Yuan Dynasty (1271) ^[97] - 1368 ^[1] ^[99] ), is a dynasty in Chinese history. Temujin Founded in 1206; ^[98] The year 1271 Kublai Khan The name of the country is Dayuan, ^[97] It was destroyed in 1279 The Southern Song Dynasty . ^{[92
]} Is the first by Minority nationality established The Great Unified Dynasty Five generations and eleven emperors. A total of 162 years since the founding of Temuzhen in 1206; 98 years since Kublai Khan changed the name of the kingdom to Dayan; Since the destruction of the Southern Song Dynasty, the unification period was 89 years. ^[2]

In 1206, the Iron Muzhen unified the Mongol ministries and was founded Great Mongolia . Attack and destroy successively Silliao , The Western Xia Dynasty (206 B.C.) , Jin Dynasty , Dali Wait for the regime to surrender Tibetan regime in ancient China Various Ministries. Mongo It was triggered after death Ariq The dispute with Kublai Khan led to the division of Great Mongolia. In 1260, Kublai Khan Kaiping Mansion Call Khan, Jianyuan" Middle series ", Shangdu Become the new capital. ^[83] In 1271, Kublai Khan took the book The Book of Changes "Big Zai Qian Yuan" meaning to change the country name to big Yuan, the capital of the following year mostly . In 1279, the exile regime of the Southern Song Dynasty was destroyed, ending the long period of division since the end of the Tang Dynasty. ^[2] ^[87] In the middle of Yuan Dynasty, the imperial succession was disorganized, the coup d 'etat was frequent, and the development of Sinicization was slow. In the late Yuan Dynasty, political corruption and the interference of powerful ministers, National contradiction with Class contradiction Increasingly, resulting in The peasant uprising at the end of the Yuan . ^[3] In 1368, Ming Dynasty Capture Dadu and Shangdu The Yuan court retreated Mobei , known as Northern Yuan Dynasty Become with Ming Dynasty The regime of confrontation. The unification of the Northern Yuan Dynasty lasted until 1635 Later Jin Dynasty Destroyed.

During the Yuan Dynasty, the unified multi-ethnic state was further consolidated and its territory exceeded that of previous dynasties. The Yuan Dynasty began in the east Sea of Japan , south arrive The South China Sea , west to Tianshan Mountain , North Baw Baikal , the History of the Yuan Dynasty "East Liao left west pole quicksand, north more than Yinshan south over the sea surface, Han Tang peak time less than also." ^[26]

Yuan reservation Chinese book province with Privy Council , Imperial historian's desk The three powers are divided into administration, military and supervision, and implemented at the local level Provincial system To set a precedent for China's provincial system. The Yuan Dynasty's commodity economy and overseas trade were also relatively prosperous, and it had frequent diplomatic exchanges with other countries. In terms of culture, there is A style of music played in the Yuan Dynasty And other cultural forms, more secular. ^[4]

Chinese name: Yuan Dynasty
Foreign name: Yuan dynasty
Dai’on yeke Mongghol ulus (Romanized)
alias: Great Mongolia , Great Yuan Great Mongolia , Great Dynasty , The Great Dynasty of Mongolia , The Great Dynasty of Mongolia , Great Yuan Great Mongol Gu Lu
Time frame: From 18 December 1271 to 14 September 1368 (Temujin was founded in 1206.)
metropolitan: mostly , Shangdu ^{[107
]}
emperor: Kublai Khan , Timur , seamount , Ayuripalpada , Shuo De Ba La Etc.

species: Mongolian ( Eight spaven ), Chinese, etc
currency: Pay paper money (main), round square hole money
Population number: About 90 million (1341)
Major nationality: Mongolian people, color people, Han people, South people, etc
inaugurator: Kublai Khan
Major city: Shangdu, Liaoyang, Lin 'an, Bianliang, Hala Helin, Fengyuan and so on
Territory area: 13.72 million square kilometers (1330)
Central mechanism: Chinese book province
Local system: Travel in the book province
Military institution: Privy Council

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Title of a kingdom

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EDITOR

The predecessor of the Yuan Dynasty was Genghis Khan established Great Mongolia . ^[5] The Southern Song Dynasty Li Xinchuan " Since Jian Yan dynasty miscellany Book 19: "Since the Mongolians have invaded the Jin State, it is their own cause. Great Mongolia " In the early Yuan Dynasty, there are "Great Dynasty Mongol" and "Great Dynasty Mongol" (or only "Great Dynasty"), which are different Chinese translations of the same Mongolian title. ^[6] In addition, there are inscriptions from the Yuan Dynasty such as "Dai On kemeku yeke Mongγol ulus" (known as the Great Mongol Gurus of the Yuan Dynasty) from the "Daru Flower Red Bamboo Wentai Stele" in the fourth year of the Yuan Dynasty (1338). ^[93] In the 22nd year of Zheng (1362), "Dai On yeke Mongγol ulus" (Great Mongolian Gu Lu in the Yuan Dynasty) was published in the Stele of Wang Xining. ^[94] And so on.

Big Yuan Emperor master led all the monks and nuns to renew the seal of Buddhism^[95]

Yuan Shizu Kublai Khan In view of the "wide map, history has no history", like the Han and Tang Dynasties, the name of the original land or the original town, is not enough to show its grand, so in 1271 issued the" Imperial decree of the founding of a state "From" The Book of Changes The meaning of "big Zai Qian Yuan" takes "Big Yuan" as the national title. ^[2] The official Yuan Dynasty book Classics of the world Explanation: "Yuan also, big also." Big is not enough to do it, and the Yuan is also big." ^[7] The Confucian scholars of the Han people in the Yuan Dynasty interpreted "Yuan" as "benevolence" and inferred that benevolence and virtue were the "foundation of winning the world" in the dynasty. Modern scholars mainly have three understandings: first, the original meaning of "Yuan" is "beginning", and then extended to "beginning of the universe", "primitive force" and so on; The second is according to the Yuan Dynasty official book "Jingshi Ddian · Emperor title General preface", "Yuan is the great great also" sentence, think "big Yuan" is the North China before the title of the Han people used to "big Dynasty", is the attachment of Chinese classics; The third is to seek the basis from Mongolian culture, which is the reflection of Mongolian eternal heaven belief and worship of black. ^[95]

After the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty, Great Mongolia The name is no longer used in Chinese documents, but it is not abolished, and the name is still used in Mongolian documents, usually combined with the name of the Han dynasty, and the Roman character is transliterated as Dai 'on yeke Mongghol ulus (Great Yuan Great Mongol). Or Dai 'on Kemeku Yeke Mongghol Ulus (known as Great Mongolia of Daiyuan). ^[8] In 1368, the Yuan Court retired Mobei So the remnants of the Yuan Court were called Northern Yuan Dynasty . ^[2]

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EDITOR

Unification of Mongolia

The direct ancestors of the Mongols are and Xianbei (a county in Shanxi Province) , Khitan Of the same family Shiwei The tribes. Sui and Tang dynasties When they were distributed in the north of the Khitan, Tartar West of... Tujue, a nationality in ancient China East of ( Taoer River North, east Nenjiang River , west to Hulunbuir ) over a vast area. Once ruled by the Turks, Turkish people More commonly called Tatan ( Tartar ). Tang Dynasty View of chastity During the years, the Turkic power declined, after Shiwei man Submit to Don ^[9] . After the Turks Uighur After the regime collapsed, Shiwei - Dah Dah Dah Dah Dah Dah Dah desert North and South.

Yuan emperor Genghis Khan

About the 9th to 11th centuries, one of them Wu Shiwei From the lower reaches of the Wangjian River to the east gradually moved west to the Ornan River, The Kerulen River And the upper source of the three rivers of the Tura river, divided into Niluwin Mongolia And Dierlejin Mongolia two branches, collectively known as Hemu Black Mongolia, including many large and small clans, tribes. In addition to Hemi Black Mongolia, there were also activities on the Mongolian plateau at that time A surname , Tatar, Klie , Naiman , Okara Wait for the Ministry. All these clans and tribes came under the rule of Liao and then Jin ^[5] .

The economic development of the Mongol tribes was very uneven, and by the 12th century most were engaged in hunting and nomadism, with only a few tribes engaged in agriculture. However, at this time, they acquired a large amount of iron through trade with the Central Plains, which promoted the development of production, and the division of classes became more obvious. To plunder more of the wealth of the tribes Slave Master Wage war on each other. ^[10]

Mongolian plateau Numerous regions Mongolian tribes originally Jin Dynasty The subject of the emperor. With the decline of the Jin, the Mongol tribes also began to grow, gradually breaking away from the Jin regime. Jintai and four years (1204), leader of the Mongols Temujin Through war, the Mongol tribes on the Mongol plateau were united. In the sixth year of Jintaihe (1206), Temujin was elected by various tribes as "the Emperor". Genghis Khan (The Yuan History is called Emperor Genghis ^[98] ), established political power in Mobei, Mongol Empire Established, title of the kingdom Great Mongolia . From then on, the Mongolian steppe ended the long struggle ^[5] . ^[11]

Expansion splitting

Subject article: Batu West Campaign , The Hulagu Expedition to the West , Mongolian Wars , The Battle of Fishing City

After the establishment of Great Mongolia, it continued to wage foreign wars to expand its territory. In 1218, the Mongols destroyed the Western Liao Dynasty. In 1219, Genghis Khan The western expedition of Khwarizm, ^[12] All the way to Eastern Europe Volga The valley returned east in 1225. In 1227, it was destroyed The Western Xia Dynasty (206 B.C.) , Genghis Khan Also on The Western Xia Dynasty (206 B.C.) Died during the expedition. ^[13] After the death of Genghis Khan, the third son gogodae To ascend the throne. In 1234, the Mongols were united The Southern Song Dynasty Wipe out gold. In 1241, the Mongol armies on their westward expedition once approached the heart of Eastern Europe. In 1246, he surrendered Tibetan regime in ancient China . In 1253, Kublai Khan Expedition Southwest, out Dali .

Hechuan Fishing City ruins

The Mongol army massacred and enslaved a large number of the population of areas that dared to resist in the foreign war after the destruction of the city. Many peoples were subjected to cruel and unjust national oppression, untold numbers of people and property were lost in the war and the subsequent plague, famine and natural disasters, and it was a rare dark period for the war-torn regions. ^{[14, 15]}

Great Khan of the Mongol Khanate Mongo In 1259 Sichuan attack Hop Chau He died suddenly at the age of 52. With that, Ariq Seek in Harahorin Convene" The Kuriltai "The assembly is called the Great Khan position. In the meantime, Kublai Khan Return after peace with the Southern Song Dynasty Kaiping Mansion .

