalition government Conservative Party It also demanded that Germany be severely punished to ensure that it no longer posed a threat to Britain. Against this background, George urged an increase in Britain's share of war reparations and German colonies. Both he and Clemenceau had large overseas colonies, and neither favored the policy of "national self-determination."

At the same time, George was acutely aware that harsh terms would provoke strong German revenge, which would not be conducive to a long-term peace. In addition, Germany is Britain's second-largest trading partner, and too much weakening of the German economy would also hurt British economy Both he and Clemenceau recognized that the United States had become an economic power at this time and would become one in the future Military power Therefore, the idea of "national self-determination" was deliberately ignored by both parties when the peace Conference was held.

George's ideas can be summarized as follows: to ensure British naval supremacy, to strengthen Britain by dividing up German overseas colonies; Weakening the German army to a lower level; Germany pays war reparations but not so much as to arouse German revenge; To help Germany rebuild its economy.

Before and after the entry of the United States into the war in April 1917, isolationism prevailed in the United States, and the general public felt that it was necessary to disengage from European affairs as soon as possible. Because the United States was in World War I Through trade Benefiting and becoming the first economic power, the government was inclined to appease Germany and guarantee equal trade opportunities and smooth recovery of war debts.

Before the end of the war, President Wilson had made a fourteen point proposal, which was more lenient and more acceptable to the German public than either the British or the French.

Americans generally don't want that to happen again World war Based on this, President Wilson felt that overly harsh terms would create a vengeful Germany and that war would be inevitable. So he proposed a League of Nations to maintain it International order , that is International community Provide guarantees to protect weak countries from aggression by strong countries. But the European powers generally regard this idea as too idealistic and inconsistent with the reality of European countries. And this policy will lead to the United States Military force Excessive involvement in international affairs.

Wilson realized that his fourteen points would require compromise in order to achieve the League of Nations. And he insisted on a policy of "national self-determination", such as that of Poland, which had just regained its independence from Germany and Russia after World War I. At the same time, he strongly opposed the establishment of secret treaties, such as secret military alliances. But he agreed to weaken the German military to a lower level.

Wilson's fourteen points were as follows:

• An open peace treaty should be concluded in an open manner.

· In various countries Territorial sea Beyond the oceans and waters, there is absolute freedom of navigation, whether in peacetime or in war.

· at all Maximum possible To remove economic barriers and to establish equality among all States that agree to accept peace and cooperate in its maintenance Terms of trade .

• Mutual and adequate assurance that the armaments of States are reduced to the lowest level consistent with the defence of the internal security of States.

The claims of the nations to the rights of the colonies should be freely, enlightened, and unbiased.

· retreat in Russia Every army in the territory.

• The occupying forces in Belgium should be withdrawn, its territory restored, and no attempt should be made to restrict her sovereignty on a par with that of other free nations.

· All the territory of France should be free. occupied Regions of France It should be returned.

· The boundaries of Italy and the former Austro-Hungarian Empire must be clearly defined in accordance with national characteristics.

, Eastern Europe According to the people Principle of national self-determination To establish an independent state.

Independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro. meanwhile Balkan Peninsula The political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the States shall be achieved International treaty Guarantee it.

, Ottoman Empire The future of self-determination of peoples.

Poland became independent and gained access to the Baltic Sea.

• Establish a League of nations to ensure international order.

The main purpose of China's diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference is to recover Shandong (Province) Rights. Japan plenipotentiary The mission was: "To demand that Japan take over all German interests and property in Shandong Province and claim all German-occupied lands north of the equator. Nanyang islands " Therefore, the Shandong issue has become the main criterion to judge the failure of China's diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference.

At first, China thought that the recovery of Shandong's rights and interests was a natural thing to do as a victorious country, but after the Paris Peace Conference, because Japan insisted on inheriting Germany's rights and interests in Shandong, how to fight for the recovery of Shandong's rights and interests became the top task of the Chinese delegation. The delegation believes that "at present, the Shandong issue is the most urgent, so the questions raised are limited to this." I am afraid that if all the issues are raised at the same time, it will inevitably cause problems Europe and America Countries turn their own interests in favor of others, and in our case there is a tendency to isolation." On April 30, 1919, the meeting of the United States, Britain and France decided that Germany would surrender all rights and interests in Shandong to Japan, and Japan would return the German lease and other political rights to China, but retain them economy Rights. Due to Japan's objection, the final treaty text stated only that Germany had ceded it to Japan, and "did not mention the return of it to China."

