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World War I

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World war between imperialist countries in the early 20th century
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World War I ( English : World War I [40] , The First World War [50 ] Or the Great War, WWI or WW1, July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918 [10] The term "World War I" was coined in the early 20th century Capitalist country to imperialism The unbalanced political and economic development during the transition led to a world-class imperialist war between the imperialist powers in order to re-divide the world and compete for global hegemony. [1] [44] The two sides in the war were mainly German and Austrian Allied countries And with Britain, France and Russia as the core The Entente countries . [46] 45 -
June 1914 Sarajevo incident Happened, July Austro-hungarian Empire War was declared on Serbia. War broke out. The battlefields were initially concentrated in Western and Eastern Europe Balkan Peninsula Later, it expanded to Turkey, Italy and many colonies in Asia and Africa. The main battle was always in Europe. At the beginning of the war, the Allies had the initiative. In 1914, both sides launched a simultaneous strategic offensive in Western Europe, which was successively blocked. By the end of 1915, both sides' plans for a quick decisive war had failed, and the war had shifted from mobile to positional warfare. After 1916, the war reached a stalemate and the Allies began to lose the initiative. In 1917, the United States, China and other countries entered the war, and Germany shifted to the defense on the eastern and western fronts. In 1918, the two sides engaged in a strategic decisive battle, in which the Allies seized the initiative and launched a full-scale counter-offensive on all fronts. In November of the same year, The Armistice of Compiegne The war ended in the defeat of the Allies. [46] 45 -
World War I was one of the most destructive wars in European history, bringing untold disasters to mankind. More than 70 million troops from 33 countries participated in the war, 1.5 billion people were involved in the war, 8.5 million soldiers and 13 million civilians were killed, and 21 million were injured [29] [40] [43] . The economic damage caused by the war was $270 billion [19] . But it has promoted the development of science and technology objectively [24] [27] The political, economic, cultural and other aspects of all countries have achieved rapid development. postwar National consciousness Formation, the development of national concepts, and the formation of" Versailles-washington system As a sign of the new international order. [8]
( Overview diagram source [12] )
Given name
World War I (English: World War I)
Occurrence time
28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918
Ground point
Europe , Pacific , The Middle East , Mediterranean with Africa , Asia Part of the area
combatant
Allied countries , The Entente countries
Bear fruit
The Allies, led by Britain and France, won
Combatant strength
About 65 million people
casualty
Total Allied soldiers killed: 5,497,600
Total Allied soldiers killed: 3,382,500
Total wounded on both sides: about 10 million
Total civilian deaths: 6,493,000
Chief commander
Wilhelm II , Franz Joseph I , Mohammed V , Ferdinand the First , King George V , Ramon Poincare , Nicholas II , Victor Emmanuel III , Woodrow Wilson , Feng Guozhang , Peter I , Albert I , Constantine the First
Allied countries
German Empire , Austro-hungarian Empire , Ottoman Empire , Kingdom of Bulgaria
The Entente countries
British Empire , French Third Republic , Russian Empire , Kingdom of Italy , United States , Kingdom of Serbia , Kingdom of Belgium , Kingdom of Romania , Kingdom of Greece , Republic of China , Great Japanese Empire Etc. [9]
Blasting fuse
June 28, 1914 Sarajevo incident
Start mark
On July 28, 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia
End mark
Germany surrendered on 11 November 1918 [2]
nature
Imperialist war Aggressive, unjust
Post-war impact
Four European empires were destroyed; The strength of the European powers declined, and the rise of the United States and Japan
Post-war system
Versailles-washington system

catalogue

  1. 1War background
  2. ▪Four pairs of contradictions
  3. ▪Two groups
  4. 2Cause of war
  5. ▪Expand the army and prepare for war
  6. ▪War rehearsal
  1. ▪Fuse of great war
  2. 3Course of war
  3. ▪Eruption
  4. ▪Attack
  5. ▪In a stalemate
  6. ▪counterattack
  1. 4Outcome of war
  2. 5Effects of war
  3. 6War evaluation
  4. 7memorialize

War background

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EDITOR

Four pairs of contradictions

A cartoon depicting Germany challenging British naval supremacy
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with The Second Industrial Revolution and Monopoly organization The emergence of the major capitalist powers developed to imperialism Stages. Under the role and influence of the unbalanced law of capitalist economic and political development, these imperialist countries have launched fierce struggles for world hegemony and colonies. On the other hand, the economic and political development of the imperialist countries was unbalanced, which made the comparison of their strengths significantly changed, and the contradictions among the great powers became more complicated. Among them, there are four pairs of basic contradictions, namely Contradiction between Britain and Germany Russia-germany conflict, Contradiction between France and Germany and Russian-austrian contradiction . [1] [10] The four pairs of contradictions are roughly as follows:
  • Contradiction between Britain and Germany: From its traditional foreign policy, Britain sought to maintain a balance of power on the continent, and did not want either an upstart Germany to become too strong or Russia to become too powerful in the Balkans. At the beginning of the 20th century, Germany overtook Britain in industrial status and regarded Britain as a "declining nation." German goods crowded out Britain everywhere. Germany attempted to challenge the British Empire, which had achieved world hegemony, and hoped to establish an independent state East Africa to South West Africa The "Equatorial African Empire", developed with the British "three C" plan ( Cape Town to Cairo to Calcutta There is a conflict. in Middle Near East Germany built from Constantinople , Berlin to Baghdad Persian Gulf Baghdad railway He openly advocated that the railway was to open up the road for Germany to Iran and Afghanistan. This is directly damaging to the UK in The Middle East The interests that threaten British India . The main objective of German expansion was clearly to seize British territories abroad colony The massive expansion of Germany's navy made Britain feel that Germany was its main enemy. [23] With the intensification of the conflict on the colonial issue, the contradiction between Britain and Germany began to intensify, and some researchers regarded it as the main contradiction between imperialist countries at that time [25] . [1] [10]
  • Contradictions between Russia and Germany: Germany banned imports of Russian livestock and restricted imports of Russian grain. Russia retaliated against Germany by restricting imports of German industrial goods. [23] Relations between the two countries continue to deteriorate due to this constant trade friction. [10]
  • Franco-german contradictions: Franco-prussian War France, defeated in the Middle of the war, lost its former dominant position in Western and Central Europe, and after this war, France's Lorraine Eastern Hoa Alsace Ceded to Germany, all levels of the country unanimously demanded revenge. In order to prevent a French resurgence, Germany has greatly expanded its armaments. There was also tension between France and Germany over the struggle for colonies in North Africa. [10]
  • Contradictions between Russia and Austria: The expression of the contradiction between Russia and Austria is right Balkan Peninsula On the scramble. For years, the Russian empire grew Slavism It expanded into the southern Slavic areas of the Balkans, in the political union of Central Europe Austro-hungarian Empire It also continued to expand into the northwestern Balkans, fearing that the southern Slavs under its rule would be instigated by Russia to become independent. [3]
The world before World War I [14]