In the third lunar month of 1260, Kublai Khan was in the Han Landlord class He ascended the throne with the support of some Mongol princes; In April, Kublai Khan established the Zhongshu Province to oversee state affairs; ^[16] May, Kublai Khan promulgate Imperial edict on enthronement "Decree, and the establishment of the yuan Middle series . ^[17] Ariq Also known as Khan, he and Kublai Khan immediately began a four-year war of the Khan Throne (imperial). ^[5]

The year 1264 Ariq Defeated, Kublai Khan To seize the supreme rule of the Mongol Khanate.

Encyclopedia x Mixed Knowledge: Illustrating Kublai Khan

Encyclopedia x Mixed Knowledge: Illustrating Ariq

Kublai Khan The promotion of the "practice of Chinese law" is clearly contrary to Mongolian tradition, causing many Mongolian nobility He refused to submit to the Kublai Khan Khanate, and as a result several other Mongol khanates became hostile. The civil war made Four khanates And then independence, until Emperor Yuan Chengzong The Yuan Dynasty was recognized as a suzerainty. ^[5]

Establishment of dayuan

Yuan Emperor Kublai Khan

In 1271, Kublai Khan published the book Imperial decree of the founding of a state Take the meaning of "great Zai Qian Yuan" in the Book of Changes ^[18] The official founding number Dayuan ^[19] . A year later, in Liu Bingzhong Under the plan, the Yuan Empire built its capital in the central plains of the Jin State mostly . After the political situation in the north stabilized, Kublai Khan decided to adopt The Southern Song Dynasty surrender Liu Zhi Advice. Pull first Xiangyang Floating Han River into the Yangtze River, enterprising Southern Song Dynasty. 1268, life Arcane , Liu Zhi The governor besieged the major towns of Xiangfan and Xiangfan across the Han River, and the Xiangfan army and people refused to defend the isolated city for six years. In early 1272, the Yuan army captured Fancheng and Xiangyang held the command Lv Wenhuan Descent (see Battle of Xiangfan ). ^[20]

The following June, Kublai Khan died Bayan The army will march south in two directions. The left army was organized by a joint answer, with Liu Whole as the striker and Huaixi as the starting point. Boyan himself and Azhu led the main force of the right army in September, from Xiangyang, along the Han River into the Yangtze River; At the same time, the life of Dong Wenbing from Huaixi Zhengyang south force Anqing I thought it echoed. In December, the Yuan Shui Division entered the Yangtze River, and the Song River defense fortress Yangluo Fort. Song Han Ezhou division commander Xia GUI Dun, Hanyang, Ezhou Song army down. Boyan divided the troops to stay in Ali Haag to maneuver Jinghu, and led the army of water and land to the east Lv Wenhuan For the striker. Most of the commanders along the Song River were Lv's former troops and all surrendered without a fight.

In February 1274, Jia Sidao Forced to command all the roads to defend against the Yuan army. At this time, he was still trying to offer money to negotiate peace, be Bayan Refused, had to Chizhou downstream Dingjiazhou reluctantly and Yuan army battle. Due to the Song Jun Internal discord, a breakaway. In the autumn of the same year, Boyan divided his troops from Jiankang (Nanjing, Jiangsu) and Zhenjiang to Lin 'an (Hangzhou, Zhejiang), the capital of Song Dynasty. Cho 㬎 The above table reduces the yuan. ^[20]

Later, the Southern Song minister Wen Tianxiang with Zhang Shijie , Lu Xiufu Continue to resist on the southeast coast, and establish the king of benefit Zhao Shi To the Emperor. After Zhao was dead, he established the King of Wei Zhao Bing Continue the war of resistance. In 1278, Wen Tianxiang He was captured and imprisoned in the capital for three years, refused the Yuan Dynasty's offer of peace, and then calmly died.

Unified sea

In 1279, the Jin Dynasty surrendered its generals Zhang Hongfan The command unit is in Battle of the Cliffs Having eliminated the last resistance in the Southern Song Dynasty, Lu Xiufu Carrying the eight-year-old emperor on his back Zhao Bing Throw oneself into the sea and die, The Southern Song Dynasty Perish. ^[5] The unification of the Yuan Dynasty ended at the end of the Tang Dynasty The state was divided Since then, the confrontation between the north and the South and the long-term coexistence of various ethnic regimes in China have promoted the consolidation and development of a unified multi-ethnic country. ^[20]

Yashan site

After Mongolia destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty, the ruling class appeared Xu Heng The leading scholar sent with him Ahuma Led by the financial officials of the fight. Due to the large amount of treasure required to bestow on the princes, and the heavy expenditure, the finances of Mongolia became increasingly strained. Scholars sent officials to believe that the Yuan Dynasty should save funds and reduce taxes. conversely predator Officials of the financial management faction believed that the southerners had a large amount of property, which should be confiscated to solve the financial problems of the court. So the issue did not stop in the court.

Kublai Khan trusted the color officer Ahama, set up Shangshu Province Fix your finances. The Confucian officials, on the other hand, were more Sinicized princes Genuine gold To form a faction for the core, to counter Ahem. As a result, Ahama was assassinated, and Jingin later fell ill and died. Kublai Khan continued to appoint Han Chinese successively Lu Shirong Fear of the children Sango They sent officials to solve the financial problems of the imperial court ^[5] ^[21] .

Four-way expedition

After the Yuan Dynasty destroyed the Song Dynasty, Kublai Khan Launched a series of wars against neighboring countries, such as Annam , Champa , Java and Japan Let's wait. In 1274, the Yuan Army invaded Japan In the aftermath of the hurricane, the Japanese called the Battle of Wenyong, but the Yuan Army returned in vain. In 1281, the Yuan attacked Japan in two ways, starting from Xindu Led the Mongol army, Han army, Goryeo army Korea Take a voyage eastward Tsushima Strait , Fan Wenhu The new attached army marched north from Qingyuan (Ningbo, Zhejiang Province), known as the "Battle of Hong 'an". Yuan Army in Japan Eagle Island hurricane, how bad the ship, the dead drowned all, and was covered by the Japanese army, almost the entire army was destroyed. ^[11] But twice Yuan War Shaking Japan Kamakura Shogunate The rule of...

Yuan War

In 1282, he was sent by Kublai Khan Instigate a capital from Guangzhou Sea crossing Champa (now South Vietnam), fought for more than a year. He was King of Zhennan from 1284 to 1285 For some of today's boroughs (Son of Kublai Khan) to invade Annam (Northern Vietnam), ordered abettor from Zhancheng north to help the war, north and south attack. King Annan evacuated the capital, and his main force hid in the mountains to avoid a decisive battle with the Yuan army. To the yuan army tired, and out of the attack. In May, Dehuan was forced to retire because of the summer rain and the epidemic of plague. Instigate the city to die in battle.

In 1283 and 1285, Yuan troops invaded Burma from Yunnan twice Bagan dynasty ; In 1287, the Yuan Army advanced Pagan Forced Myanmar to set a New Year's tribute after the return. In the same year, the Yuan Dynasty invaded Annan again, and the following year, the old North was returned with grain. In December 1292, Shi Bi, also black lost, Happy set sail from Quanzhou to invade Java (Java Island, Indonesia). The Javanese ruler lowered the Yuan, and asked the Yuan army to help his enemy, Gorang, defeat Gorang king after the troops rejected the Yuan, the Yuan army exhausted ^[5] .

offensive The Southern Song Dynasty Since then, successive wars, as well as palace granaries and grants, have required huge funds to support. Hu Bilie is eager to solve the problem of insufficient state use, so increasingly credit to "finance to help the country" invited minister Ahema, Lu Shirong , Sango Wait for others to preside over state affairs. From 1270 to 1272 and from 1287 to 1291, Shangshu Province was set up twice for comprehensive financial management. The financial policies of Shangshu Province mainly included: increasing tax revenue, promoting iron metallurgy, selling agricultural organs, "Kuangan" (chasing down the Southern Song Dynasty public fields that were still seized by private individuals and monasteries, starting to collect land taxes), "adjustment" (chasing down the money and grain accumulated over the years), and changing the banknote law, so that the national income increased significantly. However, due to the corruption of official governance, focus on collecting, and excessive collection, it has become one of the important reasons to hinder the development of social economy. At the same time, the construction of ships for the Eastern Expedition and the conscription of corvee service in the coastal and Gangnam areas increased. The people could not bear the heavy feudal exploitation and oppression and rose up one after another.

In 1283, Areas south of the Yangtze River There were more than two hundred uprisings among the people of all ethnic groups, and the number increased to more than four hundred in 1289. Around this time, the outbreak of Guangzhou Ounanxi, Lide and Fujian Huang Hua , Zhong Mingliang Several larger uprisings led by others. ^[5]

The emperor turns to the system

Subject article: Metropolis coup

Emperor Timur of Yuan Chengzong

In 1294, Kublai died. Due to the crown prince Genuine gold Early death, the throne is up for grabs. Finally, the princes in Zhenjin's eldest son Jin King camphor Kazuko Timur Between the choice, due to Tiemul by the Yuan Shizu grant crown prince treasure and town guard and Lin. Therefore, King Gamara of Jin abdicated, and Timur ascended the throne, that is Emperor Yuan Chengzong .

Emperor Yuan Chengzong After taking the throne, he stopped foreign wars and focused on the rectification of domestic military and political affairs. Measures such as restricting the power of the Kings, reducing some taxes, and writing new laws and regulations were adopted to temporarily ease social conflicts. At the same time, send troops to defeat the northwest Kaidu , Tok Wa Wait, Duwa, Cha Ba 'er The annexation has changed the situation of long-term unrest in Northwest China.

During the reign of Emperor Yuan Chengzong, he basically maintained the status quo, but he overextended the rewards, failed to make ends meet, the Treasury was short of funds, and the banknotes depreciated. Once sent an army Eight hundred daughter-in-law (now Thailand Northwest), causing unrest in Yunnan-Guizhou region. Old age illness, appointed queen Bruhan and Color order Minister, the government is in decline. Yuan Chengzong also succeeded in the last years of his reign with long-term hostility The Ogodei Khanate Negotiated peace and put an end to the unrest in the northwest ^[5] .

In 1307, after the death of Emperor Chengzong, the former crown prince Genuine gold Sun Haishan is located in Yuan Shangdu , is for Emperor Wuzong of Yuan . And his brother Ayuripalpada For the Crown prince, agreed Brother dies brother dies brother At the same time, it was agreed that after the death of Aiyu Liba Force Bada, the throne was restored to the son of Emperor Wuzong Wasse 㻋 ^[22] . Emperor Wuzong of Yuan to get rid of Financial crisis He ordered the re-establishment of Shangshu Province and issued large silver notes, which resulted in a significant devaluation of the yuan note. In 1309, the Yuan Court and The Chagatai Khanate Carve up The Ogodei Khanate The Ogodei Khanate was destroyed.