At that time, China's chief delegate, Lu Zhengxiang, called the Beijing government on the Shandong issue: "Our country is backing down on this issue. Originally advocated injection into the contract, not allowed After modifying the covenant, they refused to accept it; It was changed to a provisional sub-letter stating that the signature could not prejudice a future request for reconsideration. Did not know until this afternoon completely rejected. This matter is of great importance to the complete and stable development of our territory. Therefore, those who have not dared to relax all the time want to keep this problem alive, and avoid the ominous impact of the mentioned hope conditions. Unexpectedly, the general Assembly has been imperious so far, even ignoring my country's slight decency, Hor Sheng indignation! Negotiations between weak countries, the beginning of the dispute and the end of the concession, almost become the practice. If we refuse to sign this treaty, we will have no diplomatic future. For the final decision of the Paris Peace Conference on the Shandong issue, even those with the most moderate attitude to the outside world cannot but think that this is China Diplomatic negotiation The failure.

After much wrangling and haggling among the three men, the result was finally reached: Britain got what the League of Nations had stipulated Mandate system France got 7.5 million people, including Alsace, Lorraine, and the Saar (France was only allowed to possess the Saar for 15 years, after which it was returned to Germany), Japan also got German possessions in the Pacific Ocean, and the American "open door" principle was passed, allowing American goods and capital to enter these areas, and realizing equal opportunities. Everyone has something to share.

The Treaty of Versailles, which dealt with the defeated Germany, was signed at the Peace Conference Austria , Hungary , Türkiye The other countries signed a series of peace treaties. These treaties and the Treaty of Versailles constitute The Versailles system After the first World War, it was established that the United States, Britain, France and other major victors dominated the war International political pattern . The Congress reshaped reality with measures such as territorial distribution and reparations Political pattern To contain Germany and other defeated countries Soviet Russia Communist countries, but at the same time through the formation League of nations In an attempt to establish the ideal norms of international diplomacy.

After the war, the western borders of Germany, the ownership of the Saarland, German reparations and the settlement of the former German colonies became difficult problems in the peace Conference because of the imperialist victors' designs in the division of spoils. After a compromise, the text of the final draft peace treaty with Germany was submitted to the representative of the German government, Brockdorf-Rancho, on 7 May. Germany raised objections to the draft several times, but the victors, such as Britain and France, made only minor corrections to the draft.

June 28 in the suburbs of Paris Versailles Hall of Mirrors Holding of the Entente and Peace Treaty with Germany Signing ceremony . German Foreign Minister Muller and other officials signed on behalf of Germany. The Treaty of Versailles established the peace treaty with the German Allies and was signed separately after the conclusion of the Paris Peace Conference. At the request of the Chinese people, the Chinese delegation proposed to the Peace Conference to take back Germany's occupation of China before the war Jiaozhou Bay , Jiaojia-jinan railway And all rights of Shandong. Japan even asked the Peace Conference to agree to transfer Germany's rights and interests in invading China to Japan, and was supported by Britain and France. Due to the United States, Japan in the Pacific and The Far East Regional contradictions, the United States was initially wary of Japan's aggression against China, Union representation support China's proposition . Later, Japan threatened the United States by refusing to sign the peace treaty and withdrawing from the peace conference, forcing the United States to finally abandon its support for China. Under the impact of the May Fourth Movement, the Chinese delegation had to refuse to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The imperialist powers also secretly drew up plans for armed intervention and economic blockade against Soviet Russia.

