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Austro-hungarian Empire

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Dualistic monarchies in Europe from 1867 to 1918

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Austro-hungarian Empire (German: Osterreich-Ungarn; Hungarian : Osztrak - Magyar Monarchia), yes European history On a constitutional system Dual monarchy . The full name of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was "the kingdom and territory represented by the Imperial Parliament and the Crown territory of St. Stephen of Hungary (Hungarian translation" St. Istvan ") ". ^{[7
]}

In 1867, Austrian Empire To prevent Hungary Once again independent, the Austrian-Hungarian Compromise was signed to reorganize the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Hungary gained a high degree of independence Right of autonomy However, the Austrian monarch remained concurrently King of Hungary, becoming Political union . The Austro-Hungarian Empire is a classic Multi-ethnic state No single ethnic group accounted for more than 50% of the population, so various national affairs in Austria-Hungary often required representatives of the country's 12 ethnic groups co-determination . World War I Middle, Austro-Hungarian Empire Allied countries One side, which broke up in 1918 due to defeat. Republic of Austria and Kingdom of Hungary It became the de jure successor state to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Austria-hungary was Europe The traditional five great powers and one of the world powers at that time, before the First World War, the territory spanned Eastern Europe , Central Europe and Southern Europe It is the second largest area in Europe after Russian Empire ; ^[4] The population is slightly lower than that of Russia and German Empire It is the third largest in Europe.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire consisted of The House of Habsburg Rule. The two countries are independent constitutional states, namely Austria and Hungary. But both countries have given up diplomatic, military and financial powers that symbolize national sovereignty. ^{[7
]} Austro-hungary and Hungary enjoyed separate rights in the fields of legislation, administration, justice, taxation, customs and coinage autonomy Overall finance, foreign affairs, and defense were entrusted to the Empire Central government Manage. ^[5]

Chinese name: Austro-hungarian Empire
Foreign name: Austro-Hungarian Empire
Abbreviated form: Austro-Hungary
continent: Europe
capital: Double capital: Austria the Vienna , Hungary the Budapest
Major city: Bragg , Brno , Krakow , Trieste , Lviv , Graz Etc.
National song: 《帝皇颂》
Country code: AHE
Official language: German , Hungarian , Croatian
currency: Rhine guilder, Austro-hungarian krone (since 1892)
Time zone: UTC+1

Political system: A dual constitutional monarchy
National leader: Franz Joseph I , Carl I
Population number: 52.8 million ^{[7
]} (1914)
Population density: 78 persons /km²
Major nationality: Austrians , Hungarians , Czechs , Polish , Ukrainians , Romanians , Croat , Slovak , Serbian , Slovenians , Italian
Major religion: Catholicism
Land area: 676615 km² ^{[7
]} (1914)
National motto: unbreakable / Never leave without abandoning
Time of existence: From 1867 to 1918
Front body: Austrian Empire (1804-1867)

catalogue

Country name

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EDITOR

The full name of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was "the kingdom and territory represented by the Imperial Parliament and the Crown territory of St. Stephen of Hungary (Hungarian translation" St. Istvan ") ". ^{[7
]}

history

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EDITOR

Early development

Since 1282, The House of Habsburg Come to rule Austria After two hundred years, Austria gradually annexed the duchies of Styria, Tyrol and so on, tripling the size of the country and becoming emperor Holy Roman Empire The greatest state in the land. ^[1]

Early 18th century, Spanish throne Right of inheritance War broke out, Austria allied with Britain, defeated the Franco-Spanish coalition, and occupied The Kingdom of Aragon , Kingdom of Naples Etc. But Britain did not want to see a powerful state that ruled both Spain and Austria emerge again Continental Europe Thus and Louis XIV Separate peace talks and remove the navy from Mediterranean With the withdrawal, Austria was forced to give up its Spanish inheritance rights in exchange for control of Milan, Belgium And Neapolitan Right of inheritance Louis XIV's already weakened hegemony was completely lost after the battle. Queen Teresa led Austria out of trouble with amazing perseverance, she inherited the Grand Duke, the pioneer Habsburg - The Lorraine Dynasty, for the ancient The Habsburg Empire Live for 200 years. European scholars agree that Queen Theresa is now the owner of Europe Royal family The common ancestor is called the "old Grandmother of Europe" and is also called "old Grandmother of Europe" by the Southern Germans. The first lady ". But, with nationalism The awakening of the ideological trend in Austria The Germans Start wishing Right of autonomy Even independent, Brandenburg-Prussia The rise of the Austrian Empire challenged Austria's position within the Empire.

Seven years' War China, Austria united France, Russia , Sweden The war against Prussia was unexpectedly ended by Russia's defection, which Austria was forced to recognize as a result Silesia Under Prussian rule. While... War of the Polish Succession In, Naples and Sicily And free from Viennese rule. Although Queen Theresa revived Austria, by this time Austria was no longer a hegemon, but only one of the great powers, from Europe to enter Continental balance of power Times.

Austrian Empire

The Second Coalition While... Napoleon Trapped in the Levant, Austria united Ottoman Empire Russia, the United Kingdom, and organized the Holy Roman Empire allied forces, a massive attack on France. Napoleon returned home alone, defeated Coalition against France The army, which outlawed the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, will Germany The western states were placed under their own rule.