Sinicization movement

In 1311, Emperor Renzong of Yuan After Aiyu Libali Bada ascended the throne, his birth mother Xing Sheng Emperor's important minister The iron wood is stacked The Prime Minister of the right. Emperor Renzong canceled it Emperor Wuzong of Yuan The economic measures, and the son Shuo De Ba La For the crown prince, he violated the covenant with Emperor Wuzong of Yuan to first establish He Shi 㻋 and then pass on the throne of Shuode Bala. Yuan Emperor Wu eldest son and Shi 㻋 for the king of Zhou, will be the king Wasse 㻋 He moved to Yunnan, but on his way to the northwest, Emperor Renzong would join his brother Tutelmur Banished to the south ^[5] . In 1314, Emperor Renzong of the Yuan Dynasty, who advocated Sinicization, resumed the imperial examination and selected scholars. Yanyou Fuke ".

A Confucian temple built during the Yuan Dynasty

In 1320, Emperor Renzong died, and Shuode Bala ascended the throne Emperor Yingzong of Yuan . Emperor Yingzong inherited his father Renzong's policy of governing the country with Confucianism, strengthening centralization and bureaucracy, and in 1323 ordered the compilation and promulgation of the official law code of the Yuan Empire. Big Yuan through the system ", a total of 2539 articles. He also ordered the elimination of Tiemudier's forces in the court, but with the expansion of the liquidation, coupled with the Mongol conservative forces in the court Emperor Yingzong of Yuan Discontent with the governance of Confucianism led to Tiemu Dieier's adoptive son Iron loss In the summer of 1323, while Gejian Khan was on a summer vacation in Shangdu, he assassinated Emperor YuanYingzong at a place called Nanpo, 15 kilometers south of Shangdu Prime minister (in feudal China) Pay a visit to Et al., Shi said The change of South slope .

After the assassination of Emperor Yingzong, he was the king of Jin camphor The eldest son of Jin, the eldest grandson of Jin Also Sun Tiemu son Led the troops to the south, killed the traitor who assassinated Emperor Yingzong of Yuan, and then ascended the throne Taiding Emperor . After Emperor Tai Ding ascended the throne, Feng was banished by Emperor Yingzong Hainan Island the Tutelmur For the king of the Huai, the guard Kien Kang . ^[5]

Frequent civil unrest

In 1328, Emperor Taiding died. The Prime Minister is here Shangdu Son of Emperor Fengtai Ding Azojihachi For Emperor, it is for Emperor Tianshun. And at the same time, Yuan Wuzong's old council A man of iron and steel with Henan province The Prime minister Boyan secretly sent ambassadors to Mobei and Jiangnan respectively, and welcomed the king of Zhou at the same time Wasse 㻋 His younger brother Tutelmur . As a result, Tuthamur first went to Dadu and proclaimed himself emperor in 1328 as Emperor Wenzong. And the world 㻋 arrived Hoa Lam Later, he also announced that he was Emperor of the Yuan Ming Dynasty. Yuan Wenzong expressed willingness to abdicate on the surface, with brother as emperor, and the two met in the south of the capital, Yuan Wenzong poisoned Yuan Mingzong and declared himself emperor. ^[22]

Tuthamur, emperor of the Yuan Dynasty

After the heavy zuo of Emperor Wenzong, the great Xing Wenzhi. In February 1329, Emperor Wenzong of the Yuan Dynasty was established Kuijang Court College Take into the book of scriptures and history, and investigate the chaos of the past dynasties. He also ordered all the descendants of the noble ministers to study at Kuizhang Court. Kuizang Pavilion has an art and literature supervisor, who is in charge of translating Confucian classics into Mongolian and collating them. In the same year he ordered the compilation of the Yuan Jingshi grand ceremony Completed two years later, it is an important account of the Yuan Dynasty Rules and regulations The great book. But during the reign of Emperor Wenzong, the prime minister Timur Yan Relying on his merits, he played with the court, which led to more corruption in the Yuan dynasty ^[5] .

After the death of Emperor Wenzong in 1332, in order to exonerate him for poisoning his elder brother (Emperor Mingzong of Yuan), he decreed that the seven-year-old and Siragu Tutu's second son, Yi Lin Zhiban, was emperor Emperor of Yuan Ningzong . However, Emperor Yuanningzong died after less than two months on the throne, and Yan Timur died soon after. The eldest son of Emperor Ming David Tulamuele By Queen Zayatu Khan Bu Da Yi Li He was recalled from Jingjiang (Guilin, Guangxi) and made emperor, who was Huizong of Yuan. ^[23]

元惠宗在位之初，右丞相 Bayan The power is very large, control the government, even once did not put Yuan Huizong in the eyes. With the passage of time, the contradiction between Yuan Huizong and Boyan became increasingly acute, and later in Boyan's nephew Cast off With his help, Yuan Huizong finally succeeded in dethroning Boyan and took control of the political situation. ^[23]

Encyclopedia x mixed knowledge: Figure release

1343年，元惠宗下令修撰《 Liao history "" A surname "" History of the Song Dynasty Three histories, completed in 1345.

The uprising

Subject article: The peasant uprising at the end of the Yuan , The Red Turbans revolted , Red Turbans

Yuan Huizong Tuomulur

During the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongol rulers increasingly charged various miscellaneous taxes to the Han people, and the national oppression was very serious, and the plunder of the Han people was more common. It divided all ethnic groups into different levels, brutally exploited the Han people, and the people rose up. In 1325, there was an uprising led by Zhao Chousi and Guo Bodhisattva in Henan.

The Mongol ruling class fought among themselves for power and profit, thus accelerating the decline of the Yuan Dynasty. In 1350, the Yuan government ordered a change in the banknote law, minting" Zhizheng Tongbao "Money and mass issuance of new" Zhongtong Yuan Bao banknotes But it led to a rapid rise in prices.

The following year, Yuan Hui sect Garou To rule the Yellow River, to return to the old ways, the use of civilian men 150,000, soldiers 20,000. while Government official Use the opportunity to blackmail, create discontent. Leader of the White Lotus Religion Han Shantong , Liu Futong And others decided in May at the rate of the congregation to start up, but the leak, Han Shantong was killed, so Liu Futong with Han Shantong son Han Liner Deus out, refers to Han Shantong 宋徽宗 The eighth Sun, playing the "restoration Song" banner, with a red scarf as a symbol, and then Guo Zixing Others also joined. Monk Peng is also helping in Hubei Xu Shouhui Uprising. This opened the prelude to the demise of Dayuan. The Mongolian government sent troops to suppress the region Red Turbans By the Prime Minister Cast off Personally supervise the attack Xuzhou Insurrectionary army Sesame plum The Ministry, for a time, achieved a great victory.

Encyclopedia x Mixed knowledge: Illustrated Red Scarf Army

In 1354, Cast off Lead an army and besiege Gaoyou Insurrectionary army Zhang Shicheng The Ministry, impeached by the court, failed. From 1356 to 1359, Zhu Yuanzhang He inherited the position of Guo Zixing, who died of illness, and continued to expand his power, capturing half of the Jiangnan. Meanwhile, in the north Chahan Timur (Richard Khan) and Li Siqi The Yuan generals began to counterattack the northern Red Scarf Army.

In 1363, the Red Turbans in the North Yen Phong The one who lost the battle to Xinxing and Meng Zhang Shicheng , Liu Futong Died in battle, Han Liner went south to Zhu Yuanzhang, and was subsequently killed.

The rise and fall of the Northern Yuan

The peasant war at the end of the Yuan

Zhu Yuanzhang is beating Chen Youliang , Zhang Shicheng , Fang Guozhen After other Southern rebels and southern Yuan forces, the northern expedition began in 1367, after the General Xu Da , Chang Yuchun With the help of others, he captured Tongzhou in August 1368, and Yuan Huizong fled north on July 28. Xu Da Led the army to capture the Yuan capital mostly ( Peking The Yuan as a national nature of rule came to an end. Yuan Huizong north retreat, Zhu Yuanzhang Think he's in the right place. Give him Posthumous title It is called Shundi.

Yuan Huizong retreated to Shangdu The next year again Ying Chang . He continued to use the national title "Dawon," Shi said Northern Yuan Dynasty . At that time, the north except for 元惠宗 According to Monan Mobei, Guanzhong and Yuan will Expand Timur (Wang Baobao) stationed in Gansu Dingxi City In addition, the Yuan Court also claimed the northeast region and Yunnan region. In order to occupy the north, Zhu Yuanzhang took the way of dividing his troops into two ways and destroying each other, which was the first northern expedition. Love you to understand Dara After taking the throne, he fled north to Mobei and Forest. Minggeneral Feng Sheng seized Gansu (Province) Area. However, the Yuan general expanded Timur's presence in Mobei several times with the Ming generals Xu Da Wait for others to fight. Emperor Taizu had written many times to surrender, but Timur never paid attention to expansion, and was called "the strange man of the world" by Zhu Yuanzhang. In April 1378, Emperor Zhaozong of Yuan The death of Emperor Tianyuan Teguth Timur Continued to fight against the Ming Dynasty, repeatedly invading the Ming border. ^[24]

As for the northeast area and Yunnan area of the Northern Yuan: 1371, Yuan Dynasty Liaoyang Province Flat seal Liu Yi The Ming Dynasty occupied the southern part of Liaoning. However, the rest of the northeast was still ruled by the Yuan Emperor Nahide Control, Naha out of the camp of 200,000 troops in Jinshan (now Liaoning Province Changtu The southern bank of the Liao River, north of Jinshan Fort), faced off with the Ming army for more than ten years, and repeatedly refused the Ming Dynasty's invitation. The year 1387 Feng Sheng , Fu Youde , Blue jade They launched the fifth northern expedition, the goal is to capture the gold mountain of Nahout. After many battles, in October 1387, Nahide Surrender of the blue jade, the Ming occupied the northeast region. garrison Yunnan (Province) King Liang of the Yuan Dynasty Turn Zarevalmi After the Yuan court returned to the grassland, it still continued to be loyal to it. 1371 Ming Taizu School Tang Hoa Such people led the army to pacify according to Sichuan Ming Yuzhen And persuaded him to surrender Liang King To no avail. In December 1381, the Ming army invaded Yunnan (Province) In 1382, King Liang fled Kunming and committed suicide, then the Ming army captured Dali, and the Ming army pacized the Yunnan region. ^[24]

Zhu Yuanzhang In order to completely wipe out the Northern Yuan forces, he was killed in May 1388 Blue jade Led the Ming army 150,000 to launch the sixth northern expedition. The Ming army spanned the Gobi to Fishing sea (Beir Lake, Mongolia) defeated the Yuan Army, captured more than 80,000 people, Emperor Tianyuan And his eldest son Tembao Run away, but the young son overlord Captured by the Ming army, so far the power of the northern Yuan great decline. 1388 Emperor Tianyuan And the eldest son Tianbao slave was Ariq progeny Also fast Killing, North Yuan is no longer used Reign title And big Yuan country name. ^[25] Civil unrest broke out in the Northern Yuan in 1402, Kun Timur Killed. Old Toulouse Timur Arutay They took the opportunity to break with Wala and establish the descendants of Hedan, the son of Ogetai Horic red For the Great Khan, ^[96] The History of the Ming Dynasty says it changed its title to Mongolia However, there is no record of the Mongol Great Khan going to the country in the History of the Yellow Gold, the History of the Yellow, the Biography of Alatan Khan, the Origin of Mongolia and other Mongolian historical books ^[91] ), the Ming Dynasty called Tartar . ^[24]

territory

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EDITOR

Territorial scope

The Yuan Dynasty began in the east Sea of Japan , south arrive The South China Sea , west to Tianshan Mountain , North Baw Baikal In the history of the Yuan Dynasty, it was said that "the east Liao left the west pole quicksand, the north more than Yinshan South over the sea surface, the peak of the Han and Tang Dynasties was less than also." ^[26]