Two groups

  • Triple Alliance
In 1879, Chancellor of the German Empire Otto von Bismarck Germany signed the "Alliance Treaty" with Austria-Hungary, which was clearly anti-Russian in nature. Later, because Italy had lost the struggle with France for Tunisia, Bismarck took the opportunity to draw Italy into the fight against France. In 1882, Germany, Austria and Italy signed the Treaty of Alliance, Triple Alliance Officially established. Germany became the core of the Triple Alliance. [4]
  • Triple entente
Poster depicting the Triple Entente (1914)
After the conflict between Russia and Germany, Russia, with the continuous development of the industrial revolution, needed foreign capital to build railways, while France needed capital exports, and the French government used loans to develop diplomatic relations between the two countries. In 1892, France and Russia concluded the Franco-Russian Military Agreement, which came into effect the following year. [23] The agreement stipulated that if France was attacked by Germany or by German-backed Italy, Russia would attack Germany with all its military might, and if Russia was attacked by Germany or by German-backed Austria-Hungary, France should attack Germany with all its military might. Russia-france alliance After its formation, Europe began to face off between the two major military blocs. It is also to Triple entente The first step in the direction.
Faced with the common enemy Germany, the contradiction between Britain and France gradually eased. In 1904," Anglo-french Entente And reconciled the colonial disputes between the two countries. English, Russian in the Near East and The Far East The contradiction turned out to be very sharp. Russo-japanese War After the weakening of Russia, the British fear of Russia was eliminated, and the German Baghdad railway plan was both against Britain and to blockade Russia The Black Sea As a result, Britain and Russia had a common enemy in the Near East, and the original contradictions retreated to a secondary position. On the other hand, Russia's dependence on British and French capital increased. Thus, in 1907, Britain and Russia signed a treaty Anglo-russian entente He coordinated the disputes between the two countries over Persia, Tibet, and Afghanistan. [23] At this point, the Triple Entente was formally established, and the two major military blocs in Europe were finally formed. [4]

Cause of war

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EDITOR

Expand the army and prepare for war

Europe in 1915 (red for Allies, green for Allies)
After the formation of the two imperialist military blocs, in order to compete for world hegemony, they actively expanded their armies and prepared for war, and constantly increased their defense budgets. In 1890, the German, Austrian and Italian defense budgets were 28.8 million pounds, 12.8 million pounds, and 14.8 million pounds, respectively; by 1914, they had increased to 110.8 million pounds, 36.6 million pounds, and 28.2 million pounds, respectively. Both military blocs greatly expanded their armies. By the start of the war, Germany and Austria-Hungary had a combined army of 3.7 million men; The Allied army had a total strength of 5.8 million men. Germany, France, Russia, Great Britain and Austria-Hungary had 4.9 million, 5.06 million, 5.65 million, 1.2 million and 3 million military trained, respectively. In 1913, the Belgian army was only 54,000, but during the war it swelled to 340,000. When it comes to the naval arms race, Britain and Germany stand out. From 1889 to 1914, Germany expanded its navy four times. The British continued to build larger tonnage and larger caliber guns The battleship Intrepid He also proposed the "2:1 principle" that Germany should build one warship and Britain should build two. By 1908, Britain and Germany" dreadnoughts The ratio is now four to three, giving Britain only a slight advantage. By the time the war broke out in 1914, Britain had 688 warships and Germany 391. [44]
Before the outbreak of the First World War, the armies of some European countries had begun to be equipped with advanced weapons. in Armored vehicle On the basis of the emergence of more than 25 kilometers per hour tank ; aeroplane Used on the battlefield, this developed rapidly in Russia, France, Britain and Germany, and new arms appeared Air arm ; CARS It is not uncommon for long-distance transport to complete military missions. Conventional weapons On the other hand, automatic, Semi-automatic rifle , light, Heavy Machine Gun ; Caliber up to 155mm Field gun ; With a range of up to 12 kilometers howitzer Let's wait. With the approach of war, all countries are making war plans. Germany formulated a "war plan" to defeat France and Russia. The Schlieffen Plan "; Austria-hungary developed a plan to cooperate with Germany, mainly against Russia and Serbia; Russia devised an "alliance" with France to defeat both Germany and Austria-Hungary. Plan 19 "; France drew up a plan to attack Germany. Plan 17 Britain also drew up operational plans to strike Germany at sea. [44]
While the imperialist powers are actively expanding their armies and preparing for war, they are constantly Shouting for peaceful disarmament to cover up their war actions. In May 1899, representatives of 26 countries were in the Netherlands The Hague Convening the first peace conference (see article) Hague Peace Conference ). Although the conference signed the" Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes "And other documents, but not in disarmament Any substantive resolution on the issue has not eased the international situation in the slightest. In June 1907, Second Hague Peace Conference Be convened. During the four-month session, the question of arms reduction or limitation was not on the agenda at all, and there were no substantive disarmament actions by the Great Powers. The conference concluded the Hague Convention, including the prohibition of the use of poison gas and dumham bombs, the protection of the rights of neutral states and neutral personnel in time of war, restrictions on the laying of mines. However, these were never well implemented in later wars. The two Hague peace conferences achieved nothing in terms of disarmament or arms limitation, while war fanaticism grew. [44]