In October 1806 Napoleon again conquered Berlin, taking over half of Prussia. But in the next three years, the Austrian general The Grand Duke of Carl The leading military reform has gradually achieved results French army The strength to counterbalance to a certain extent. In 1809, Archduke Carl led the Austrian war against France, fought several battles with the French army, and defeated Napoleon for the first time at the Battle of Aspinn-Isling, and briefly blocked his invasion Danube The attempt and led the French army to Rana marshal General St. Hilaire and others died in battle. In memory of Grand Duke Carl, Vienna Platz A statue of him was cast, and Prince Eugen Like opposite.

In 1815, Napoleonic empire Perish, Austria ceded Belgium to Netherlands , in exchange for Republic of Venice and The Republic of Ragusa the dominion . The Napoleonic Empire's assault on Austria proved to be omnidirectional and unbearable, Napoleonic Wars During this period, Austria was greatly weakened and divided Burgundy The territory gained in northeastern France was lost at this time, and Vienna, known as the Shield of God, which had resisted the Turks for more than 200 years, was breached several times, with even more disastrous effects nationalism The spread of thought. And during the Napoleonic Wars, Holy Roman Emperor Franz the Second In 1805 will be Grand Duchy of Austria To an empire, that is Austrian Empire . ^[2]

In the 19th century, Austria's power was greatly weakened: in 1859 Italian War of Independence Make it lost in Italy All non History of Austria Territory; It's from 1866 Austro-prussian war Make it out German Confederation Besides; meanwhile Hungary right Vienna The government is also very dissatisfied. In many other parts of the Empire nationalism Ideas also strengthened, creating an unprecedented rebellion. Hungarians were unhappy with Austria for a number of reasons, one of which was Austria's role in the war Russian Empire Under the support of right Hungarian Revolution of 1848 The repression of...

Austro-hungarian annexation

Franz Joseph I summoned Friedrich Ferdinand von Poist, a Saxony politician and rival of Otto von Bismarck, from Dresden and, with his help, signed the Austrian-Hungarian Compromise, a double agreement between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. Realizing that Hungary already had a high national presence, it was impossible for the Habsburgs to centralize power. Friedrich Ferdinand von Poist agreed to secede the Kingdom of Hungary, thereby making it possible for the Kingdom of Hungary to become an ally and with its help resist the demands of other countries for a federal state. ^{[6
]}

Arms of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (2 photos)

In early 1867, under the leadership of Andrasy Giulo, who had been exiled in 1849, the Kingdom of Hungary agreed to guarantee the political independence of the Kingdom of Hungary by forming a separate cabinet. On 8 June 1867, Franz Joseph I was crowned in Buda, thus guaranteeing Hungary's historical rights. A basic system was established that became the government of today's Austro-Hungarian Empire. On the territory of the Habsburgs the dualistic Austro-Hungarian Empire was established, consisting of two fully equal states, each with its own government but ruled by a single monarch, officially known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Kingdom of Hungary consisted of the provinces that in the past constituted the Crown of St. Stephen, namely Hungary Proper, Croatia, Slavonia, Transylvania, Serbia, and the military borders. The Austrian Empire consisted of the remaining seventeen provinces. Hungary was called Transletania and Austria was called Neletania. Neletania takes its name from the Leita River, which forms the border between Austria and Hungary. ^{[6
]}

The Austrian-Hungarian Compromise set out the general powers of the Kingdom of Hungary, which were embodied in the coronation ceremony and coronation proclamation of Franz Joseph I. Franz Joseph I promised to personally exercise executive power and abolish the post of Count of Paladin. If the Hungarian parliament is dissolved as a result of the budget vote, a new parliament will convene within a year. Defense was the common business of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Austrian Empire, just as foreign affairs were the common business of the entire Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Hungarian Parliament is responsible only for Hungarian affairs. Finance, military and foreign affairs are common undertakings of Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary can only enter into a union with States with a constitutional government; therefore, other States with a constitutional government must also have legal seats in the Legislative Assembly. The Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary would establish a special ministry to deal with the common affairs of the entire Austro-Hungarian Empire. Delegations from both houses of the Austro-Hungarian Empire would be responsible for arranging negotiations with parliamentary delegations of "other countries" on all common matters. The Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary had delegations of the same number of members and convened their parliaments in Pest and Vienna, respectively. Both parties should use the most appropriate words and language when discussing public affairs. The Common Cabinet is run by two delegations whose main responsibility is to discuss common budget issues. The two delegations may exercise their sovereignty, and if either parliament is dissolved, the delegation is in effect dissolved. The Kingdom of Hungary is not responsible for debts entered into without the consent of its Parliament, but is willing to assume a partial share (30 per cent) of the common debt. The Kingdom of Hungary accepted the Austrian tariff system and used the revenues for the common defense of Austria-Hungary. The Austrian Empire had a common currency with the Kingdom of Hungary, but the Kingdom of Hungary retained the right to use its own language on coinage. ^{[6
]}

Alliance of the Three Kings

September 1872, Emperor Franz Joseph I And the Prime Minister, Count Andras Gula, Emperor of Russia Alexander II And Prime Minister A.M. Gorchakov visited Berlin, with the Kaiser William I Prime minister Bismarck A meeting. The three prime ministers finally agreed to preserve the status quo in Europe; Collaborative solution Southeast Europe The dispute.