The predecessor of the Yuan Dynasty was Great Mongolia In 1206 Genghis Khan Temujin At the time of founding, it had the north and south of the desert and the forest area (i.e. Nerbuchu Region) After the operation of the Mongol Khans in successive dynasties and three western conquests, the territory began in the east Sea of Japan , The East China Sea , arriving in the west The Black Sea , Mediterranean District, North Span Siberia , south approach The Persian Gulf . During the period of Genghis Khan, the host Kings and the West Kings were divided, and the host Kings were the younger brothers of Temuzhen, most of them were divided in Saibei Eastern and northeast Region, strong dependency; The West Kings were the sons of Temujin, among whom the eldest son was divided Reddish reddish skin in Aral Sea , Caspian Sea , Balkhash Lake North of the Kipchak steppe, after Batu Set up Kipchak Khanate ; Feng Second son Chagatai in Syr north Silliao Old place, history says The Chagatai Khanate ; The third son, Ogotai, was divided into Naiman Old place, later by Kaidu Set up The Ogodei Khanate ; Saibei , Han Dynasty , northeast , Qinghai-tibet Plateau and Xinjiang In the east, the younger Towing mine It was acquired by the Yuan Dynasty. ^[27]

In 1279, Yuan Shizu conquered the Southern Song Dynasty and unified China. Han Dynasty , Monan , Mobei , northeast (include Outer northeast and Sakhalin ) , Xinjiang Eastern (in the beginning of the Yuan Tarim basin Westward arrival Green onion Ridge ), Tibetan plateau , Penghu Islands , Jeju Island and The South China Sea All the islands were under the rule of the Yuan Dynasty. ^[28] self-destruction The Southern Song Dynasty After though many times on Japan , Burma , Annam , Java There are conflicts among the other countries, but the territory is generally stable. 1310 Emperor Wuzong of Yuan Period, Yuan Dynasty and The Chagatai Khanate Divided the Ogodei Khanate, the Yuan dynasty took The Ogodei Khanate The territory of Moshi.

Territory of the Yuan Dynasty to the first year of Shun (1330), taken from the Encyclopedia of China^[88]

Administrative division

Subject article: Administrative divisions of the Yuan Dynasty

During the Yuan Dynasty, the country was divided into reasons Chinese book province The Gyeonggi region under its jurisdiction (i.e Hebei (Province) , Shandong (Province) , Shanxi (Province) And parts of South Desert), by Xuan Jeongwon (Initial Name General system council ) Under the jurisdiction of Tibetan regime in ancient China District, as well as ten Travel in the book province Are respectively Lingbei Province , Liaoyang Province , Gansu Province, Shaanxi province , Jiangbei Province of Henan , Huguang Province , Sichuan Province, Yunnan province , Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces , Jiangxi province . ^[27] ^[29]

Vassal state

The Yuan Dynasty was vassal state Korea , Burma , Annam , Champa And the four Great Khanates. Two of them are directly affiliated Vassal state , that is Goryeo Dynasty With Burma Bagan dynasty Separate special administrative regions Levy eastward province with Myanmar-china Province . Northwest side, 1268 The Ogodei Khanate The Kaidu unite to reclaim the Khan throne Kipchak Khanate with The Chagatai Khanate Inverse, history says The Haidu Rebellion . It was not until 1304 during the Yuan Chengzong period that the Yuan Court reached a peace treaty with the three major khanates and negotiated with them Ilikhanate Together, they recognized the suzerainty status of the Yuan Dynasty and became vassal states of the Yuan Dynasty. Moreover, Emperor Chengzong of the Yuan Dynasty and gave the monarch of the Yili Khanate engraved with Chinese seals such as "the true Emperor and the treasure of Shun Wan Yi" also recognized their independence in essence. In 1310, during the reign of Emperor Wuzong, the Yuan Dynasty and the Chagatai Khanate jointly attacked and destroyed The Ogodei Khanate . During the reign of Emperor Wenzong of Yuan Dynasty Classics of the world The Kancha Khanate, the Chagatai Khanate, and the Ili Khanate were listed as vassals of the Yuan Dynasty. ^[27]

political

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EDITOR

Administrative agency

The highest central body is Chinese book province . In the book province Chengzi, under the total hundred, led Six divisions It is the highest administrative organ and exercises the functions and powers of the prime Minister. According to the order of the provincial governor, the prime ministers of the right and the left are appointed as the actual prime ministers. Under the Pingzhang political affairs, right left Cheng, the deputy minister of political affairs. The Zhongshu province consists of six departments: officials, households, rites, workers, punishment and soldiers, and a book of ministers and attendants in charge of government affairs. ^[30] On account of Shangshu Province As time goes by and time goes by, Mohsia province No longer, so the status of the province is particularly important than the previous generation. Secretariat of the CPC Usually by Crown prince Act as. ^[31] In addition to being a decision-making body, the province is also responsible for the direct administration of the capital mostly Near the abdominal area. Shangshu Province , is mainly responsible for financial affairs, but has become obsolete.

Supervisory body

Imperial historian's desk It was the highest supervisory organ of the Yuan Dynasty. rank First rank . doctor Two members, from one; Nakao (a surname) Two members, Principal and principal substances ; Imperial historian Two members, Secondary grade ; Administer books and imperial histories Two members, Principal three grades Supervise the good and evil of officials, political gains and losses. ^[32] Under the imperial platform, there are the Department of Temple, the Investigation Court and the Department of anti-corruption inspection in the eight ways. Among them, the department was responsible for mastering the attendance and leave of officials in the capital; Under the supervision of the court, 24 people are responsible for the supervision of officials and people; The Department is responsible for the supervision of the abdomen (now Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, Shanxi), Liaodong and Huaihuai areas, a total of eight. ^[33]

Local system

Provincial system

The highest local administrative body in the Yuan Dynasty, and the name of the first-level political district. For short province , or just province. The yuan is the province of the book premier National government, also known as metropolitan ; Because the big Yuan has a vast territory, except In the belly The region is directly affiliated with Chinese book province The Tibetan region was under the jurisdiction of the Xuanyuan, and ten major cities were set up in various roads Travel in the book province To take charge of each region. in A surname In the Wuzong Dynasty, three short-term establishment of Shangshu provincial supervisors Government affairs During this period, the book province of the bank was also renamed the book province of the bank. The meta called its system:" metropolitan Seize the opportunity of the world, and ten provinces will govern the world." ^[34]

In 1260, it was adopted Chinese law , erect Chinese book province Head of the national affairs, the prime minister and the beginning Peace and tranquility govern affairs , Zuo Cheng , You Cheng, Participate in political affairs Wait for the officer. Subsequently, the provinces were established in various regions. In the early stage, the system of the previous generation was still used, and the provincial governor of the book led each province Said that the line somewhere in the book to save trouble. hereafter province It has actually become a permanent local administration. In 1286, the province, Taiwan, the court, and the ministry were settled province The appointed Prime Minister shall only Peace and tranquility govern affairs For the highest officer, with metropolitan Make a difference. Later, some large and complex provinces were allowed Prime minister (in feudal China) . In 1320, Emperor Renzong returned to the throne province Prime Minister, all who have been placed are reduced to Peace and tranquility govern affairs . After Emperor Taiding (1324-1328), certain province A Prime Minister is also appointed, depending on the need and the position of the incumbent. each province General set Peace and tranquility govern affairs Two members ( First rank ), one right Cheng, one left Cheng ( Principal and principal substances ), two councillors ( Secondary grade ), its rank and provincial officials are the same; The left and right departments are combined into one, and the doctor is placed in the middle. Scholars and foreigners , metropolis Rank is lower than provincial. At the end of the Yuan, some province Add "additions" Flat seal , right cheng, left cheng, participate in politics and other officials. province To be in charge of money and grain, armaments, seeds, water transport and other important matters of the military state; to command roads, prefectures and counties; For places far away from provincial administration, another Department of Propaganda Unified, as the provincial agency. ^[35] Provinces under the Dao, road, government, state, county, grass-roots administrative facilities.

Xuan Jeongwon

Xuan Jeongwon The original name of the General System Institute. rank First rank He was in charge of Buddhist affairs and military and political affairs in Tibet. ^[36] Encounter Tubo something, then for the branch to the town, also do not have a print. If the great expedition, will be the council. They choose their own people. It is the choice of military and civilian general photography, monks and laity. ^[37] It was founded in 1264 General system council And lead the nation. In 1288, due to the Tang Dynasty Tubo came to court in Xuanzheng Hall, the name was changed to Xuanzheng Yuan.

Department of Propaganda

The Pacification Department, in charge of the affairs of the army and the people, the division of roads to the general county, the provincial decree is issued under the county, the county has the request to reach the province. In the case of border troops, it is both the headquarters of the Commander, and then it is only the headquarters of the commander. In the distant service, there are also recruitment, appeasement, proclamation and other ambassadors, the number of products and ranks, each has its own differences. ^[38]

The Ministry of Pacification

Pacifying Minister, rank from two products. Each missionary makes three, from two; Tongzhi a member, from three; A deputy ambassador, is four products; Experience a member, from six products; All things a member, from seven products; According to grinding and shelf pipe hook a member, is nine products. Where six road: Shandong east-west Road, Yidu Road. Hedong Shanxi Road, Datong road. Huaidong Road, Yangzhou set. East Zhejiang Road, Qingyuan Road. Jing Hubei Road, Zhongxing Road. Hunan Road. The sky is near the road.

Pacify the chief marshal's office, rank from two, make three members, know two members, deputy two members, experience two members, governor two members, according to grinding and rack management hook a member.