(1) Germany should Be guaranteed on Within 15 days from Belgium, France, Luxembourg In other countries Occupied area Retreat, abandoning Alsace, Lorraine and Romania, leaving Austro-Hungary and Turkey;

(2) Germany shall surrender 5,000 gates to the Allies Heavy artillery and Field gun 30,000 machine guns, 2,000 aircraft, six ships A capital ship Eight heavy cruisers, 10 cruisers, 300 submarines, 5,000 locomotives and 5,000 intact automobiles;

(c) The occupation of the left bank of the Rhine by Allied forces, with the provisions of the occupying forces to be borne by Germany;

(4) Germany renounces Treaty of Brest and Treaty of Bucharest ;

(5) East Africa The German army should surrender immediately;

(6) Those captured by the German forces shall be repatriated, but German prisoners of war shall remain in detention;

(7) The continuation of the blockade of Germany. ^[3]

At the formal Peace Conference, representatives of the Allied Powers met separately with representatives of the former enemy powers, once to present the final draft of the peace treaty and once to sign it.

Committees, and annexes League of nations There were 52 special committees on compensation, territorial issues, treaty drafting, liability for war, and international river and port railways.

Signing the Treaty of Versailles

From January to April 1919, Britain, France, the United States, Japan and Italy discussed the issue of formulating a peace treaty with Germany.

After more than three months of wrangling, troika The terms of the peace treaty with Germany were finally agreed, although none of the Big Three were satisfied with the compromise. On May 7th, at Versailles Conference hall A solemn Clemenceau handed the draft of the peace treaty to the German delegation, and the "tiger" chancellor said to the Germans in a triumphant manner: "Gentlemen, you have asked us for peace, and this is the peace we are willing to give you." After reading the 15-part, 440-article peace treaty, the German delegates nearly fainted. The harsh peace treaty made the following provisions: all German colonies were stripped, Lorraine and Alsace were recovered by France, the coal mines in the Saar region of Germany were mined by France, and the administration was administered by the League of Nations for 15 years, after which it was decided by referendum; The German territory on the left bank of the Rhine was divided into three zones of occupation, occupied by the Allies for five, ten and fifteen years, and 50 km on the right bank Undefended area ; Germany could only maintain an army of 100,000 men and a navy of 15,000 men, abolished Compulsory military service Capital ships and submarines, and heavy weapons such as aircraft, tanks and artillery must not be possessed; Germany had to pay huge war reparations to the victors (the reparations Commission of Britain, France, and the United States finally set the amount of reparations at 132 billion German marks, or about $33 billion). How dare anyone sign such a draconian treaty! The German representatives, while reporting back home, asked for the treaty to be amended, but the big Three insisted that the treaty would not be relaxed, making it clear that the Germans could not argue, either sign or continue the war. In the end, the German government capitulated.

The Treaty of Versailles consists of 15 parts and 440 articles. Under the terms of the treaty, Germany lost 10% of its territory, 12.5% of its population, all of its overseas colonies (including German East Africa , German Southwest Africa, Cameroon , Togo and German New Guinea ), 16% Coal country And half Iron and steel industry .

The decision of the border

At the armistice of 11 November 1918, Alsace and Lorraine were ceded to France, restoring France's pre-Franco-Prussian borders.

· North Schleswig Go by referendum , return Denmark .

Recognition of the independence of Poland and the granting of a Polish coastline. The restitution of territories formerly belonging to Poland, including West Prussia , Posen , part East Prussia And parts of Upper Silesia; Eastern Upper Silesia to Czechoslovakia.

· Danzig is administered by the League of Nations, called The free city of Danzig .

Ceding Juben and Salmedi to Belgium; Klaipeda District giving Republic of Lithuania (1923).

· Sal Coal district It is held in French custody for 15 years, and then its ownership is decided by a referendum.

Germany recognized Austria's independence and could never merge with it.

• Recognition of Luxembourg's independence.

· Return the rights and interests in Shandong to China; However, it was later transferred to Japan because of article 21. This triggered the May Fourth Movement and the rejection of the Treaty of Versailles. China declared the war with Germany over in 1919 and signed a separate peace treaty with Germany in 1921.

Signing ceremony of the Treaty of Versailles

· All overseas colonies were distributed by the victors.