War rehearsal

The arms race has led directly to the intensification of military conflicts and political crises. [44] 1898 Spanish-american War It was the first imperialist war in which the Great powers redivided the colonies and "opened the prelude to a larger war in the imperialist era". [10]
In the early 20th century, there were two Moroccan crises in North Africa, which strengthened the Anglo-French treaty, and made the Anglo-German conflict clearer and deeper, which was one of the factors for the outbreak of the First World War. [24]
In 1905, France moved towards Morocco Proposed a "reform" that would turn it into a French protectorate. Germany, believing that France's actions put its vital interests at risk, actively supported Morocco's rejection of the French plan. Kaiser Wilhelm II He visited Morocco at the end of March of that year, supported Morocco's sovereignty, and stressed that the status of all countries in Morocco should be "absolutely equal". Not to be outdone, France, supported by Britain, sent warships to Morocco in a show of force in June 1905 and emerged The first Moroccan crisis . At the international conference that followed, France was given many privileges, and Germany was in trouble. [44]
The spring of 1911, the capital of Morocco Fez An anti-imperialist popular uprising broke out, which was suppressed by French troops in the name of restoring order and protecting the diaspora, occupying Fez and then taking control of all of Morocco. In July, the German gunboat Leopard entered a port in southwest Morocco Agadir To engage in war provocation. France and Germany broke out The second Moroccan crisis . The British Navy took advantage of the situation and went into combat readiness, supporting France and putting pressure on Germany to compromise again. Germany's loss of power in the two Moroccan crises prompted it to vigorously develop its military power; Britain and France also had closer military ties and were ready to respond to a war provoked by Germany. [44]
In the eastern Mediterranean Balkan region The infighting among the great powers, intertwined with the Balkan national independence movement, made the situation here more complicated. In 1908, the Bosnian crisis began. According to the 1878" Treaty of Berlin Bosnia and Herzegovina, although nominally Ottoman Empire The Austro-Hungarian Empire gained control of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was not satisfied, however, and was ready to formally annex the two regions. In September 1908, Austria-Hungary reached a secret agreement with Russia: Austria-Hungary agreed to open up to the Russian fleet Black sea strait Russia agreed to the annexation of Poland and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary. On October 7, Austria-Hungary formally annexed Poland and Herzegovina, much to Russia's irritation. The Serbian government has always regarded Poland and Montenegro as the future of the establishment of Serbia as the main body Yugoslavia An important part of the country, furious with Austria-Hungary, mobilized for war and sought Russian support. In Russia Slavs The "protector" of the United States supported the Serbs against Austria-Hungary. But Austria-Hungary, with the support of Germany, took a hard line and issued an ultimatum to Serbia. In February 1909, Turkey signed an agreement with Austria-Hungary, giving up its sovereignty over Poland and Herzegovina in exchange for 2.5 million pounds. Germany threatened war and demanded that Russia press Serbia to recognize the annexation of Poland and Montenegro by Austria-Hungary. Without the support of the British and French Allies, Russia was weak and began to make concessions to Germany. Serbia was forced to give in under Russian pressure. [44]
The Bosnian crisis intensified the conflict between Serbia and Russia and Austria-Hungary and Germany, and Russia began to rebuild its military strength on a large scale. Europe began a full-scale war. [44]
The Balkans on the eve of World War I [13]
In October 1912, an outbreak broke out in the Turkish-controlled Balkans The First Balkan War . Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro formed a Balkan alliance that quickly defeated Turkey. Turkey was forced to Sue for peace, and asked the powers to mediate, and the powers took the opportunity to pursue their own interests. On December 6, 1912, a peace conference between the Balkan League and Turkey and a meeting of ambassadors from Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Italy and Austria-Hungary took place simultaneously in London. At the meeting of the six ambassadors, the Allies supported the Balkan League and the Central Powers supported Turkey. On May 30, 1913, Turkey signed a treaty with the Balkan League. Peace of London The latter acquired a large territory, while Turkey's European territory was preserved only in Istanbul and a narrow area north of the Strait. The war freed the peoples of the Balkans from Turkish rule. In this sense, the Balkan War took on the character of a struggle for national liberation. [44]
The Balkan Allies were divided over territorial disputes, and the Second Balkan War broke out in June 1913. The Great powers took the opportunity to intervene, with Austria-Hungary supporting Bulgaria and the Allies supporting Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Turkey. With the balance of forces and the situation on the battlefield clearly at a disadvantage, Bulgaria was forced to propose a ceasefire, and the warring parties signed a peace treaty in Bucharest in August. Serbia and Greece divided most of Macedonia, Bulgaria retained only a small part of Macedonia, and South Dobroga was ceded to Romania. Later in the Treaty of Preservation, Adria Castle was given to Turkey. The war divided the Balkan states into two blocs: on the one hand, Serbia, Greece, and Romania, which were under the influence of Russia and France; On the other side were Bulgaria and Turkey, supported by the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Germany. The two Balkan Wars further deepened the contradiction between the two major military blocs of imperialism. In the international politics of Europe, the Balkan region became more and more sensitive and became a veritable "powder keg" in Europe. [22-23] [44]