Penghu inspection department

Subject article: Penghu inspection department

Legal system

Yuan never issued a complete code. Before 1271, in the Central Plains of the Han Dynasty, the judgment of prison litigation was basically based on the "Taihe Law" of the Jin dynasty, and then according to a certain relationship between generations. In November 1271, while building the title of "Dayuan", an order was issued to ban the Taihe Law. After several times to revise the law, but did not complete. Sentencing and sentencing, mainly based on the case, analogy interpretation, comparison and sentencing, compared with other feudal dynasties, the arbitrariness of justice is more significant. Other aspects of the legislative administration were also based on the edict system and regulations (various decrees issued by the emperor himself or directly by central organs such as the Zhongshu Province to subordinate departments). Therefore, the legal system of the Yuan Dynasty was mainly composed of various individual laws issued one after another due to the establishment of the system at the time and the adjustment of the situation. The government decreed that each court in the court and at the local level should compile the various types of regulations issued successively, so that officials could follow them. ^[39]

At that time, "inside the province, outside the county, copied the grid, to dozens of volumes." When something is difficult to resolve, look for old examples, or what is not contained in them, and apply analogy." With the increase of the year and the accumulation of the month, the complexity reappears and contradicts each other. The Government sometimes adds "sorting" and "consideration" to a certain aspect of the ordinances promulgated over the years, and determines "rank" to form new legal texts and promulgating them as "general rules". At the same time, with regard to the constitutional process of the country, senior officials were also summoned several times to select from the government instruments issued in the past "those who can act as orders, and set up a compromise to show that they are responsible". Big Yuan through the system "" To the right bar All of them are political books with the nature of law code See also Pass the bar ") .

hierarchy

in Feudal system When the Mongols invaded other countries to establish political power, there appeared the situation of the coexistence of many ethnic nobles, including the Mongol nobility, which led to the question of who should rule the empire. In order to maintain the autocratic rule of the Mongolian aristocracy, the Yuan Dynasty adopted the policy of "people divided into four classes" and divided the Chinese into four classes: first class Mongols , second class predator , third class The Han Chinese , fourth class southerner . This policy defended the Mongol nobility privilege . ^[40]

The four-class system
Lv.	nation
first-class	Mongols
Second order	predator (mainly refers to The western regions People, were the first to be conquered by the Mongols, such as Cinca , Tang Wu, gynophobia , The Huis In addition, some of the earlier annexation around the Mongolian plateau tribe , also belongs to the eyes, such as Wang Gube Wait.)
Third grade	The Han Chinese (refers to the Han and Jin dynasties north of the Huai River Qidan, an ancient nationality in China , Jurchen And people from Sichuan and Yunnan who were later conquered by the Mongols.)
Fourth class	southerner The ethnic groups in the former Southern Song Dynasty that were finally conquered by the Mongols did not include those south of the Huai River Sichuan area Of the people.

Add to this a host of unequal policies and regulations. For example, Han people were forbidden to hunt, learn boxing and martial arts, hold weapons, meet to worship gods, go to the market for trading, and walk at night. In 1286, for the attack Annam Requisitioned horses all over the country, and only two of the three horses of the senders were requisitioned; And the Han horses, no matter how many, all expropriated. Since then, horses have been continuously recruited, and each time, horses of the Han people have become treasures. ^[41]

The heads of local governments above "Master A" were all Mongolians. When there were not enough Mongols to go around, or when the Central Asians were bribed enough, the Central Asians took over. Most of the Mongol officials were hereditary, and every Mongol chief, such as a governor or a county governor, was his feudal fief. They have no political responsibility to the Han people, let alone legal responsibility. But in fact for many powerful is not applicable. Although the law forbade the Han to hold weapons, the Daxing Shi family, the Yizhou Zhang family, and the Zhending Dong family were treated just like the Mongolian nobles. On the contrary, many Mongolian poor people lived very difficult, to the middle of the Yuan Dynasty, there were often a large number of Mongolian poor people in the great city, Tongzhou and other places sold, and many of the color people became slaves. Actually or Landlord class The regime. ^[41]

However, the academic community has not found that the Yuan Dynasty has a special decree to clearly divide the subjects into four classes, but this division is reflected in some policies and regulations, such as the Han people who killed the Mongols need to pay their lives, and the Mongols who killed the Han people only need to "be punished to go to war, and burn all the silver" (original text means that the Mongols are weak, the Mongols are a privileged class in the Yuan Dynasty). ^[42] .

Modern studies have pointed out that a considerable number of Han people in the Yuan Dynasty held senior positions at all levels of government, many of which were full-time. In... History of the Yuan Dynasty "," History of Singapore dollar ", and" The Mughal Chronicles Of the 864 officials above the three categories, 409 were Han Chinese, or 47 percent of the total. In addition, the Han people in the Yuan government to do the official position, in addition to the Han people in the province, the Privy Council, the Imperial History Station and the travel of the province as senior officials, in the six departments of the book, also can be found. To sum up, the Han people not only held many prominent positions in the government at all levels of the Yuan Dynasty, but also held a large number of official positions. It is not accurate to say that "the senior officials at all levels of the government of the Yuan Dynasty must be held by Mongolians or seremes, and the Han can only do deputy posts at most" ^[43] .

Military affairs

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EDITOR

Military institution

The highest military body of the Yuan Dynasty was the Privy Council. Rank from a product, in charge of the world's top secret affairs. Where the palace is forbidden to guard, the wing of the army, the conquest of the garrison, the simple reading of the dispatch, the promotion of the official, the control of the dispatch, all by reason. buy chiwon Six members, from one; A surname Four members, Principal and principal substances ; Vice armature two, Secondary grade ; court Two members, Principal three grades ; Two members of the court, Principal four grades ; Court adjudication Two members, Principal five grades ; Consult and discuss Two members, five products; Experience two, Subordinate to five grades ; metropolis Four members, Principal seven grades ; Bear both the title and the title illuminating Two members, Normal eight grades ; Shelf storage A member of the pipe hook, Principal nine grades ; One man in the same pipe, Subordinate to the nine grades of rank in the feudal system ; A surname 24 people, 14 people translated history, interpreter Three of you, two of you, promulgate Nineteen, two by Quan, two by Mongol, Herald 17 people, two hospital doctors.

Under the Privy Council Visitor envoy , arbiter , To the Privy Council , right guard, Left guard , centre-half, avant-garde Guard and other government offices.

Service establishment

Mongolian heavy cavalry

Subject article: cowardly

The Yuan army included the Mongol Army, The Red Horse Scouts , Han Army, New annexes Let's wait. in Mobei steppe Mongols He still lived a nomadic life of integration of soldiers and people, leaving the army in wartime and gathering herding in peacetime. in Han Dynasty In the Yuan Dynasty, the source of military officers was issued from fixed military households. Mongo In the second year of Renzi (1252), when a large number of households were registered, a clear distinction was made between civilian households and military households. Most of the Mongol families that entered the mainland and the families of the Jin and Song armies that were collected were military families. In addition to some The Han nationality Or other ethnic households have been newly signed as military households, generally by the middle household. Military households can farm four hectares of grain tax-free, which is called "military maintenance land". The Mongols, the Red Army and the Han Army ( Jin State The military households issued by the Mongol regime and the Yuan government in North China were all managed through the Auru. One of Auru's main duties is to follow Military household In the middle, Ding Nan was sent to serve in the army, and in time, the "younger brother under the household" of the deceased soldiers took over the army service to make up for the shortage of troops. The second is responsible for the current soldiers of Ben Oulu on time to prepare pommel horse, staff, and other military supplies. The Oru of the Mongolian and Scout Red Army was subordinate to the ten thousand households and thousands of households where the Oru serving sergeant was located, and the Oru of the Han Army was led by the governor of the region. The new attached army (the descending army of the Southern Song Dynasty) did not set up Aolu.

Defense system

Yuan dynasty warriors

Military defense in the Yuan Dynasty was divided into two major systems, namely the Garrison Garrison Division. mostly ) the garrison system and the garrison system throughout the country. The ancient guard army consists of Shirixue Legion And the bodyguard pro-army composition. Kublai Khan After the founding, it was retained Genghis Khan The establishment of the system of four timid men in turn, using them to rank in the forbidden court to serve as guards, the regular amount of more than ten thousand people, by the emperor or trusted ministers direct control. The military in the environmental sanitation Jinggi Province, to the end of the Yuan Dynasty has set up more than thirty guards, guard Consul general Or rate to make, the rank of the product is equivalent to ten thousand households (positive three products), under Privy Council . Due to their strong combat effectiveness, a considerable part of the Serm troops who entered the interior were incorporated into the pro-guard army. The layout of the garrison troops in the town, mainly by the Mongolian army and The Red Horse Scouts Defend. North China, Shaanxi (Province) , Sichuan The Mongol and Scout armies in other places were commanded by the Mongol military capital of Wanhu Prefecture (Provincial Commander's Office) in various regions and were subordinate to the Privy Council. To the south, the Mongols, Han Army The new attached army was stationed in the garrison, and the defense focus was the area along the Huai River. The garrison of the town under the province is commanded by the privy Council when there is a police; The usual routine belongs to province However, important military matters such as the dispatch of more defense were still controlled by the Privy Council. The total number of troops and horses in the country was known only to the Emperor and the Mongol officials of the Privy Council, and only to the Mongol officials at the head of the provinces.

Major war

warfare	A given year	belligerent
The Battle of Wenyong	The year 1274	Japan (Kamakura Shogunate)
Kublai Khan's war against the Song Dynasty	1276-1279	The Southern Song Dynasty
The Battle of Hongan	The year 1281	Japan (Kamakura Shogunate)
The battle of the city	The year 1282	Champa
The Battle of Burma	1283-1287	Burma (Bagan regime)
The Second Invasion of Vietnam	The year 1284-1285	Vietnam (Chen Dynasty)
The Third Invasion of Vietnam	1287-1288	Vietnam (Chen Dynasty)
The Battle of Java	The year 1292	Java
Note: This table shows only the wars from 1271 to 1368. ^[44]

economy

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EDITOR

Subject article: Economy of Yuan dynasty

agriculture

The Grand Canal of Yuan Dynasty

According to scholar Wu Hui's research, the yield per mu in the Yuan Dynasty increased by 9.4% over that in the Song Dynasty. ^[4] ^{[100
]} In the production technology, land reclamation area, grain output, water conservancy construction and Cotton Extensive planting and other aspects have made great development. At the beginning of the Mongol Khan's entry into the Central Plains, terrible massacres and looting brought great damage to the economy of the northern region.

The Mongols were originally nomads, from the steppe period Raise livestock Mainly, the economy is single, there is no land system. Mongolian Wars During that time, he planned to kill all the Han people and turn all the arable land into pasture, Minister A surname It is suggested that the agricultural production of the Han people should be preserved to provide a financial source of income. The proposal is subject to Temujin The adoption of... After Ogetai, in order to consolidate the rule over the Han, some measures were carried out to encourage production and appease the exile, and agricultural production gradually resumed. In particular, the cultivation of cotton, a cash crop, continues to expand. Cotton And cotton textiles in the south of the Jiangnan area of cultivation and distribution are in The Southern Song Dynasty On the basis of increased.

Handicraft industry

The development of commercial production of cash crops made the rural economy, which was basically self-sufficient at that time, infiltrate into the economic relations of commodity money in some aspects. However, because the Yuan Emperor centralized control of a large number of handicraft craftsmen, engaged in the production of daily crafts, the government handicraft industry was particularly developed, and there were certain restrictions on the folk handicraft industry.

commerce

Value business

"To the currency currency" banknote

The commercial development and commodity circulation in Yuan Dynasty had some unique favorable conditions objectively. The unprecedented scale of the unified situation, the development of foreign relations and the smooth water and land transportation, for the Chinese and foreign travel to provide "a thousand miles of people like in the house, ten thousand miles of people like the neighbor" superior environment.