May 6, 1873, Kaiser William I and Bismarck , Moltke interview St. Petersburg Germany and Russia signed a common defense agreement treaty . On June 6 of the same year, the Emperor of Russia Alexander II After Gorchakov's visit to Vienna, the Russian and Austrian emperors signed the Simblon Agreement, which stipulated that in case of aggression by a third country endangering peace in Europe, the two countries should immediately discuss a common course of action. The Kaiser also joined the treaty, which remained in force until 1875, the first of its kind Alliance of the Three Kings .

In 1875, Herzegovina Regional revolt Türkiye The uprising of... The attitude of the Allies was to seek to avoid mass riots, to urge Sudan Many reforms, including Christians Freedom of religion . Also form Christians and Moslem Mixed commission to oversee Sudan's reformation . This attitude is reflected in the Andresi document. Britain and France agreed, and the Andressi document was submitted to the Sultan, who agreed to its recommendations on 31 January 1876. Opposition leaders in Herzegovina, however, rejected the document, pointing out that the Sudan had promised reforms but never fulfilled them. When the rebellion was largely suppressed, the rumor was that Ottoman Empire Rumours of atrocities against the inhabitants of rebellious provinces shocked European feelings. Russia War was declared against the Ottoman Empire on 24 April 1877. Russia succeeded in gaining the neutrality of the Austro-Hungarian Empire by promising that after the war, it would divide the wartime lands with Austria-Hungary, which Austria-Hungary would take Bosnia And Herzegovina. However, Britain urged Germany and Austria-Hungary to warn Russia. So Russia made peace with Turkey and signed the treaty The Treaty of SAN Stefano ". The treaty would allow Russia to control the newly independent states and greatly increase its influence in Southeast Europe.

1878 Berlin Conference Held, signed on July 13 Treaty of Berlin After the Treaty of Berlin, Bosnia and Herzegovina (" Bosnia and Herzegovina ") remained part of the Ottoman Empire under Article 25 of the Treaty of Berlin and related laws, but was occupied by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This opened the way for Austria to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina and penetrate deep into the Balkans. The treaty limited the Austro-Hungarian occupation to 30 years, effectively leaving the Ottoman Turks without any sovereignty over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Austro-Hungarian authorities, seeing Bosnia and Herzegovina as the "jewel in the Habsburg crown", immediately sent a large military garrison and appointed a large administrative staff to oversee the various departments of Bosnia and Herzegovina in case of a return of the Ottoman Turks or occupation by Serbia. The arrival of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which ended four centuries of Ottoman feudal rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina, created conditions for the "Europeanization" and capitalist development of the region. The Austrian Empire established a complete set of military, administrative and political systems in Bosnia and Herzegovina that made it easy to rule. The Minister of Finance of the Empire, who also served as the supreme administrator of Bosnia and Herzegovina, integrated the customs of Bosnia and Herzegovina with that of Austria-Hungary, declared the citizens of the region as subjects of the Empire, and established the administrative capital in Sarajevo. ^{[8
]}

At this time, the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into Serbs, Croats and Muslims. They are Orthodox, Catholic and Islamic. According to the census conducted by the Austro-Hungarian authorities after the invasion of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Muslims accounted for 38.73% of the total population, Orthodox 43.88%, and Catholics 18.3%. According to the 1910 census, the total population of Bosnia and Herzegovina was about 1.9 million. This relationship between ethnic identity and religious affiliation has not changed much and has remained basically unchanged to this day. Because of their historical, religious, cultural and ideological differences, they could not unite in the struggle against their common enemy, the Austro-Hungarian occupation authorities. The Serbs wanted to return to the free kingdom of Serbia; Croatians wanted Croatia to be united and remain part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Muslims are nostalgic for the glory of Ottoman Turkey. ^{[8
]}

Berlin conference Since then, German-Austrian relations with Russia have deteriorated. Bismarck, in order to prevent Russia and France from joining forces, made himself Be attacked on both sides ; Russia also wanted to join Germany in the Near East and the Two Straits to counter Britain, so on June 18, 1881, Bismarck met with the Russian and Austrian ambassadors Berlin Another tripartite agreement was signed. The term is 3 years. It was renewed in 1884 and abolished in 1887. It is known as the Second Alliance of the Three Kings. The agreement provides that: Contracting state When one is at war with the fourth, the other two shall remain neutral in good faith and endeavour to localize the conflict; Any change to Turkey's European territory is subject to the mutual agreement of the three countries: the three countries recognize the closure of the Bosphorus and The Dardanelles The principle that Turkey must not give the strait to any Belligerent power For military activities. In addition, the three countries signed an additional agreement Letter of agreement , provision: Austria vs Bosnia and Herzegovina The two provinces reserve the right to annex at any time; The three countries have no objection Bulgaria and East Rumilia The merger of... The agreements and agreements were secret and were only revealed in 1920. The agreement expired in 1887, due to Russia and Austria Balkan The conflict intensified and was not renewed. In the same year, Bismarck made a separate agreement with Russia. Reinsurance treaty This lasted until about 1890. After the Berlin conference, Russian-German relations deteriorated rapidly. Bismarck In order to deal with Russia and prevent Russia and France from approaching, he decided to preemptively seek an anti-Russian alliance with Austria-Hungary. ^[3]

In 1883, Romania Made a treaty with Austria-Hungary in Vienna Treaty of alliance It was aimed at opposing Russian expansionism in the Balkans. On the same day, Germany announced its accession. And so a new one was formed Triple Alliance . In 1908, the Empire officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina And eventually led to Sarajevo The assassination.