Fuse of great war

Subject article: Sarajevo incident
June 28, 1914 (Serbia's "Day of Infamy"), Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary Archduke Franz Ferdinand With wife Sophia in Sarajevo During the inspection, by Serbian nationalists Gavrilo Princip Bullets. The Allies and the Allied group took advantage of this sudden incident, contributing to the rapid deterioration of the international situation [10] . The events of Sarajevo are later regarded as the trigger for the First World War. [5] [19]

Course of war

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EDITOR

Eruption

After the Sarajevo incident, the German Emperor Wilhelm II issued a "bad check" to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, making the Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz Joseph I At 6:00 p.m. on July 23, 1914 [22] An "ultimatum" to Serbia (cf Austria-hungary's ultimatum to Serbia The Serbian government accepted within a limited time all articles except Articles 5 and 6, which violated its own constitution and undermined its sovereignty, and at the same time began a general war. The Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia on July 28 when Serbia did not accept all the terms, and World War I officially began. [10] [16]
The warring sides are divided into Allied countries (Central Powers) and The Entente countries (Triple Entente) two major groups. After the outbreak of World War I, the war was fought mainly on four fronts in Europe [44] :
  • Western Front: British, French and Belgian troops against German forces;
  • Eastern Front: The Russian army fought Austria-Hungary and the German Army;
  • Balkan front: Kingdom of Serbia, Kingdom of Montenegro , Kingdom of Romania , Kingdom of Greece The military and Austria-Hungary, Kingdom of Bulgaria The army fights;
  • Italian Front: Italian army against Austro-Hungarian army with British and French support. [44]
In addition, there were the Near East front fought by Britain and Turkey and the Caucasus front fought by Russia and Turkey, as well as naval and air battles. Of these many fronts, the Western front (cf World War I Western Front ) and the Eastern Route (see article World War I Eastern Front ) is the main battlefield. [44] The battle on the Western front was considered decisive. [6]
World War I Situation (European Theater) [11]
The main countries and people of the two camps (in order of time of war)
affiliation
nation
Time of engagement
Main character
The Entente countries
Kingdom of Serbia
July 28, 1914
Peter I , Nicola Pacic , Prince Alexander ( Alexander I ), Radomir Putnik
Kingdom of Montenegro
August 1, 1914 (Surrendered to Austria-Hungary in January 1916)
Nicholas I Janko Vukotic
Russian Empire / Russian Republic / Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
Empire: 30 July 1914 (exited in February 1917)
Nicholas II , Nikolai Nikolayevich , Alexei Alexievich Brusilov
The Republic: February Revolution The war against the Allies continued
Alexander Fodorovich Kerensky
Soviet Russia: Adopted on March 3, 1918 Peace of Brest-Litovsk Out of World War I
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin
French Third Republic (including French colonies)
August 3rd, 1914
Georges Clemenceau , Ramon Poincare , Rene Viviani , Aristide Briand , Joseph Chaffee , Robert George Nivelle , Ferdinand Foch , Joseph Simon Galliani , Henry Philip Petain
Kingdom of Belgium (including the Belgian colonies)
August 4, 1914
Albert I
British Empire (including British Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa and other colonies)
August 4, 1914
King George V , David Lloyd George , Herbert Henry Asquith , Horatio Herbert Kitchener , John French , Douglas Haig , Hugh Trenchard , Winston Churchill
Imperial Japan
August 23, 1914
Emperor Taisho , Shigobu Okuma , Saki Masayoshi , Kamiao Mitsuomi
Kingdom of Italy (formerly Allied Powers)
May 23, 1915
Vittorio Emanuele III , Antonio Salandra , Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando , Luigi Cadorna , Armando Diaz
Republic of SAN Marino
In May 1915
-
Portuguese Republic (including Portuguese colonies)
March 1916
Bernardino Machado, Sidonio Bais, NORTON de Matos
Kingdom of Romania
August 27, 1916
Ferdinand the First , Jonel Bretianu Konstantin Prezin
United States
April 6, 1917 (as Co-belligerents)
Woodrow Wilson , Newton Dill Baker Jr , John Joseph Pershing
Kingdom of Greece
July 2, 1917
Constantine the First , Alexander I , Eleftherios Venizelos
Kingdom of Siam
July 1917
Rama VI
Republic of China ( Beiyang government )
August 14, 1917
Feng Guozhang , Duan Qirui Etc.
Brazil United States
October 26, 1917
Wenceslau Blas Pereira Gomez Pedro Max Fernando Frontin, Jose Pessoa Cavalcanti
Note: Czechoslovakia, Armenia, Poland, and some Arab Emirates also sent troops (or volunteers, or irregulars) to assist the Allies.
Allied countries
Austro-hungarian Empire
July 28, 1914
Franz Joseph I , Carl I , Franz Conrad von Herzendorf
German Empire (including German colonies)
August 1st, 1914
Wilhelm II , Helmut Johannes Ludwig von Moltke , Erich von Farkinghan , Paul von Hindenburg , Erich von Rudendorff
Ottoman Empire
August 2, 1914 (secret accession)
October 29, 1914 (officially admitted)
Mohammed V , Enver Pasha , Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
Kingdom of Bulgaria
October 14, 1915
Ferdinand the First
( Table reference [6] [19] [29] )