On account of Mongolia right product The Yuan Dynasty advocated commerce, which made the commodity economy very prosperous and made it a very rich country in the world at that time. The capital of the Yuan dynasty, Dadu, also became a world-renowned commercial center. According to the standard of political power, the merchants of the Yuan Dynasty can be generally divided into two categories. The first category was composed of aristocrats, merchants in the Western regions, bureaucrats, upper-class monks and rich merchants. They were protected and privileged in many aspects by the authorities when traveling, and some of them even obtained the privileges of holding seal books, bearing tiger symbols and riding horses ^[45] .

Commodity Exchange also promoted the transportation industry in the Yuan Dynasty develop Improved land, water transport, inland and sea traffic.

currency

In order to adapt to the exchange of commodities, the Yuan Dynasty established the world's earliest complete paper currency circulation system Chinese history On the first completely to Paper money As a circulating currency dynasty, however, due to the indiscriminate issuance of paper money also caused inflation .

Paper money is officially used as legal compensation, along with silver, etc., through the country, tax policy also stipulates that a certain amount of banknotes and silver must be paid, and agricultural products and handmade goods are commonly used in the farming and weaving home to "trade silver for the government." ^[86] Under the condition of tax loss, there are no restrictions on aristocratic bureaucrats doing business. Mongolian aristocrats also directly used Ordo to make profits, and set up special agencies to formulate a series of regulations to protect the operation of Ordo. ^{[46 and 47]} All these make the degree of commercialization to the depth and breadth of development.

population

Yuan Dynasty household statistics table
age	Number of households (households)	Population (persons)	remark
Xia Chongzong Yongan Three years (1100)	-	Estimated at 3 million ^[48]	-
Jin Zhang Zong Taihe Seventh Year (1207)	8413164 ^[49] Estimated 8.7 million ^[48]	53532151 ^[49] Estimated 56 million ^[48]	Scholars believe that Jin State After the destruction, only 2 million households and 10.5 million people remained in the territory. ^[50]
Song Ningzong 16th year of Jiading (1223)	12670801 ^[51] Estimated $15.5 million ^[48]	28320085 ^[51] Estimated $80.6 million ^[48]	The year is The Southern Song Dynasty At the peak of the population, scholars believe that the population dropped by more than 10 million people due to the Song and Yuan Wars. ^[50]
The eighth year of Emperor Taizong (1236)	1100000 ^[52]	-	The statistical scope is the North China area of the former Jin and Summer borders, which was implemented in 1235 B is not registered It was completed in 1236.
元宪宗二年（1252年）	1300000 ^[53]	-	Completed the none-child registration this year ^[54]
The first year of the Middle Dynasty of Yuan Shizu (1260)	1418499 ^[55]	-	-
Yuan Shizu to Yuan 27 years (1290)	13196206 Estimated at 15 million ^[48]	58834711 Estimated 75 million ^[48]	There were 11,840,800 households in the former Southern Song Dynasty and 1,355,406 households in the former Jin Dynasty. The statistics do not include the "people of Shanze Creek Cave" in the southwestern provinces. ^[56]
Yuan Shizu to Yuan 28 years (1291)	13430332	60491300	There are 1999,444 households in Nei County (that is, the north), 11430,878 households in Jianghuai and Sichuan (that is, the south), with a total of 59,848,964 people, 429,118 tourists, and 213,148 monks and nuns. ^[57]
The thirtieth year of Yuan Shizu to Yuan (1293)	(1) 14002760 ^[58] (2), 11633281	(2), 53654337	① data is the peak of official statistics Data No. ② from Yuan Shi · Volume 93 ^[59]
Emperor Wenzong of the Yuan Dynasty to the first year of Shun (1330)	13400699 ^[60] Estimated 17 million ^[48]	Estimated at 85 million ^[48]	-
元惠宗至正元年（1341年）	Estimated at 18 million ^[48]	Estimated at 90 million ^[48]	Some scholars believe that this year was the peak of the population in the Yuan Dynasty
Ming Taizu Hongwu Third Year (1370)	-	Estimated 60 million ^[50]	Scholars believe that the population bottomed out at 60 million during the Yuan and Ming dynasties ^[50]
Note: Official statistics in this table only include Han Dynasty (excluding Tibetan regime in ancient China , Yunnan (Province) , Linghoku and Liaoyang Province ) residents, excluding special residents such as People of a lower social status , Tenant farmer , Slaves and maidservants , sangaism Such a crowd, the Mongolian noble army generals have a large number of exorcies, in addition Military household , craftsman These are not included in household statistics, so the actual population is much larger than the registered population, and the estimated data in this table comes from Wu Songdi 's Chinese population History Volume III Liao, Song, Jin and Yuan Periods "And Ge Jianxiong 's History of Chinese population development ".

taxes

Jinzheng Treasure (Kwon Banknote money)

Tax system There are mainly Tax grain and Professional difference Two items. Tax grain is different in north and south, and the north is divided into butyl tax and local tax; The south followed the old system of the Southern Song Dynasty and levied two taxes according to the land area. Those who differ from the North, including silk, silvering And salary three. In the south, there are household notes and silver envelopes. But "Jiangnan Bao Yin" was implemented in the Yuan Dynasty for a short time. Generally speaking, the three provinces of Jiangnan in the Yuan Dynasty did not levy silver guarantee. ^[5]

Caballero press Lining nail Households and other editors, such as Fang Zheng, Interior square Warehouse officer and warehouse sub, etc. They also built cities, Open a river Construction of embankments, transportation and other forces. The heavy duty has caused great harm to the working people.

The name of the official receiving money: subordinates see also" Pay homage to sb. ", every New Year festival to" Chase down and save money Birthday to "birthday money", ushered in to send to" Favor money "Nothing for nothing" Splash the cash "The routine should be" Ordinary money "When it comes to lawsuits, they have to collect money.

culture

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EDITOR

thought

The Yuan Dynasty's ideology was also eclectic, and they recognized and promoted all kinds of ideas almost equally, "the three religions and the nine streams, all of them worship." ^[85] . As early as 1234 Zhao Fu After being captured in the north, he set up in Yanjing Tai chi Academy , teach neo-confucianism When Neo-Confucianism was passed to the Yuan Dynasty, the Yuan Emperor respected Confucianism and conferred on Confucius the title of "King Wenxuan, the most swordsman of Dacheng" and admired him neo-Confucianism For the official school. Yuan Renzong recovered in the early years Imperial examinations , known as Yanyou Fuke In the "Ming Jing", "Jing doubt" and "Jing Yi" examination are required to use The Southern Song Dynasty Confucian Zhu Xi Zhu Xi's annotations influenced the later imperial examinations of the Ming Dynasty to adopt Zhu Xi's annotations. ^[61] There were some changes in Neo-Confucianism in the Yuan Dynasty. In the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi harmonized Neo-Confucianism between Cheng and Zhu and Xinxue Lu Jiuling And other two schools of thought. In the Yuan Dynasty, neo-Confucianism mostly abandoned the short and comprehensive strengths of the two schools, and finally "Hui Zhu Lu" became an important feature of the Yuan Neo-Confucianism. The famous neo-Confucianists of our time are Huang Zhen , Xu Heng with Liu Yin Learned with harmonizing Zhu Lu Wu Cheng , Zheng Yu with Zhao Kai Among them, Xu Heng, Liu Yin and Wu Cheng were honored as the three masters of Neo-Confucianism in the Yuan Dynasty. In order to meet the needs of the Yuan Emperor, the successors of Zhuxue paid more attention to the ethical and moral theories of neo-Confucianism, and the characteristics of moral obscurantism became increasingly obvious. Thus, the attention from the change of intellectual thinking to the study of the moral practice of respect for the moral character, which also contributed to the convergence of Zhu and Lu's thought. The development of Neo-Confucianism in the Yuan Dynasty was also related to Zhuxue and Yangming The philosophy of the mind The rise of the United States provides the beginning of certain ideas. ^[61]

Since the Yuan Dynasty was ruled by the Mongols, the Han scholar-officials were mostly divided into the cooperative faction and the resistance faction in the early period of the Yuan Dynasty, based on the consideration of the rule of other ethnic groups. On the cooperative side are North Chinese Confucians such as A surname , Yang Huan , Hao Jing with Xu Heng Et al. They advocated peaceful coexistence with the Mongol rulers, believing that Hua and Yi were not fixed, and that if Yi moved into China, China would. If the Mongol rulers are virtuous, they can also fully occupy the Central Plains. They advocated social stability, protection of the common people, and brought Chinese rules and regulations into the Yuan Dynasty to teach and influence the Mongols. On the other side were the Confucianists of the Southern Song Dynasty, such as Xie Visiting, Zheng Sixiao , Wang Yinglin , Husan Province , Deng Mu , Ma Duanlin Et al. They cherish the memory of the Southern Song Dynasty and insist on national integrity. In order to resist the Yuan court passively, he took the way of hiding in the village and was not willing to be an official all his life. And to describe the book for the business, the thought into the book theme. In the later period of the Yuan Dynasty, due to the implementation of the Yuan Renzong Yanyou restoration, the restoration of imperial examinations, and all thanked the grace of the Son of Heaven, and were willing to relieve the Yuan court's worries. In the late Yuan Dynasty, the state power fell, political corruption, financial difficulties, so that the scholastic officials such as Zhao Tianlin, Zheng Jiefu, Zhang Yanghao and Liu Ji put forward various political opinions, or summed up lessons from the shortcomings. Most of them advocate measures such as diligent administration and love for the people, honesty and justice, and appointment of talented people. The outbreak of the civil revolt at the end of the Yuan Dynasty made many scholar-officials in the south suppress the peasant uprising for their own interests. After the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, a small number of Yuan Dynasty survivors have to retire. ^[62]

literature

Yuan Dynasty literature A style of music played in the Yuan Dynasty with novel Mainly, the study of history is also very prosperous. Compared with the Tang and Song dynasties, the Yuan Dynasty had few poetry achievements. The main poets were: quadrature , Dai Weiyuan , Yuanhao Question , Lee Junmin , A surname , Hao Jing , Liu Yin , Yu set , Yang Zai , Fan 梈 , 揭傒斯 , Hwang 溍 , Liu Guan , Ouyang Xuan , Wang Mian , Yang Weizhen and Sadul Wait, quadrature , poetics Huang Tingjian , yes Jiangxi school of poetry The Temple Army, artistically, he vigorously play Jiangxi school of poetry The main features of his poems are the creation of new images and old state. Yu set , Yang Zai , Fan 梈 , 揭傒斯 Four people, known as Yuan poetry four everybody . A surname Yu set For long, the poem to Liu Yin For. ^[63]

Portraits of writers of the Yuan Dynasty

Ming Dynasty Wang Shizhen It is said that "there is no text", but narrative literature such as opera and novel became dominant for the first time. The Yuan Dynasty gave birth to North China A style of music played in the Yuan Dynasty Jiangnan appeared in Zhejiang as the center of the literati class, gave birth to the" Romance of The Three Kingdoms "And" Water Margin "And other novels, free-spirited literati such as Yang Weizhen , Ni Zan Others, in the city issued the flowers of civic culture.

religion

Yuan Dynasty and vassal states: Mongolia The Juchi Khanate , Mongolia The Chagatai Khanate The Mongol Ili Khanate spanned the Eurasian continent with a vast territory and a wide variety of races in its territory, which made the religion of the Yuan Dynasty diversified and various Buddhism (including Chinese Buddhism with lamaism ), Taoism , White Lotus Religion All of them have achieved great development; Eastern and Western business travel, priests also frequent, from the West Islam , Christianity (including nestorianism and Catholicism ) and Judaism The influence is also gradually increasing.