Military restrictions

· Territory on the west Bank of the Rhine ( Rhineland It was occupied by Allied forces for 15 years, and no German troops were to be fortified within 50 kilometers of the east and west coasts.

The Army is limited to 100,000 men and must not possess tanks or Heavy artillery , cancel The German General Staff The Settings.

The Navy is limited to 15,000 personnel and only six ships displacement 10,000 tons battleships, 6 cruisers and 12 ships destroyer And is not allowed to own submarine .

· No air force shall be organized.

· No import or export of arms.

· Shall not be produced or stored Chemical weapons .

· To limit acceptance Military training Compulsory military service was abolished, and the term of service was extended to 12 years for non-commissioned officers and 25 years for officers.

War responsibility

Germany must admit full responsibility for the war and admit crimes against Allied civilians.

· Former Kaiser Wilhelm II Be judged as War crimes Chief criminal .

Some German soldiers were tried for war crimes and some were sentenced to death.

War reparation

According to the Allies Compensation committee It was decided that Germany would have to pay a total of 226 billion Mark (about £11.3 billion) and paid in gold, later reduced to 132 billion imperial marks. The year 1921 Amount of compensation It was fixed at 4.99 billion pounds, or 132 billion marks.

This heavy compensation is generally considered to be paid German economy Put on a heavy yoke and indirectly caused The Nazi Party The rise of Germany, but this view of the historians still have different assessments.

The Treaty of Versailles The impact on Germany

1. Germany loses one-eighth of its territory and one-tenth of its population.

2. All the German colonies were divided among the victors (Britain, France, Japan).

3. Germany is subject to arms limitation.

4. Germany must accept full responsibility for the war, admit crimes against Allied civilians, and pay reparations.

It is generally believed that this heavy compensation put a heavy yoke on the German economy and indirectly led to the rise of the Nazi party in Germany, but historians still have different opinions on this view.

5. It stimulated the expansion of national radical consciousness in Germany, sowed the seeds for the growth of militarism, and paved the way for Hitler to come to power.

According to the treaty, the German army, navy and air force combined could only number 100,000 men. Without a strong enough military force, Germany was completely reduced to a third-rate country in Europe. Before Hitler came to power, even small countries such as Poland dared to bully Germany.

Of course, the contents of the treaty also enabled the rapid recovery of the German economy after the war, and Germany's strong educational reserve force also enabled Germany to have enough scientific and technological talents to return to the ranks of European powers shortly after Hitler came to power. ^[4]

The Paris Peace Conference was actually a conference to divide the spoils of the world between the imperialist powers after the First World War, and it did not solve the problem between the imperialists Scramble for colonies The contradictions, the harsh extortion of the defeated Germany, also planted the seeds of revenge, Marshals of France Foch later remarked, "This is not peace, this is a twenty-year truce."

The early days of the Paris Peace Conference were filled with optimistic expectations for peace, and the United States, which was participating in the European war for the first time, brought President Wilson's message The fourteen points of peace It was very popular for a while. However, Wilson's idealistic views were quickly overwhelmed by the attempts of nations to divide spheres of influence and retaliate. National self-determination Such principles are not enforceable. Although the United States signed the treaty, it was not ratified by Congress, so the United States did not participate League of nations , Foreign policy Step into isolationism . The Japanese representative proposed a "racial equality" bill, although it was supported by 11 of the 17 votes of the participating countries, but was firmly opposed by Australia, and eventually was vetoed by the United Kingdom and the United States, and the news stirred nationalist sentiment in Japan. The contract's harsh extortion of the defeated Germany also sowed the seeds of revenge, and French Marshal Foch later commented: "This is not peace, this is a twenty-year truce."

The Paris peace conference intensified the mood of national revenge in Germany World War II It foreshadowed, but kept the peace in Europe stable in the short term.

After the Paris Peace Conference, conflicts between the great powers in Europe and other regions were temporarily suppressed. Subsequently, it established what is known as The Versailles system The Versailles system included not only the treaty with Germany, but also the Treaty with Austria. Treaty of St. Germain , right Bulgaria 's Treaty of Neuilly "On Hungary's" Treaty of Trianon ", Turkey's" The Treaty of Sevres But the treaty with Turkey was rejected by Turkey bourgeoisie The opposition of the coalition was later Kemal Defeated, finally signed the Treaty of Lausanne, from the above several treaties together constitute the Versailles system, the essence of the imperialist rearrangement after the First World War International system .