Attack

1914 was the first phase of the war. [6]
The Schlieffen Plan [41]
On July 30, 1914, Russia and Austria-Hungary began to mobilize for war. On July 31, Germany issued a "double ultimatum" to France and Russia. On August 1, France and Germany began to mobilize for war, and Germany declared a state of war with Russia. On 2 August, the Germans moved in The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg . On August 3, Germany declared war on France. Britain began to mobilize for war. On August 4, Germany moved towards Kingdom of Belgium Declaration of war. Britain declared war on Germany. Austria-hungary declared war on Russia on August 5. [16]
Beginning in August, the Germans, in accordance with the pre-war and modified Schlieffen Plan, intended to launch a major offensive first on the Western front. But by the British, French and Belgian armies in the first Battle of the Marne (5-12 September). The Battle of the Marne was the first major battle of the war Strategic decisive battle More than 1.5 million people fought on both sides. After the first Battle of the Marne, the German plan for a quick victory broke down completely and had to retreat Henne On the front, and in a stalemate between east and West. British and French forces attacked the German lines from 15 to 18 September, but were repulsed (cf Battle of the Aisne ). Since then, both sides have been fighting Oise to Switzerland Boundary lot, since Mobile warfare Roll into Positional warfare . [17] In September-October, British and French forces fought with German forces on the Oise River Pas-de-Calais Between the vast areas carried out" Run out to sea In the battle, both sides tried to outflank each other, but without success. At the end of October, the German army launched The First Battle of Ypres The two sides won and lost, and finally reached a stalemate. From then on, the Western front formed a long front from the Swiss border to the Pas-de-Calais, and entered the stage of positional warfare. [6] [16]
The situation on the Eastern Front during World War I [41]
On the eastern front, the Russian First and Second Armies attacked first on 16 August East Prussia However, the Second Army was destroyed by the German encirclement (see article) The Battle of Tanenberg ). In September, the Russian Northwest Front attacked the German Eighth Army, but was defeated with heavy casualties (cf Battle of Lake Mazuri ). Although the Russian attack failed, it also divided German forces and affected the war on the Western Front. At the same time, the Russians expelled the Austro-Hungarian army from Lemburg, forcing it to retreat to The Carpathian Mountains . [6] On October 29, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, and the scale of the war continued to increase. [44] After that, it fought a war with the British in the Middle East. In early November, Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia. [16]
In addition, Japan in East Asia aimed to expand its power and aggression in East Asia China Concluded in 1902 by the" Anglo-japanese alliance Under the pretext of declaring war on Germany on 23 August 1914, Germany was occupied in early November China 's" Leased territory " Qingdao And "Protect territory" Jiaozhou Bay (see entry Battle of Qingdao ), as well as Germany in Pacific the The Marshall Islands and The Caroline Islands . [6] [44]

In a stalemate

1915-16 was the second phase of the war .
  • The Western Front, Italy and the Balkans in 1915
Australian soldiers wearing gas masks during the Second Battle of Ypres [47]
In 1915, the allied forces of Britain and France launched several attacks on the German army in northern France in an attempt to drive the German army out of France, but were fiercely resisted by the German army. In April, the Germans made a second attack Battle of Ypres mid-Hague International convention I used it for the first time gas The allied forces suffered heavy losses. Since then, both sides have used poison gas on a massive scale. [44]
The German army, which was in a strategic defensive position on the western front, began to shift its center of gravity to the east in an attempt to overcome the dilemma of a two-front war by defeating the relatively weak Russia first. From 2 May to 22 June, the German and Austrian forces concentrated their superior forces and engaged the Russians in the Gorlitzer region of Western Galicia, where the Russians suffered a heavy defeat (see article) The Battle of Gollitzer ). [44]
On April 26 of the same year, Italy, which had belonged to the Allied camp, decided to defect and sign the Treaty of London with the Allied camp after receiving the territorial compensation promised by the Allies. In May, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, broke ties with Germany, and officially joined the Allies. 18 [19] In October, Kingdom of Bulgaria After witnessing the defeat of the Russian army on the Eastern Front and the difficulties of Britain and France in the Battle of Gallipoli, he joined the Central Powers and occupied all of Serbia with Germany and the Ottoman Empire.
Also on 19 February of that year, the British and French forces forced their way into the territory controlled by the Ottoman Empire The Dardanelles To get through The Bosphorus The aim of occupying its capital, Istanbul, was launched Gallipoli . As a result, the British and French forces committed a large number of troops to the attack, but it was ultimately unsuccessful, and was forced to conduct a major retreat from November to January 1916. [21]
  • Three major land campaigns on the Eastern and Western fronts in 1916
Although the German-Austrian group won on the eastern front, it could not get rid of the dilemma of the two fronts, so it decided to move to the Western front again. [44] As a result, 1916 was seen by both sides as a decisive year. During the year, there were three major land battles, namely on the Western front The Battle of Verdun , Battle of the Somme And the eastern front Brusilov breaks through .
The Battle of Verdun
French troops pass through the ruins of Verdun in 1916
From 21 to 25 February 1916, heavy artillery bombarded northeastern France Verdun Fortress, used Burning shot And gas, and used it for the first time bomber He launched several attacks on the Verdun fortress in order to fight against the French army. At first, the French first line of defense was broken. The French government rushed to reinforce 190,000 fresh troops, 25,000 tons of ammunition, and 3,900 vehicles Henry Philip Petain Commander of the Verdun district. Although the Germans made a breakthrough, they were never able to take Verdun and moved to the defense from the end of August. On 21 October, the French counterattacked, and by 18 December they had regained all the territory they had lost. This battle is considered to be the turning point of World War I. [21] The Battle of Verdun was the longest attrition of the war, involving 66 French and 46 German divisions. With about 2 million soldiers and more than 700,000 casualties, this bloody battle is also known as the "Verdun Meat grinder." [44]
Battle of the Somme
At the same time as the Battle of Verdun was underway, in order to relieve the pressure on the French army in the Verdun area, the Anglo-French coalition forces attacked on July 1 Somme A fierce attack on the Germans. The fighting continued until 18 November, with the two sides engaged in seesaw positional warfare in the narrow strip on both sides of the Somme, with the Allies using aircraft in coordination and the British using tanks in action for the first time. In the end, the British and French forces recaptured 180 square kilometers from the Germans. The war of attrition cost Britain, France and Germany nearly 1.3 million troops and was called the "Hell on the Somme". [19] [44] [48]
Brusilov breaks through
In coordination with the British and French operations on the Western Front, Russian forces on the Eastern Front launched a summer offensive known as the Brusilov Breakthrough from June 4 to September 20, 1916. Russian troops occupied the eastern front Lutsk , Chernovtsi Advance 50 to 150 kilometers. [44] The battle cost the Austro-Hungarian Empire 1.1 million casualties and the Germans 350,000 casualties, making it the most successful Russian offensive of the war. But Russia suffered heavy losses of its own (500,000 casualties), which undermined Russia's ability to sustain the war. [20]
  • Naval operations and other fronts in 1916
Map of the Battle of Jutland
At sea, the British practiced Naval blockade Policy, ready to put Baltic Sea The German fleet served as the main attack target to keep the British Mastery of the sea ; In order to reverse the unfavorable situation, Germany urgently needed to break through the maritime blockade, and attempted to take the initiative to seek a decisive battle with the other side. On the afternoon of 31 May 1916, the Anglo-German fleet was in Denmark Jutland West of The Skagerrak It was the only major naval engagement between the two countries (see article) Battle of Jutland ). The British sent 151 ships, while the Germans sent 101. By 1 June, the battle was over, with the British losing three battlecruisers and 11 small ships and over 6,000 dead, and the Germans losing one battlecruiser and 10 small ships and over 2,500 dead. It was the largest naval battle of World War I and the largest naval battle in history. Although Britain suffered greater losses than Germany, its fleet had numerical superiority and still controlled the sea, and German attempts to break the blockade failed. [19] [44]
In August 1916, Kingdom of Romania They joined the Allies, but Allied forces quickly defeated the Romanian army and occupied Bucharest in December of the same year. [21]
In June 1916, at the instigation of the British, Makkah Sharif Hussein ibn Ali Initiated at Arab uprising [20] Commander of the British Army in the Middle East Edmund Allenby It also launched a general offensive against the Ottoman Empire in 1917. As a result, the Arabian Peninsula, Syria and other places were completely freed from Ottoman rule in 1918. [16] And the German East African colonies were in command Paul von Letto-Volbeck At the beginning of the war, he fought against the armies of Britain, Belgium and Portugal. British Rhodesia The Indian Army occupied the administrative center of German East Africa in August 1916 Morogoro However, by the time Germany surrendered, the Allies were unable to capture all of German East Africa. [20]
After several battles in this stage, the strategic initiative of the war was transferred to the side of the Allies, and the whole situation was transformed in favor of the Allies. [7] [19] [21]