Fight in the first World War

Sarajevo The assassination took place on June 28, 1914 Balkan Peninsula the Bosnia Occurred, this day is Serbia's National Day . Heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Archduke Ferdinand The couple were on a visit to the city from the end of the military exercise Serbian nationality teenager Princip (One from Serbia Terrorist organization "Black Hand" Bosnian students) shot dead. This incident caused the Austro-Hungarian Empire to turn against Serbia Declaration of war, became World War I the Blasting fuse .

Austro-Hungary Crown prince Archduke Ferdinand The reason why he wanted to go to the parade in Bosnia and Herzegovina was not deliberately provocative, in fact, because his wife, the Grand Princess Sofia, was of low birth, and the annual Grand Princess birthday celebration was very embarrassing reception If we don't do it, we'll get the ladies of Vienna talking. In order to please his wife, the Grand Duke simply asked the emperor Review troops Mission. Use that name to hide with your wife in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The assassination was planned by members of the Serbian military ultra-nationalism The Serbian government secretly informed Austria-Hungary of the "dark shadow" in 1913 Border customs Be on the alert. In 1916, the Serbian army was losing ground, and the Austro-Hungarian army occupied all of Serbia and northern Greece, and the "Dark Shadow" was much less powerful in the army. In order to quell public anger, the government declared the "Black Shadow" illegal organization.

Dissolution of empire

Austria-hungary in World War I

In the summer of 1918, war broke out Allied countries Increasingly disadvantageous, the Empire has been unable to bring this many National unity Together. Other members also lost faith in the empire: economic development had stopped, new Economic development The hope of the war also disappeared, and during the war many of the open-door policies partially introduced in Austria before the war were cancelled, which made nationalism He was very angry. Under these conditions the nationalists gained many supporters. In September and October 1918, a series of regions declared independence.

On November 3, 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Allies concluded a ceasefire. The end of the war was also the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. October 28, 1918 Czech Republic Declare independence first, Hungary second. Transylvania Most regions join Romania And that includes a lot of Hungary Minority nationality . The southern Slavic regions united to form the later Yugoslavia . The recognition of these new borders by the victors after the war greatly changed the local landscape Political map . A series of treaties guarantee these borders legitimacy .

Austria And Hungary became a republic, The House of Habsburg Be expelled. In Hungary there was first a Hungary Soviet republic However, after the Romanian invasion in 1919, royalist forces began to rise again. In 1920 Hungary was restored as a kingdom, but without a king. Carl I Attempts to occupy this throne were unsuccessful (March-October 1921), and he was banished to Portugal Belong to Madeira Islands He later died there. Horty Miklos Become the ruler.

The states that split from Austria-Hungary were Austria , Hungary , Czech Republic , Slovakia , Serbia , Montenegro , Republic of Croatia , Republic of Slovenia , Republic of Macedonia , The Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina Etc., besides Poland , Romania , Italy It also acquired parts of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Legacy problem

World War I When it was over, the Austro-Hungarian Empire fell apart. For the victors, according to President Woodrow Wilson of the United States The fourteen points of peace The Austro-Hungarian Empire was dismembered into several parts nation-state It was something that had to happen. It is worth noting that the dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was not the original aim of the Allies, and this proposal did not gain support until later in the war. Because at the time, many people thought that the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire would not only solve the local problems National problem On the contrary, it will only make the situation in the region more unstable, and in fact, these unstable situations become fascism The source of infiltration.

Although the Austro-Hungarian breakaway states outwardly complied National self-determination But the actual national boundaries are very messy (e.g., Hungary, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia Countries that had full historical borders up until the war (Hungary, for example) were dismembered, while ethnically diverse countries that should not have been hastily merged (Czechoslovakia and Romania, for example) took over much of the territory that was not theirs. These ethnic and historical divisions have not helped Eastern Europe And the people of the Balkans to live a new life of self-sufficiency, instead these small countries in turn against each other, so that many countries to embark on fascism The road has brought great disaster to the people of Eastern Europe.

Most of these countries basic industrial and agricultural construction, finance Trade structure The educational military system basically followed the Austro-Hungarian one Old road But again because Domestic market It is rapidly shrinking and there is a serious shortage of raw materials and manpower, and it cannot carry out its functions as it did in the former Austro-Hungarian era Industrial division of labor . Although there are the same transportation and communication facilities these convenience, but because of political hostility and high Tariff barrier But can not play the original role. In fact, many countries gained independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, but no matter from International status , Economic situation (with the exception of the Czechs), and the military strength of the former Austro-Hungarians was no longer comparable, somewhat National people the Living standard Far less than when Austria-Hungary existed. In addition, many countries have just become independent, nationalism is strong, and no means are spared for the interests of this, the result of the early 21st century in Eastern Europe and Balkan question Sow more trouble.

territory

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EDITOR

Territorial composition

Generally the Austro-Hungarian Empire dominion Divided into two parts: Neletania (Cislethania) and Transletania (Translethania).