The Paris Peace Conference played a certain role in coordinating the conflicts between the victorious countries in World War I, but its hegemonic measures of power politics failed to fundamentally coordinate the disputes among countries, such as the "mandate rule" of the colonies in accordance with the principle of national self-determination Ethnic relations In fact, it is to safeguard the interests of the victorious countries, whether between the victorious countries and the defeated countries, or between the victorious countries, or between the colonies semi-colonial The contradiction between them and the imperialists was still not completely resolved, but the seeds of war were sown. Marshal Fuchs of the Army, upon hearing the contents of the peace treaty signed at the Peace Conference, commented: "This is not peace, this is a twenty-year truce." It is worth noting that the marshal's prediction was surprisingly accurate as Germany officially launched World War II It was 20 years later, in 1939.

Germans march against the Treaty of Versailles

For example, the predatory punitive measures imposed on Germany by the Peace Conference seriously hurt the German people National feeling It was widely regarded by the Germans as an "imposed peace". After the war, Germany nationalism The rise also provided a pretext for the emergence of Nazi forces in Germany and Hitler's breaking of the peace treaty to expand and prepare for war. Britain and France also felt guilty about Germany, and later Appeasement doctrine Prevail. And at home shortly after the war Economic crisis . As for The Far East The peace conference has not been actually resolved, China's Shandong ownership problem is one of the representatives. It is worth mentioning that on this issue of the Paris Peace Conference, the United States, both President Wilson himself and the members of the delegation, have clearly expressed support for China's claim to recover the rights and interests of Shandong. After China's request was unreasonably rejected, the members of the US delegation walked out in protest. At that time, China once had a good impression of the United States, and President Wilson became one of the "big men in the world" that people admired at that time (second only to the progressive youth in China) Lenin ). Therefore, in order to coordinate countries in Asia-pacific region The unresolved conflict, only to have two years later Washington conference . The Shandong issue, including that of China, was dealt with at that meeting.

Through the Treaty of Versailles, the Covenant of the League of Nations, and subsequent peace pacts with other defeated nations Legal form The general political, economic and military relations and institutions of the post-war capitalist world were established, namely the so-called Versailles system. Its aim was to consolidate the achievements of the First World War in the repartition of the world, and to organize the first Socialist country - Soviet Russia's armed intervention, economic blockade and subversive and destructive activities. On account of Capitalist country The conflict between, proletariat Revolutionary movement and National liberation movement The system was beset by crises until it finally collapsed in the 1930s.

In 1919, the victors of the First World War held the Paris Peace Conference in Paris, France, centered on dealing with the defeated country Germany, and China was invited to attend. Although the peace conference was full of imperialist great power politics, it had a positive impact on China, which had the status of a victorious nation:

First, as a victorious country, China has the bargaining capital, the psychology of the winner, the tone of the winner. At the peace conference, the Chinese diplomats were eloquent, justified, impassioned, and raised their eyebrows, which fully demonstrated the diplomatic talent and level of the Chinese people, which was impressive and reshaped China's diplomacy International image .

Second, as a victorious country, the Treaty of Versailles provided for some favorable terms for China, such as abolishing the German consular jurisdiction in China, canceling the bitter and ugly reparations to Germany, and returning the land outside Shandong Province Concession territory Etc.; The peace treaty with Austria led China to join and be elected to the League of Nations Executive Yuan .

Third, as a victorious country, China's reasonable demands have won wide understanding and sympathy from the international community.

Fourth, as a victorious power, the rejection of China's legitimate demands became a reality that normal emotions could not accept, and the people fell from the peak of hope into the deep valley of disappointment, and a national anger of betrayal and contempt erupted. The May Fourth Movement opened the prelude to the new democratic revolution in China.