counterattack

1917-18 was the third phase of the war.
In February 1917, Germany declared it Unrestricted submarine warfare Policy. In February of the same year, the United States, a neutral country that had been leaning toward the Allies, broke off diplomatic relations with Germany because of the sinking of its USS Hausantunik by a German submarine, and anti-German sentiment was growing. On April 6, the United States declared war on Germany and the next day on Austria-Hungary. [21] The Republic of China, which had long wanted to go to war Beiyang government At the invitation of the United States, he also announced on March 14 that he would break off diplomatic relations with Germany, and on March 16, 1917, the Chinese police began to move in Tianjin , Hankou The German concession, occupied the consulates, administrative offices and police stations, barracks in the concession, lowered the German flag, and raised the Chinese Five-coloured flag Each concession will be under the jurisdiction of the special Area Administration set up by the Chinese side. 30 - [31] Grand president Feng Guozhang On August 14, the Great President's Proclamation was issued, stating that as of 10:00 a.m. on the same day, yes Germany , Austro-hungarian Empire In declaring war, "all treaties and other international articles and agreements previously concluded between China and Germany and Austria, which belong to the relations between China and Germany and China and Austria, shall be annulled in accordance with public international law and practice." China takes back Qinhuangdao , Tanggu German barracks, etc. The Admiralty sent men Shanghai He oversaw the disarming of the radio facilities of the German merchant ships and the dismantling of the main means of navigation. All German troops in China were disarmed by the Chinese army and placed under centralized supervision. [26] [31] After that, China joined the Allied camp in the form of "labor war" to declare war on Germany and Austria, and sent more than 100,000 workers to the European battlefield. [10]
( World War I Chinese labor atlas source [49] )
After the United States entered the war, in addition to China, Greece, Brazil, Siam (now Thailand), Liberia , Cuba , Panama , Hejaz Kingdom (present-day Saudi Arabia), Guatemala , Nicaragua , Haiti , Honduras and Costa Rica All participated directly or indirectly in the Allied war. The German-Austrian Group was further at a strategic disadvantage, and the whole war took a major turn. [44]
The signing of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty [41]
At the beginning of 1917, the Russian outbreak of" February Revolution The Romanov dynasty collapsed, the Russian provisional Government continued the war, launched" Kerensky Offensive ", but failed miserably. On November 7th," October Revolution "Explosion. The day after the victory of the revolution, the newly established Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic passed Vladimir Ilyich Lenin The draft Peace Decree called for the immediate conclusion of a peace treaty "without secession (that is, without encroachment on the territory of other countries, without forced integration of other peoples) without reparations", proposed a truce to all belligerents, and declared Russia's withdrawal from the war. On March 3, 1918, Soviet Russia and the German-Austrian Group signed the agreement Peace of Brest-Litovsk Russia officially withdrew from the war and the Eastern Front ceased to exist. [7] [44]
Member of the soldiers' committee of the battleship Regent Luitpold during the Kiel Sailors' uprising
January 8, 1918, President of the United States Woodrow Wilson Put forward" The fourteen points of peace Germany's acceptance of the fourteen points is a precondition for all peace talks. [15] From March to July, the German army mobilized more than 190 divisions on the Western front and launched the Somme Offensive (March), the Leith Offensive (April), the Aisne Offensive (May), the Noyon-Mondidier Offensive (June), and the Champagne-Marne offensive (July), which at one point was only 60 kilometers from Paris, but failed to achieve the expected objectives. On the contrary, the German army lost about 1 million men, and its troops were nearly exhausted; The Allies were strengthened by the arrival of one million American troops. In July-August Second Battle of the Marne The Germans suffered a defeat. The Allied counterattack ended on 6 August. The Germans retreated to the area of the Weiler and the Aisne rivers, and the Allies occupied the Marne salient. [19] On August 8, the Allied forces, supported by 450 tanks and thousands of aircraft, were led by a French marshal Ferdinand Foch Command, began a counteroffensive to drive the Germans out of France and Belgium, and the main German force had begun to rapidly disintegrate (see article) Battle of Amiens ). On 15 September, the Bulgarian army was routed and on 29 September it surrendered to the Allies. On October 2, the Allies broke through the Germans." The Hindenburg Line "Captured a large number of Germans alive. October 4th, Chancellor of Germany Max von Baden A note was sent to President Wilson requesting an armistice agreement. On 31 October, the Ottoman Empire surrendered. On November 3, the Austro-Hungarian Empire surrendered. On November 4, the Allies proposed 35 armistice terms to Germany. [44] Same day, Germany Kiel The sailors of the Hong Kong naval fleet staged an uprising (see article) The Kiel sailors revolted On the 9th, Berlin workers and soldiers held a general strike and an armed uprising (see article) November Revolution in Germany ). Wilhelm II, besieged at home and abroad, was forced to abdicate and fled to Holland on 10 November. [16]