Because the Yuan Dynasty basically adopted a laissez-faire attitude towards various religions in the territory, and even tolerated them, this environment was more conducive to the spread and development of religions. Yuan Dynasty monk With the privilege of tax exemption and exemption, some lawless people speculated as monks, and even intervened in lawsuits, and ran amokay in the countryside, which became a social problem in the Yuan Dynasty. However, Yuan Shizu Had discriminated against in terms of etiquette Islam For example, by not respecting their methods of slaughtering sheep, Islamists are forced to eat them die meat This Act also applies Christianity An apprentice. The Yuan Dynasty relaxed the control of religion, making the people such as White Lotus Religion , Enlightened religion And so on to establish a secret organization, anti-meta uprising. ^[64]

history

Subject article: Husan Province , Check the sound note , Ma Duanlin , General literature examination , Secret history of Mongolia , History of the Song Dynasty , A surname , Liao history

Language

Subject article: Central plains rhyme , Mongolian

Traditional Chinese opera

Yuan Qu everybody Guan Hanqing

Yuan opera, i.e A style of music played in the Yuan Dynasty , divide into A style of folk music composed of folk songs with zaju Sanqu has the independent life of poetry, while Zju has the independent life of drama. At that time, the city was prosperous, and the Yuan Court did not attach importance to Chinese literature and Imperial examinations At that time, the society advocated singing and dancing Traditional Chinese opera As a popular entertainment, all these sublimated the opera from Song and Jin to Yuan opera. Sanqu is a new style of poetry in the Yuan Dynasty, and it is also a new form of verse in the Yuan Dynasty. It is mainly lyrical, mainly popular songs sung on the stage, which can be sung alone or integrated into the opera, and is closely related to the poetry of the Tang and Song Dynasties. Zju is the opera of Yuan Dynasty, which originated in the late Jin Dynasty and the early Yuan Dynasty, developed and flourished in Yuan Dynasty Solstice element Taetok During the years. According to the Taihe right tone spectrum As recorded in the book, there are about 535 copies, and the creation is very huge and brilliant. In the late Yuan Dynasty, the creation center of Zaju gradually moved south to strengthen its development with Wenzhou Southern opera The exchange to the end of the yuan becomes Legend Developed in Ming and Qing dynasties Kunqu opera and Cantonese opera .

At that time there were four famous sanqu Guan Hanqing , Ma Zhiyuan , Zhang Kejiu with Georgie The famous "Nan Lu" A flower never hides an old man "Reflects the author's optimism and tenacious spirit; " By the end of the night The pursuit of writing skills, from the unique style of Sanqu; scenography Narcissus Revisited the falls Both elegant and vulgar, to surprise victory; Which depicts natural scenes Pure sand, Autumn thought "Depicts a picture of the autumn suburbs, scenes blend, bright colors, known as" the ancestor of autumn thinking."

Except for the five famous opera masters Guan Hanqing with Ma Zhiyuan In addition, there are Magnolia officinalis , Wang Shifu with Jung Kwang-jo (Among them, Guan, Bai, Ma and Zheng are called" Yuan Qu four people "), famous works include" Dou E Yuan "" Worship of the Moon Pavilion "" Han Gong Qiu "" Phoenix Rain "" Romance of the Western Chamber "And" A beautiful woman has lost her soul It mainly expresses social and living conditions, praises historical figures and events, and emphasizes the emotions of characters. Yuan Qu prospered, and finally became a Han Fu , Tang poetry , Song Ci It is also known as China's excellent literary heritage.

Painting and calligraphy

In calligraphy and painting, Zhao Mengd «¯ He was the leader of the painting circle in the Yuan Dynasty. His painting materials are extensive, comprehensive techniques, landscape, figures, flowers and birds are all good at. He advocates retro, emphasizes "calligraphy and painting homology", and advocates learning from nature. Calligraphy Zhong You, two Kings, Li Yong, Emperor Gaozong Zhao Gou and other families in the past dynasties, style, Li, true and grass are all excellent. His views on painting, calligraphy style and calligraphy have a great and far-reaching influence on the contemporary and later generations. ^[65]

Meng-che Cho «

Science and technology

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EDITOR

Astronomical calendar

Yuan Dynasty scientist Guo Shoujing

The Yuan Dynasty Astronomical calendar In terms of relatively developed, Yuan Shizu Invite Arabia the astronomer He came to China and absorbed the Arab astronomy technology, and successively built it in Shangdu, Dadu, Dengfeng and other places observatory with Return to the roof It has set up 27 astronomical observation stations as far north as the South China Sea to measure ecliptic and star Outstanding achievements have been made in observation far in advance. The famous astronomers of the Yuan Dynasty were Guo Shoujing , Wang Xun , A surname , Zamaruddin Et al. Ye Lu Chu CAI has edited the book" Western conquest Gengwu Yuan calendar In 1267, Zamaruddin In the Perpetual Calendar, 1276, Xu Heng , Wang Xun , Guo Shoujing He and others revised the calendar and presided over the compilation of the "Modern cut-off method". Shoushi calendar The Shoushi Calendar was issued in 1280 ^[66] It has been used for more than 400 years, which is a great progress in the history of the human calendar.

Zamaruddin and later Guo Shoujing They developed more than a dozen kinds of astronomical instruments, such as the simplified instrument, the elevation instrument, the gnomon, the field symbol, the viewing instrument, the positive scheme, the penode instrument, the vertical operation instrument, the evidence instrument, the timing instrument, the solar and lunar eclipse instrument, etc. At that time, there were also working in the observatory Arabia The astronomer can Maradin, Tomastin Et al. Back to the division of the roof has been existing to the end of the Yuan Ming, still by the return of the division of day supervision black son, a to thorn, the division of day supervision cheng Li month real and so on fixed calendar. ^[67]

Geography

geographical The Yuan is unified The compilation of ", the exploration of river Source," Map of China The publication of the book and the publication of a large number of travelogues are his main achievements. The Yuan Yi Unified Annals is presided over by the government, Zamaruddin , Yu Yinglong Specific responsibility. The book has a detailed description of the construction history, cities and towns, mountains and rivers, local customs, and historical figures of various prefectures and counties in China, which has high historical value. In 1280, Emperor Shizu ordered Jurchen Dusit Exploring the source of the Yellow River, think Astral sea (fire dun brain) that is, the river source, closer to the reality. Pan Angxiao It was also written in the book The annals of Heyuan ".

Taoist priest Zhu Siben He studied the geographical situation of North China, East China and South Central China, and drew the Map of Geography with the method of "planning and planning". He became an epoch-making figure in the history of geography in Yuan Dynasty and Chinese map. There are travel books in geography A surname " Journey to the West Record ", Li Zhichang Collated "Changchun Human Journey to the West", Zhou Daguan The Story of Zhenla, Wang Dayuan "Shima Yi Zhiluo" and so on, the Yuan Dynasty at home and abroad of the geographical landform, customs, trade and so on a lot of description.

agronomy

The agricultural technology of Yuan Dynasty can be seen in the book Agricultural and mulberry Digest "," Wang Zhennong Book "And" Agricultural and mulberry food summary "And three other books. ^[67]

Maths

Subject article: Li Ye , Zhu Shijie

Water conservancy

Subject article: The Grand Canal of Yuan Dynasty , Thongwe Chaung

unit

Subject article: The Great Capital of the Yuan Dynasty

machine

Subject article: Wang Zhen , Agricultural literature

Medical science

Subject article: Vyilin , A world doctor can be effective , Zidzhih , Surgical essence , Zhu Zhenheng , The theory of Ge Zhiyu , Play by the bureau , Hulsihui , Juan Tho

(" Culture ", "Science and technology" two directories "main word article" content source) ^[68]

nation

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EDITOR

Subject article: The four-class system

The Han nationality

In order to maintain the supreme ruling power and safeguard the interests of the Mongolian nobles, the Yuan rulers tried their best to implement the policy of national segregation and discrimination, and the officials insisted on "long rules" Mongols For this, and The Han Chinese , southerner The principle of "two equals", ^[69] Restriction of folk preservation arrow . ^[70] While some Mongolians and people in the Western regions have been sinicized, some Han people have also been influenced by Mongolian culture to varying degrees, mainly in language, name, marriage, dress and so on. The degree of Mongolization of a few Han people is deep, some Han people are semi-mongolization, and most Han people are slightly affected. The northern Han people had more contact with the Mongols and were deeply influenced by Mongolian culture, while the "southern" people were much less influenced. ^[89] Yuan Shizu During the period of Emperor and Emperor Yingzong, "Han Confucian" was once appointed, and then repeated several times due to changes in the current situation. ^[71]

predator

With the Mongol expedition to the West, a large number of people from the Western regions came to China. The Yuan Dynasty called these people predator . The main shamu people commonly found in Yuan people's records are: Hui Hui, Tang Wu, Wang Gu, Weihuer, Kangli, Khinchak, Azu, Khairu, Tufan, Aer Hun, etc. Mongol nobility often used shamans in charge of the economy and taxation, ^[72] In the final Yuan generation, the Shamans had an important impact on politics, economy, science, technology and culture.

Southwest ethnic groups

It's in the southwest Dali State , Tibetan regime in ancient China Such regimes and peoples. The year 1252, the death of Munger Khan Kublai Khan with Yakuyo Katai From the end of Sichuan, Duan Shi, the former king of Dali, was appointed as the hereditary governor of Dali. Appoint a large number of chiefs as Department of Propaganda Hereditary officer, apply Chieftain system Administering the Southwest nationalities. ^[73]

Tibetan regime in ancient China

Tibetan regime in ancient China It has been declining since the late Tang Dynasty. 1247 Second son of Ogetai Khan Broad end Call Lama Bandzhida to Liangzhou, Shi said Liangzhou League Thereafter, the Tubo Lama and the Mongol Great Khan formed a relationship of alms. With the support of the court Sakya Establish a theocracy in Tibet, ^[74] Head of the Yuan Dynasty" A surname ". ^[75]

diplomacy

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EDITOR

Subject article: Diplomacy of Yuan dynasty

Marco Polo

Before and after the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty, it always waged aggressive wars against neighboring countries and regimes, such as: Yuan War , Yuan-vietnamese War , Yuan-burmese War , Yuanclaw War , The Goryeo Mongol War Let's wait. The Yuan Court had asked some neighboring countries or regions (including Japan , Annam , Champa , Burma , Java Submit and accept with the Yuan Dynasty Pay tribute Relations were rejected, so armies were sent to attack these countries or regions, among which Yuan War The most famous and the most tragic.