The narrow sense of Neletania only refers to Leita The part to the west, i.e Austria But the broad sense of Neletania also includes Slovenia , Bohemia Moravia, Galicia and Dalmatia. This part is collectively referred to as the "Kingdoms and territories represented by the Imperial Parliament".

Transletania, that is, the part east of the Leta River, also includes more than Hungary And it also includes Slovakia , Transylvania , Croatia . This part of the territory is collectively known as the "Crown of St. Stephen". St. Stephen I was the first of the Hungarians Christianity King. He was later revered as a saint.

Hungary accounted for more than one-third of the territory of the Austro-Hungarian Empire

Administrative division

Kingdoms and territories of Neletania: It is divided into three kingdoms, seven duchies, and one principality , 1 region and 1 province. Transletania: Divided into two kingdoms and one Free city And 1 directly administered province.

Administrative division
Administrative division	Kingdoms and territories	German	divide
The kingdom and territory of Neletania	The Kingdom of Bohemia	Königreich Böhmen	realm
	Kingdom of Dalmatia	Königreich Dalmatien	realm
	Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria	Königreich Galizienund Lodomerien	realm
	Duchy of Austria	Erzherzogtumen Österreich Österreichobder Ennsundunterder Enns	duchy
	Duchy of Bukovina	Herzogtum Bukowina	duchy
	Duchy of Carinthia	Herzogtum Kärnten	duchy
	The Duchy of Caniola	Herzogtum Krain	duchy
	Duchy of Salzburg	Herzogtum Salzburg	duchy
	The Duchy of Silesia	Herzogtum Ober-und Niederschlesien	duchy
	Duchy of Styria	Herzogtum Steiermark	duchy
	Principality of Moravia	The Markgrafschaft Mahren	principality
	Tyrol and the pre-Alpine regions	Gefurstete Grafschaft Tirolund Land Vorarlberg	district
	Coastal province	Osterreichisches Kustenland	province
Transletania	Kingdom of Hungary	Königreich Ungarn	realm
	Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia	Königreich Kroatienund Slawonien	realm
	The free city of Fiume (Rijeka)	Stadt Fiume	Free city
	Bosnia and Herzegovina	Bosnien und Herzegowina	The provinces of the Empire were administered jointly by Hungary and Austria

political

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EDITOR

The Austro-Hungarian Empire had three different governments: Hungarian government The Austrian government and one under the emperor Central government . Hungary and Austria each have their own parliament and their own prime minister. cesarean Power theory The top is supreme, but it is actually finite. The emperor's central government was responsible for the army, navy, diplomacy, and foreign trade. Some regions within the Austro-Hungarian Empire such as Galicia and Croatia Enjoying special status, they have special forms of government.

The common governments of the two regions of Austria and Hungary are governed by a common government Council of ministers The members of this Common Council of Ministers included three ministers (finance, military, and foreign affairs), two regional prime ministers, a number of grand Dukes, and the emperor himself. Each of the two parliaments sent a delegation of sixty members to the Council of Common Ministers Financial plan In this way, each regional government has some influence over the work of the common government, but in general, the joint Council has no real power, because it can only propose to each other Deliver a note to Only when the Austrian and Hungarian delegations failed to reach a consensus in two notes did they vote separately, and from the very beginning, they were unable to conduct joint debates and questions on central affairs. Administratively, the ministers of the ultimate common government were accountable only to the Emperor, not to the Parliament or the people, and the Emperor himself had authority over diplomatic and diplomatic relations Military policy Make the final decision. The intersection of power between two local governments and the central government often leads to friction and inefficiency. The army, in particular, is hampered in this regard. Although the military was the purview of the central government, the Austrian and Hungarian governments had "responsibility for conscription, provision of garrisons, transport and supplies, and for the civil and non-military affairs of military personnel." Thus each local government has a strong influence on the decisions of the central government, and each local government uses every opportunity to expand its own power. Between the two regions the Austrian portion accounts for about 57% of the total population as well as the majority Economic resources . From 1867, the biggest dispute between the two governments and the central government was over how much each government should pay to the central government. In the early years of the Empire, the Austrian part paid 70 percent of the total expenses of the Empire, and the Hungarian part paid 30 percent. The issue is subject to consultation every ten years, and each consultation has caused great controversy. Especially from the mid-1900s (April 1906) when the Hungarian parliament had a nationalist majority and formed a government, this controversial issue created a problem persistance the Constitutional crisis . In October 1907 and November 1917, the problem was temporarily resolved on an "always as before" basis, with the Hungarian burden ratio rising to only 36.4%.

Military affairs

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EDITOR

Austro-hungarian soldiers on the streets of Vienna in 1913

The so-called "Austro-Hungarian Empire" is, in essence, ancient The House of Habsburg A helpless concession to the rise of nationalism. The Habsburgs ruled a whole lot fief From Portugal to the West Ukraine The royal family uses a long list of titles such as "king, prince, grand Duke, duke, governor" to govern this vast land, and the subjects of different nationalities living on the land.

Napoleonic Wars During which the royal family lost Holy Roman Empire The throne, renamed Emperors of Austria However, by the 1860s, with the empire in Italy On France and in Bohemia Two successive defeats against Prussia, once suppressed National liberation movement In order to win over the Hungarian nobility, who had been loyal to the royal family since the time of Queen Theresa, the royal family had to grant Hungary autonomy in 1867, which was called "Austro-Hungary. Binary system The origin of the monarchy.