Outcome of war

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EDITOR
In the early morning of November 11, 1918, the German representative Elzberger and Allied Commander Foch were in northeastern France, north of Paris The Forest of Compiegne From the Ray Road station Foch carriage Sign the" The armistice of the Compiegne Forest ". At 11 a.m., the agreement entered into force (cf World War I Armistice Day World War I ended with a ceasefire on the Western Front. [2] [16] [44]
( End of World War I Atlas reference [41] )

Effects of war

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EDITOR
  • Material and spiritual damage to mankind
Anti-war comics of the time [41]
The First World War brought unprecedented havoc to mankind and great disaster to the participating countries. The Allied nations led by Britain, France and Russia and the allied nations led by Germany and Austria fought in the main theater of life and death. In this war, all sides used a large amount of modern war equipment to give the enemy the greatest damage, and the war situation was unprecedentedly fierce with heavy casualties. The war involved 33 countries (28 declared war, 5 broke diplomatic relations with one or more allied countries), committed more than 70 million troops (say about 60 million), 1.5 billion people were involved in the war, and about 8.5 million (say close to 13 million) soldiers and 13 million (say more than 9 million) civilians died in the war. More than 21 million people were injured (3.5 million of them permanently disabled) [10] The number of prisoners of war and missing persons was close to 6 million. The economic losses caused by the war amounted to 270 billion US dollars and caused enormous material and moral damage to mankind. The massive movement of the army and refugees has accelerated" Spanish flu In 1918-19, it claimed as many as 50 million lives. [6] [19] [29] [40] [43]
The war caused huge material damage to Europe: the direct economic losses of the participating countries were about 180.5 billion US dollars, and the indirect economic losses were about 151.6 billion US dollars. Europe has lost a lot of foreign markets and foreign investment. In 1919, the Allies owed the United States as much as $10 billion, which the United States was owed by the pre-war Debtor nation In one fell swoop, post-war Creditor nation It holds more than 40% of the world's gold reserves. [44]
In countries that have gone to war, veterans have difficulty reintegrating into normal society and finding good jobs. The lives of many disabled veterans fall into extraordinarily difficult circumstances. For millions of war widows and orphans, poverty is a daily reality. Those at the top of society feared that the communist revolution in Russia would spread further. In Germany, Right wing People formed militias to resist the socialists, and in Britain and other countries, the army had many clashes with strikers and other protesters in the streets. [24]
1919 Mirror cartoon, "This is What We Should never See Again." [15]
At the same time," pacifism "" idealism And so on. The cruelty before the First World War led to the emergence of anti-war, war-weary and war-phobic social trends of thought in Europe and the United States, leading to the 1920s Peace movement The upsurge and, to some extent, the push to limit and oppose the war International law The development of... The subsequent appeasement of the peace movement, as Appeasement policy The formation and smooth implementation of the ideological and social foundation. [39]
  • The political landscape of Europe changed, independence movements emerged and revolutions spread
On the other hand, the great result of the First World War was that it severely weakened the power of imperialism in the Christian countries of eastern Europe Russian Empire A Christian country in central Europe German Empire Christianity in central Europe and the northwest Balkans Binary system The imperial Austro-Hungarian Empire and the former Islamic feudal military empire across Europe, Asia and Africa Ottoman Empire The imperial powers of Britain, France and Italy were weakened. In its place is the first in human history Socialist country Soviet Russia (revised) The Soviet Union ) and Germany, Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia Hungary and other bourgeois republics. The war gave rise to revolutions, as happened in Russia October Revolution , the German November Revolution , The Bavarian Soviet Republic And the creation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. [6] [44] In the process of profound reflection on capitalist civilization, socialism began to move from theory to practice and formed a worldwide influence. [34] The world began to divide into socialism and capitalism Two social systems that are opposed to each other and coexist. [24]
The war drew the peoples of the East into modern international political life, accelerated the awakening of the East, and promoted the development of the struggle of the oppressed countries and used nations against imperialism and colonialism. During the war, the Great powers were tired of fighting each other, and the national industries of the colonies and semi-colonies were able to take advantage of the gap, National bourgeoisie and proletariat The ranks of the army also grew and became an important force against imperialism. Inspired by the October Revolution, China's "Revolution" appeared on the Asian continent. May Fourth Movement ", Indian" A movement of nonviolence and noncooperation ", Turkish" Kemal's Revolution A series of struggles for national liberation formed the first post-war struggle National liberation movement The climax of... [44]
  • The redivision of regional powers and the growth of ethnic hatred
Subject article: Versailles-washington system
Orlando (from left), Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Wilson planning postwar Europe [41]