Fifth, as far as Italy is concerned, she joined the Allies in the First World War because Britain, France, and Russia promised Italy to give Fiumu and Dalmacia after the war, but it was not mentioned in the peace Conference. To her great displeasure. In future days fascism The rise of Mussolini provided a pretext for advocating external expansion. In addition, the victors of the Peace Conference gave China's Shandong province to Japan in favor of Japan, encouraging aggressive ambitions and launching the September 18 Incident in Northeast China in the 1930s.

" declare "," Current affairs update An article from Paris on May 5, signed by a "journalist", condemned Beiyang government Japanophile A bureaucrat who lost power and humiliated the country was specially interviewed by a representative appointed by the southern military government, one of the five representatives of China attending the peace conference Wang Zhengting "Quoted Wang's analysis of the reasons for the diplomatic failure.

The streets of Shanghai during the May Fourth Movement

In a report dated May 10, more than 300 Chinese living in Paris held a rally on May 9 to protest China's diplomatic failure and government incompetence, "the Chinese here are extremely angry" and "the atmosphere is filled with awe and injustice."

When the issue of Qingdao's return was decided not to return to our country at the Paris Peace Conference, the newspapers received the manuscript and published it in time, igniting the anger of the people of the whole country, especially young students, and immediately breaking out the vigorous "May Fourth" movement. in Masses of the people Under great pressure, the Beiyang government delegation did not sign the peace treaty.

The Paris Peace Conference thoroughly exposed the terrible face of imperialism, and the unreasonable decision of the Paris Peace Conference on the Shandong issue greatly angered the Chinese people and shattered their illusions about imperialism. On May 4, 1919, Beijing students gathered in front of Tiananmen Square and sounded the battle horn of anti-imperialism and patriotism, "fight for national rights outside, punish national thieves inside" and "abolish. twenty-one "The roar spread across the country. After June 3, the Chinese working class, with great fanfare and in the form of a general political strike, took part in the anti-imperialist patriotic struggle and gave it a severe lesson imperialism and Beiyang Warlords .

The May Fourth Movement was Modern Chinese history On the first by Pupil The nationwide patriotic democratic movement of the workers and other masses against imperialism and the betrayal of the country by warlords became the beginning of China's new-democratic revolution. ^[5]

February 4, 1919 declare The 7th edition of the Paris Conference on China reported:

...

American radio cloud, the Chinese delegation to Europe proposed that the Peace Conference amend the nineteen ninety-five Sino-Japanese Treaty of twenty-one, it is said that the Chinese people decided to submit the nineteen ninety-five Sino-Japanese Treaty to the European Peace Conference for amendment, is the most important issue... Moreover, it is also contradictory to the United States' doctrine of opening the door to China, so the United States government first declared its opposition to the treaty and explained the reasons for its opposition Deliver a note to The Japanese government said that at the time of the European peace talks, it proposed to revise the cloud...

"Declaration" historical records News headline Parts:

Published the 13th edition of the Declaration on the current situation 1937.08.04

International situation With the total Anti-Japanese War auxiliary 1937.08.04 declaration version 6

Tongzhou recent facts 1937.07.29 declaration 9th edition

For the current national salvation work of 1937.07.28 declaration of the 16th edition

Began to question the controversy 1937.07.28 declaration version 8

Speech Diplomacy 1937.07.28 Declaration 8th edition

Day screening 1937.07.28 declaration version 5

A voice of enemy support 1937.07.25 declaration version 13

Memo 1937.07.20 from the Chinese Embassy to Japan, version 5

Adequate storage 1937.07.19 declaration version 16

Flew back this morning Java 1937.07.18 Declaration 13th edition

Tianjin citizens published electricity 1937.07.18 declaration 4 version......

The disappearance of the Chinese archive box

On January 18, 1919, the world-famous Paris Peace Conference was held Palace of Versailles, France Grand opening. It was a meeting of the victors of the First World War to redraw their spheres of influence. As a member of the victorious countries, China saw the hope of recovering the territory lost to Germany and Austria in modern times, and sent a delegation of more than 50 people headed by Lu Zhengxiang, Gu Weijun, Wang Zhengting and other five people to attend the conference. However, the mysterious disappearance of the archives box containing important documents of the Chinese delegation at the meeting created obstacles for the smooth completion of the mission of the Chinese delegation.