Uniforms of Austro-Hungarian military officers on display at the museum

With the defeat of Sadova, the Empire's hopes of restoring its influence in the German region were dashed, and the Empire began to expand its influence in the southeastern Balkans in an attempt to seize it Ottoman Empire The withdrawal of the Balkan Peninsula from Southeast Europe left behind the former Turkish occupation of mainly southern Slavs, which intensified the conflict between the Empire and Russia.

to The Second Industrial Revolution The empire, with its vast territory (second in Europe), large population (third in Europe), and industrial strength, remained a major world power. But his rule Franz the First He said, "My empire is a paper house that will collapse as long as someone kicks it hard." It was out of this fear that the Empire increasingly tied itself to the German chariots, which were also Germanic.

Defense force

The Austro-Hungarian 98th Infantry Regiment was assembled in Eastern Bohemia

Royal and royal places Defense force (KaiserlichKo; niglicheLandwehr, here emperor, refers to the Emperor of Austria, and king, refers to the king of Bohemia, however Bohemia only has the name of a kingdom, but does not have the same autonomy as Hungary), this is the non-Hungarian part of the empire (aka Neletania The local Defense forces, although called the Local Defense Forces, were capable of field operations, although their deployment and operations were limited by law to certain areas, unlike the Reichswehr, which could deploy and operate in any part of the Empire.

The Royal Hungarian Local Defence Force (Honved), whose mission and character were the same as those of the Royal and Royal Local Defence Forces, was the Hungarian part of the Empire (HonVED). Transletania Local defense forces, also belong to the regular Field troops . militarily Administrative management The Imperial Wehrmacht was under the direct control of the Imperial War Ministry in Vienna, the Royal and Royal District Defence Forces were under the control of the Austrian District Defence Forces, also based in Vienna, and the Royal Hungarian District Defence Forces were under the control of the Hungarian District Defence Forces in Pest Harbour (part of the port area of Budapest), both of which were jointly under the Imperial War Ministry in Vienna. In command Command system On the side, these three parts together formed the Imperial Army, which was governed by the Empire of Vienna General staff headquarters Command.

The two lines leading upward from military politics and military orders lead to one man: the theoretical supreme commander of the Imperial army, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. In essence, however, since the Empire had been constitutionally established, the monarch had less influence on the Imperial Minister of war than the Imperial Chancellor, and more because of the monarch Franz. Joseph I Have drooped old Military command essentially consists of Chief of the general staff In exercise, in Early days of the war After the disastrous fiasco, the command of the army fell again Germany In the hands of the advisors, this situation changed after the death of the old emperor, the successor emperor Carl I He was a young, experienced and accomplished field officer, which allowed him to regain part of his command.

Unlike the Reichstag, the regiments of the Reichstag frequently switched stations, mainly to prevent the Reichstag soldiers from forming too deep a friendship with the local population to allow the political consideration of suppression in the event of rebellion, which was also determined by the role of the Reichstag, which, unlike the Reichstag, was a mobile strike force directly under the Emperor. This was all the more evident before the general mobilization, when the Reichswehr, commanded by officers born of nobility loyal to the Habsburg monarchy and non-commissioned officers essentially born of families of junior civil servants equally loyal to the imperial family, was not merely a deterrent to popular revolt, according to the official view, which was never stated publicly but was privately understood. It is also a deterrent to the local defence forces used as a complement to its forces, especially those in unstable areas, which are made up of disaffected local people, and which are composed of people with a strong presence separatism The tendency of the gentry to command was seen as more of a threat to the imperial government than a popular revolt, because they had organizations and weapons and were legitimate.

Polish and Ukrainian soldiers in the Austro-Hungarian army

This is also how the medieval system of the Austro-Hungarian Empire meets the modern age nation-state A helpless compromise reaction to the war between the two countries. And medieval royalty mercenary Unlike war, modern war between nation-states requires the mobilization of large numbers of citizens to fight, in this case, if not to establish their own Mobilization system The Austro-Hungarian Empire would be overwhelmed by a flood of troops from the enemy for universal compulsory military service, and would therefore have to create its own system of mobilization, its own reserves and reserve forces, whose loyalty, however, would be fragile without a sense of national identity.

Ironically, it was the Reich Wehrmacht that was overwhelmed by mobilisation, not the local defence forces, which were considered unstable and perceived as a threat. After the General mobilization order, a large number of Imperial subjects were added to the Reichwehrmacht, swelling the Reichwehrmacht from 300,000 to nearly two million, but the results were disastrous A standing army The soldiers were overwhelmed by a sea of mobilised troops and became isolated islands, with large numbers of troops full of soldiers from secessionist peoples quickly rendered ineffective, and refusals, capitulations and mutiny became commonplace, except for those from Upper and Lower Austria and Hungary Mazar Only the troops composed of soldiers in the region and supplemented by troops have the combat effectiveness above the level, and it is thank God that other troops do not mutiny.

In sharp contrast to the Reichrmacht were the local defence forces, which fought to the death, often to the death, and became the backbone of the Imperial Army in the later stages of the war, represented by the Tyrolean Local Archer Forces, part of the Royal and Royal Local Defence Forces, the Tyrolean. Border area the Local forces Only four regiments were formed before the war, and during the border battles after Italy declared war on Austria, this small force held the Austrian-Italian border and delayed the famous Italian army Alps The attack of the mountain infantry and the disproportionately large (150-1) Italian main force bought valuable time for the Austro-Hungarian forces and German reinforcements to move south, otherwise Austro-Hungary would have collapsed in 1915, so that upon his accession, King Carl I granted the Tyrolean Archers the honorary title of "Royal Archers".