After the end of World War I, the victors met in Paris in January 1919 The Palace of Versailles A post-war treaty conference was held. After fierce competition and mutual compromise, on June 28, the victorious countries signed the "Peace Treaty with Germany" in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles ". Under the Treaty of Versailles and a series of subsequent treaties, the map of Europe was redrawn. Austro-hungarian Empire Austria and Hungary became independent states. Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia It was also declared established. Romania took over parts of the territory from Hungary and Bulgaria. while Baltic Sea The littoral states became independent, most of which were carved out of the Russian Empire. Also gained independence Poland Its territory includes parts of the territory formerly part of Germany and is controlled by the "Danzig" Polish corridor "Into the sea. France regained Alsace and Lorraine, which had been lost during the Franco-Prussian War, and Belgium and Denmark gained some German territory. In all, Germany lost 13 percent of its pre-war territory, and its colonies became new possessions of one or another of the Allies. The distribution of these territories was not satisfactory, and most countries were unhappy with the established boundaries, which sowed the seeds of subsequent disputes.
At the urging of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, the world's first permanent international organization of sovereign states was established League of nations Set up. The League of Nations is a typical representative of the international order established to maintain world peace after the war. However, the Covenant of the League of Nations has huge loopholes and serious problems in the decision-making mechanism of maintaining peace, safeguarding collective security and stopping war. The power of the League of Nations is extremely limited; The prevalence of power politics among great powers has made the post-war international order established by the victors through the League of Nations incomplete, and its role in safeguarding world peace is quite limited, even objectively encouraging aggression. [38]
  • The change of economic model, the development of science and technology
Britain and France are, for various reasons, reluctant to play a leading role in the work of a peaceful settlement. The role of the League of Nations in building and maintaining the post-war international order is rather limited. Germany was forced to accept that the war was entirely Germany's fault (not entirely in line with historical facts), and to pay huge financial compensation for the damage and damage caused by the war. Its armed forces have been drastically reduced. Revenge is growing in the country. [42]
For a few years after World War I, Germany's Nazism Italianate fascism Start to take root. Then, after a period of booming economic growth and seemingly amicable international relations, U.S. stock prices collapsed completely in 1929, resulting in a massive crash Great Depression Period and another era of political chaos. The war accelerated Monopoly capitalism to State monopoly capitalism This had a profound impact on the development of both modern capitalism and socialism. [24]
The First World War is a period of great development of modern military technology, which has a huge impact on the development of modern armed forces, as well as the popularization and development of science and technology. [24] In this world war, artillery played an unimagined role, Machine gun It's also used a lot. In addition to artillery shells, bombs dropped by hand, aircraft, and placed in the sea were added. One after another, the two camps began a deadly gas war. The Allies made iron tank Tanks equipped with gasoline engines knocked down trees, posts and fences. The aircraft were also used extensively in the Great War to film and spy on enemy movements, drive away enemy aircraft, and drop bombs on strategic points in enemy lines. [27] Hot Air Balloon Used in war to spy on the enemy or to protect vulnerable positions from enemy aircraft. [28] The belligerents began to proceed gas Fight. German ship designer Ferdinand von Zeppelin invented Led Zeppelin Able to cross the French border to Paris and even cross the North Sea to drop bombs on British cities and countryside. Medical technology has advanced. [29]

War evaluation

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EDITOR
The First World War was an imperialist war in which the spoils were imbalanced among the imperialists and brought heavy disasters to the people of all countries in the world. For both sides, the war was unjust, and although Serbia was fighting to defend its sovereignty and independence, the war it was engaged in had the character of just national liberation, it did not fundamentally change the injustice of the war as a whole. [6]
At the same time, the First World War also brought a great progress in science and technology, which greatly strengthened the politics, economy, science and technology, culture and military of various countries, and accelerated the pace of the realization of human rights. After the war, the national consciousness was formed, the national concept was developed, and the international order was rebuilt. [8]

memorialize

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EDITOR
  • War commemoration
In 2014, The United Nations , European Union , France, the United Kingdom and other countries or organizations held respectively The 100th anniversary of the outbreak of the First World War . [33] 32 - [35] In November 2018, the United States, France and other countries started a series of activities to commemorate the centenary of the end of the First World War. [37] 36 -
  • A memorial to the Chinese workers of World War I
Britain Kent County Schoencliffe Military Cemetery in Folkestone is home to six Chinese labourers from the First World War. The northern French town of Eland also has a monument to Chinese laborers. [49]
In November 2017, British Channel 4 TV aired the documentary "Britain's Forgotten Army" for the first time, which was the first documentary produced by British mainstream media to review the history of Chinese workers in World War I. On November 15, a bronze statue commemorating Chinese workers of World War I was officially inaugurated in the city of Poplinger in western Belgium, bordering France, by the then Chinese ambassador to Belgium Quxing The statue was unveiled with the mayor of the city of Poplinger, Dejaguet. [49]
In 2018, the 100th anniversary of the end of the First World War, photographs of Chinese laborers were displayed in museums in Folkestone, Liverpool, Plymouth and London. British musician Clive Harvey writes a novel based on the history of Chinese labor during World War I. Yang's War And wrote a song about it. [49]
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