The Yuan Dynasty had frequent diplomatic exchanges with other countries, and envoys from different places, Preacher There was a constant stream of business trips, including the Venetian merchant Niccolo brothers and their sons Marco Polo He became a foreigner who gained the favor of the Yuan emperor and served as a diplomatic envoy in the Yuan Dynasty.

Marco Polo He was the most famous Christian in communication between China and the West during Kublai Khan's time. He claimed to have arrived in China in 1275, and his writings were the only source of European knowledge of China for many years. Marco Polo He was preceded in China by his father Niccolo Polo and his uncle Maffeo Polo.

They left in 1252 Venice , in Constantinople He traded for a few years, and reached the court of Kublai Khan in the second half of 1265 or the first half of 1266 Ross and Central Asia To travel. ^[27]

society

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EDITOR

sacrifice

Yuan dynasty Sacrificial rites The objects include heaven and Earth, Zongmiao, Shiji, Pre-nong, pre-sages, Yuechen Haidu, wind, rain, thunder and so on. The Yuan Dynasty paid special attention to the worship of heaven, which was directly related to the Mongolian belief in shamanism to worship the supreme "eternal heaven". ^[76]

The priests sent by the Yuan Emperor were Shiji, peasants and saints. There are also some customs of the Yuan Dynasty that we can mention. One is "visiting the imperial city", and the other is taking off the old disaster and welcoming the new blessing. ^[76]

matrimony

Yuan dynasty matrimony The ritual system was basically settled in 1271. The first thing worth paying special attention to in the wedding of Yuan Dynasty is the rites and customs of the Mongolian people who live in a special position. Even after the establishment of the Mongol Khanate, the custom of "stealing relatives" was popular among the Mongols. But at the same time, the custom of discussing marriage is also very common. The Mongols practiced polygamy in the Yuan Dynasty. In the Yuan Dynasty, Mongolians also practiced the stepmarriage system, that is, "when the father dies, the wife takes over from the mother, and when the brother dies, the wife takes over." ^[84] .

As for the marriage rites and customs of the Han nationality, which still accounted for the majority of the population in the Yuan Dynasty, they basically followed the original tradition, but there were some changes. The marriage rites of all nationalities in the Yuan Dynasty, although each followed its own custom, could not not affect each other. It is more obvious that some Han people imitate the Mongolian polygamy, "a wife is more married." The Mongolian system of adoptive marriage also had an impact on the Han.

funeral

The Yuan Dynasty also stipulated in the aspects of funeral, including burial style, funeral dress, funeral and mourning, each according to its own custom. The Mongolian practice of earth burial, but no grave, rich people have coffins, but the shape of the coffin is different from that of the Han, "divided into two, the router has a human shape, its wide and narrow, long and short, only enough to accommodate." ^[77] The funeral rites of the Han nationality in the Yuan Dynasty followed the inherent tradition and established it more firmly on the concept of loyalty and filial piety. "Dayuan Tong System" was written, "but in five servings" ^[78] For the first time in the history of Chinese legal system, the five Fu was listed as a special article in the code.

Imperial lineage

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EDITOR

The period of Great Mongolia

Temple title	Honorific title given to an emperor	Posthumous title	Name	Time in place
A surname (After the ancestors)	-	Emperor Shenyuan (Sejo Jae) ^[79]	And then boriz	-
The first founder of a dynasty (After the ancestors)	Genghis Khan	The law of heaven sent the Emperor Shengwu (Sejo Jae posthumous title, Mojonga posthumous title)	Mr. Tiemuzhen has more than three decades	From 1206 to 1227
Ruizon (After the ancestors)	Can also be that face	Benevolent and sacred view Xiang Emperor (Sejo Jae posthumous title, Mojonga posthumous title)	Zhierzhijin Tuolei	From 1227 to 1229
A surname (After the ancestors)	Wood is also strong sweat	English emperor (Sejo Jae)	Some of the borchies borchies	From 1229 to 1241
-	-	Empress Zhaoci (Sejo Jae)	Naima Zhen Tolegona	From 1242 to 1246
Fixed sect (After the ancestors)	-	Emperor Jianping (Sejo Jae)	Zhierzhijin Guiyou	1246 -1248
-	-	Empress Chin Shu (Sejo Jae)	The sea of Orpheus is lost	From 1248 to 1251
Heon Tsung (After the ancestors)	-	桓肃皇帝 (Sejo Jae)	The brothers Boriz Mengge	From 1251 to 1259
A surname	Xue Chan Khan, Xian Tian described the road of benevolence, literature and righteousness Wu Dguang filial piety emperor	Holy virtue, divine work, civil and military emperor	Zhierzhijin Kublai Khan	1260-1264 From 1264 to 1271

Yuan Dynasty

Temple title	Honorific title given to an emperor	Posthumous title	Name	Time in place
A surname	Xue Chan Khan, Xian Tian described the road of benevolence, literature and righteousness Wu Dguang filial piety emperor	Holy virtue, divine work, civil and military emperor	Zhierzhijin Kublai Khan	From 1271-1294
A surname		Holy virtue, divine work, civil and military emperor	Zhierzhijin Kublai Khan	From 1271-1294
Yuzong (To honor one's father)	-	Wen Hui Ming Xiao Emperor ^[80] (Sung Jong Hwa)	Zhierzhijin · Zhenjin	-
A surname	Wanze Dukhan	Qing Ming Guang Xiao Emperor	Some of today's tribes boriz Tiemul	Yuan Zhen from 1295 to 1297 De 1297 -1307
A surname	Wanze Dukhan	Qing Ming Guang Xiao Emperor	Some of today's tribes boriz Tiemul	Yuan Zhen from 1295 to 1297 De 1297 -1307
Shunzong (Emperor Wuzong honors)	-	Zhaosheng Yan filial piety emperor ^[81] (Wuzong Posthumous title)	Some of the tribes boring China	-
Vouzon	Qu Lu Khan, Tongtian following saint Chin Wen Ying Wu Da Zhangxiao emperor	Benevolence and benevolence proclaim filial piety to the emperor	The sea peaks of China and China	From 1308 to 1311
Vouzon			The sea peaks of China and China	From 1308 to 1311
Emperor Renzong	Puyan Tuhan	Saint Wen, Emperor Chin Hsiao	Some of China's most influential tribes Borda	Emperor Qing 1312-1313 Yeonwoo 1314-1320
Emperor Renzong	Puyan Tuhan	Saint Wen, Emperor Chin Hsiao	Some of China's most influential tribes Borda	Emperor Qing 1312-1313 Yeonwoo 1314-1320
Yingzong	Gejian Khan, following the celestial path to respect Wenren Wu Dazhao Xiao Emperor	Wise sage Wen filial piety emperor	Zhierzhijin · Shuode Bala	From 1321 to 1323
Yingzong		Wise sage Wen filial piety emperor	Zhierzhijin · Shuode Bala	From 1321 to 1323
Manifest Buddhism (Emperor Taiding Honors)	-	Light holiness, benevolence, filial piety, emperor ^[82] (Taiding Emperor posthumous title, Wenzong deprived)	Some of the choxis	-
-	-	-	Some of China's most popular tribes boriz Sun Tiemur	1324-1328 To the year 1328
-	-	-	Zhierzhijin Azujiba	The year 1328
Style of writing	Zayatu Khan, Chin Tiantong saint to virtue Chenggong great Wenxiao emperor	Shengming Yuan Xiao emperor	Boriz Tuttermuel	Calendar year 1328-1329
Style of writing		Shengming Yuan Xiao emperor	Boriz Tuttermuel	Calendar year 1328-1329
Mingzong	Hu Du Du Khan, shun day stand Dao Rui Wenzhi Wu sage Xiao emperor	Wing Jing filial piety emperor ^[106]	Some of the world's most popular tribes 㻋	Calendar year 1329
Mingzong		Wing Jing filial piety emperor ^[106]	Some of the world's most popular tribes 㻋	Calendar year 1329
Style of writing	Zayatu Khan, Chin Tiantong saint to virtue Chenggong great Wenxiao emperor	Shengming Yuan Xiao emperor ^[105]	Boriz Tuttermuel	Calendar year 1329-1330 From 1330 to 1332
Style of writing		Shengming Yuan Xiao emperor ^[105]	Boriz Tuttermuel	Calendar year 1329-1330 From 1330 to 1332
Ningzong	-	Holy heir filial piety emperor ^[104]	Zhierzhijin · Yilin class	By 1332
Huizon	Uhadur Khan	Shun Emperor (Ming Taizu posthumous title) ^[103]	Some of the boroughs lint lint lint	By 1333 1333-1335 in the Yuan Dynasty From 1335 to 1340 From 1341 to 1368

Northern Yuan period

Temple title	Honorific title given to an emperor	Posthumous title	Name	Time in place
Huizon	Uhadur Khan ^[103]	Shun Emperor (Ming Taizu posthumous title)	Some of the boroughs lint lint lint	From 1368 to 1370
Zhaozong	Pyriktu Khan ^[101]	-	Zhierzhijin · Aiyoussi Li Dala	Xuanguang from 1371 to 1379
-	Usahar Khan ^[102]	-	Zhierzhijin Togus Tamerlane	Tianyuan 1379-1388
-	Zhurik Tuhan	-	Some of China's most popular tribes bordered over China	From 1388 to 1391
-	-	-	Zhierzhijin Enke	1391-1394
-	Nigu 哷 Sukzikhan	-	Some of the boroughs are boroughs	From 1393 to 1399
-	-	-	Zhierzhijin Kun Tamerlane	1400-1402

Imperial lineage
Yuan Taizu Tiemuzhen	Emperor Taizong of Yuan Ogetai	The yuan is determined by the emperor
Yuan Xianzong Mengge	Yuan Emperor Kublai Khan	Emperor Timur of Yuan Chengzong
Yuan Wu Zong Haishan	Yuan Renzong love and Liba force Bada	Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty Shuo De eight Ra
Yuan Tai Ding emperor also Sun Tiemu son	Yuan Tianshun emperor Azujiba	Tuthamur, emperor of the Yuan Dynasty
Emperor He of the Yuan and Ming Dynasties 㻋	Yuan Ning Zong Yi Lin class	Yuan Huizong Tuomulur