However, the local defense forces were not the main forces of the Empire, and there were many legal restrictions on their deployment and use, such as the aforementioned local Archers of Tyrol Tyrol The Parliament had explicitly restricted its participation to the defense of Tyrol or to those strategically advantageous to the defense of Tyrol, so the unit was sidelined during the subsequent offensive against Italy until the Imperial War Ministry misinterpreted it Legal provision By declaring that the offensive against Italy was "strategically beneficial for the defense of Tyrol", he was able to mobilize him to join the war.

It can be seen that although the local defense forces have a strong combat effectiveness, they can only carry out defensive operations or small offensive operations in depth.

Military department

The Imperial war minister was theoretically above the Empire Chief of the general staff In addition to the Chief of Staff of the General Staff, the Chief of the Military Corps and the Commander of the Field Ambulance Corps, the Commander of the Imperial Officer Corps (an honorary post, the first of the honorary officers in the country), the Chief Engineer of military buildings, the Military Medical Board (note that its director and the Commander of the Field Ambulance Corps are not the same post, and the Commission and the General command of the field ambulance Corps are not the same department), Director of Field Religious officers, Military technology Committees and administrative departments.

Although a Cabinet department, the Imperial Secretary of War had to be a serving soldier. The Imperial War Ministry divided the Empire into several military districts, each of which generally housed or was expected to establish, after mobilization, a combat army with several divisions and auxiliary units, and the commander of the military district was also the commander of the army. Military Area Command Consists of four parts:

The Military Department, headed by the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces, is responsible for military affairs.

Department of Military Buildings: Responsible for military buildings.

Management Department: responsible for logistics and Military economy Business.

Officers of the Austro-Hungarian Empire

Auxiliary Forces Department: includes Brigade Commander of Artillery, Chief of Military Law, Field rescue Director, Military Religious Affairs Committee (Because of the great diversity of beliefs among the peoples of the Empire, each church and denomination had its own troops clergy , include chaplain The Army rabbi, the army Imam, and of course, since there were no Buddhist peoples in the Empire, there were no army monks.)

The operational regiments of the Reichswehr were divided into the Austrian (German) regiments and the Hungarian regiments, depending on the language of their operational command.

This rough division was also a necessity, because the empire had so many nationalities and languages that it was impossible for an officer to know all 20 or so languages of the empire (it was said that only the emperor could speak all these languages, worthy of the symbol and bond of imperial unity).

Thus, any soldier recruited from the non-Hungarian part of the Empire, whether Bohemian or Italian, was assigned to the Austrian regiment where German was the language of command; Soldiers recruited from the Hungarian part of the Empire were used exclusively Hungarian Hungarian regiment for command of language, regardless of whether he is Romanian, Polish, Croat or Slovene. The situation became worse after the general mobilization, when large numbers of peasants speaking various languages were filled into the army, and eventually even into companies Platoon leader Nor could he make the whole mess of people he had gathered understand the point at which he was giving orders, and the entire grass-roots combat command tended to disintegrate, and the entire Imperial Wehrmacht, the expected main force of the Empire, became a single suffering Nerve ending A giant, paralyzing monster that can't function, let alone fight.

Czech and German soldiers in the Austro-Hungarian army

This situation is in place Defense force Most of the soldiers in these units were from their own country, the subordinate commanders were locals, and the language problems were not serious, so by the end of the war, the local defense forces had significantly better results than the Imperial Wehrmacht. Later in the war, presumably drawing on this experience, the Royal Hungarian Local Defence Corps was divided into the Royal Hungarian Local Defence Corps and the Royal House Croatia - Slovenia Local Defense Forces. In fact, as early as 1868, under the "Little affirmative action" applied to Croatia (as opposed to the "Great Affirmative Action" applied to Hungary, under which Hungary was granted the same status as Austria), Croatian It became the language of command and service for Croatian units of the Hungarian Local Defense Forces.

Due to the poor results, and the war test appeared to be inappropriate, did not meet the needs of actual combat, by 1915, the Imperial War Ministry cancelled all units of the historic Honorary title And insignia, referring to troops directly by their numbers.

mobilize

Unlike the German system of mobilization and replenishment, the Austro-Hungarian Empire did not set up supplementary regiments with the same number as each regiment to be responsible for the replenishment of its troops, but adopted a complex system of reserve troops, supplementary battalions, supplementary districts and "local reserves".

A member of the Hungarian national army in the Austro-Hungarian Empire

Austro-Hungary Conscription law It is stipulated that all healthy young men must perform universal compulsory military service, and that healthy men over the age of 21 are selected and assigned by the conscription Board to the units of the Reichswehr Active duty Three years, then in the reserve On reserve duty Seven years, followed by an additional two years of active service in the local Defense Forces, or 10 years of "substitute service in the local defense Forces. Reserve service (Several weeks of service each year). Soldiers who have completed their active service in the Reichswehrmacht may continue to do voluntary military service for a period of one year, during which time they receive a salary and the opportunity to enroll in the junior military academy attached to the battalion, and voluntary military service is encouraged by the technical forces and the Navy. All other men aged 19 and under 43 who have not been conscripted into the Defence Forces, reserve forces and local defence forces must serve in the local reserve forces.