Japanese ambition

Long before the peace conference, Beiyang government This set out the main tasks of the Chinese delegation. The most important thing was to recover all the pre-war German interests in Shandong Province, which could not be inherited by Japan. As far as the general law is concerned, China is the victor and Germany is the defeated, and it is natural for the victors to take back what originally belonged to them. But the issue is complicated by Japan's ambitions.

May Fourth Movement, painted by Chen Yuxian

In August 1914, in spite of China's opposition, Japan blatantly declared war on Germany on the Chinese territory, forcibly took control of Shandong and occupied Germany's rights and interests in Shandong, and forced the Beiyang government to sign relevant treaties.

The disappearance of the file box

However, for those who value evidence Western countries As far as representatives are concerned, although Gu Weijun's speech is excellent and reasonable, the evidence is insufficient. Therefore, the Presidium of the Paris Peace Conference asked the Chinese delegation to submit a written statement on the views expressed by Gu Weijun at the meeting within one week, and to attach the Sino-Japanese dossier supporting this statement to the statement. In view of Gu Weijun's excellent performance, the Chinese mission decided that he was mainly responsible for the preparation and drafting of the written statement.

Gu Weijun, styled Shaochuan, was born in Jiading, Jiangsu Province in 1887 Shanghai City). He studied in the United States in 1905 Columbia University He received a doctorate in International law. He returned to China in 1912 and served successively Yuan Shikai English secretary to the President, Counselor to the Foreign Ministry. In 1915, he was appointed Minister to the United States and Japan, and ambassador to the United States before attending the Paris Peace Conference.

When Gu Weijun and others were busy collecting archival information, the problem appeared. On their departure from Beijing, the Chinese delegation was prepared with a cryptographic dossier. The box contained a number of top-secret archives on Manchurian, Lu, Mongolian, and Tibetan issues, including many originals of secret treaties and various loan agreements signed between China and Japan that were not known even to Chinese diplomatic missions abroad. You can imagine the importance of this file box. But when the Chinese delegation really needed it, it was missing.

When was it lost? Where did you lose it? Who did it? According to the Chinese delegation, it was lost in Japan and was most likely deliberately stolen by Japanese intelligence services. The documents contained in the archives are of great interest only to Japan, because the contents of these documents involve many of Japan's unspeakable secrets, and if these documents are exposed to the Paris Peace Conference, they will be very unfavorable to Japan. While China's archival information is not complete, Japan can rely on its own archival information.

But even if there is a glimmer of hope, the Chinese delegation cannot give up. Some delegation members recalled arriving in the United States New York harbor I think I saw it at the docks. Based on this lead, the Chinese delegation called the consulates in Washington and New York respectively to inquire about the matter. New York consulate consul-general Zou Yucheng immediately contacted the person in charge of the baggage department of the American side and On the dock The man in charge, only to return empty-handed. After that, although after a hundred searches, never found. To this day, the disappearance of this archive box remains a historical mystery.

The meeting place is set for Paris

Why did the peace meeting take place in Paris? Much depends on France's vengeful mood. France and Germany had been enemies for many years, and seeing this old rival finally fall at their feet, France naturally wanted to inflict a hearty humiliation on Germany on its own turf. Franco-prussian War After the defeat of France, King of Prussia Was in France The Palace of Versailles Crown as German Empire The Emperor, in order to impose the humiliation of the year on the head of Germany, the venue of the peace meeting was not only chosen in Paris, but also the place where the Kaiser was crowned.

Paris Peace Conference

catalogue

Historical background

Participating country

The United States

French prescription

British prescription

Italian prescription

Japan

Inequality provision

Proceedings of the meeting

Other agenda

China bill

Conference substance

Purpose of the meeting

France

Britain

America

China

Meeting result

Conference treaty

Armistice terms

The Treaty of Versailles

Conference evaluation

Meeting impact

Impact on the world

Impact on China

Detailed report

anecdote