Unlike the German local Defense forces, which were in reserve, the Austro-Hungarian local defense forces were in active service.

Austro-Hungary Mobilization plan Yes, Mobilization order Immediately after the dispatch, the men serving in reserve in the reserve Army were transferred to active service in the Reichwehrmacht, the soldiers serving in the substitute reserve of the local Defense Army were transferred to active service in the local defense Army, and the reserve personnel of the local reserve corps were trained intensively to replace the loss of troops in wartime.

During the mobilization period, the Austro-Hungarian Wehrmacht created few new units, mainly filling the existing units with reservists, mainly the partial parts of the units and the supplementary battalions under certain regiments. The battalion had all the officers, most of the non-commissioned officers and a small number of men, and during the period after the mobilization order was issued, the battalion was filled with reservists, most of whom fought with the regiment, and a small number were formed into new regiments. As soon as each regiment fills its supplementary battalions into combat, new supplementary battalions are established to receive and train new recruits from the rear, and these mobilized supplementary battalions remain at the regiment's original location and are supplemented by local reserve personnel belonging to its regiment's supplementary sector, usually immediately after completion of training Organized system The highest wartime record was recorded for a Hungarian regiment with a Reichwehrmacht that used 20 battalions, if you count the 4 battalions it had before mobilization End of war At the time it had four battalions (even at full strength), the regiment had been fully illuminated five times, indicating that the Austro-Hungarian army had suffered an incredible amount of damage.

infantry

World War I The former Austro-Hungarian Wehrmacht had a total of infantry units as follows:

Infantry units of the Austro-Hungarian Wehrmacht:

Infantry units of the Wehrmacht of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Troop type	quantity
Austrian infantry regiments	62
Hungarian infantry regiment	40
Bosnia-herzegovina Infantry Regiment (a newly annexed area of the Empire in 1908, for which money was paid Crown prince Or even the whole empire)	4
Field hunting camp	28
Bih field hunting barracks	1
The Tyrolean Hunter Corps (note that this is a unit of the Reichswehr, not a unit of the Tyrolean Archer Corps of the Royal and Royal Local Defense Forces, as mentioned above).	4

The specific regiments were organized as follows:

Regiment headquarters, 4 field infantry battalions, 16 field operations Infantry company .

Regiment Headquarters:

Regiment headquarters
Military rank	Number of people
colonel	1
Field officers Chief of Staff	1
Lieutenant staff	3-5
Deputy regimental commander	1
Regiment Engineer Director	1
Regimental paymaster	1
Assistant to the controller	4
The regimental quartermaster	1
Regiment repair machinery director	1
Regimental barracks Management Officer	1
Regiment Majorette	1
Regimental medical Officer	1
Senior medical officer	4
Regimental Sergeant Major	1
Regimental Service Corporal	4
Battalion commander (lieutenant colonel or major	4
Deputy battalion commander	4
Regimental clergy officers and their assistants, trumpeters	1
Lance corporal	5
private	30
Learning military skills	2

Regimental headquarters total: 21 officers, 73 non-commissioned officers and enlisted men.

Each of the 16 company commanders was a captain, while each company had a company Master sergeant, a deputy company commander was usually a lieutenant or a second lieutenant, and a platoon commander was Warrant officer .

Excluding the regimental strength, the total was 64 officers and 2,488 non-commissioned officers and enlisted men.

The regimental supplementary battalion structure is as follows:

Regimental supplementary battalion formation
Military rank	Number of people
Major battalion commander	1
Supplement the District recruiting officer	2
Senior medical officer	1
comptroller	1
Assistant Controller, sergeant	3
Quartermaster	1
Battalion chief of staff	1
Lieutenant (future company commander)	4
Sergeant (future company Master Sergeant)	4
Soldiers (all veterans, their role is to train new recruits)	12

A saber was issued
Military rank	Issue saber type	Saber length (cm)	Saber use
Infantry officers above lieutenant	Saber (double-sided open Blood tank , single-sided Open edge )	82	Command the order, close combat
Comptroller, Chief of Staff, Regiment Majorette	M1863 Ceremonial saber (no blade)	65.8	Can't be used for fighting
Engineer officer, bugler, driver, etc	M1862 engineer knife	-	-

Marksman and marksman officers among soldiers may wear the Marksman Mark.

Each regiment has its own The League Flag "As the symbol of the regiment.

Same as the infantry. Austro-hungarian artillery The units were also divided into three armies, the Artillery of the Reichswehr, the artillery of the Royal and Royal Regional Defence Forces and the artillery of the Royal Hungarian Regional Defence Forces.

artillery

Among them, the artillery units of the Imperial Wehrmacht were the strongest, with the most complete subordinate arms.

The artillery units of the Reichswehr can be further divided into:

Artillery units of the Imperial Wehrmacht
Artillery units of the Imperial Wehrmacht	National defense force Field artillery troops
	National defense force Fort artillery troops
	National defense force Mountain artillery troops
	Artillery Technical support unit of the Defense Forces
	Wehrmacht artillery Training team

Among them, the national defense artillery strength is as follows:

National defense artillery force
Artillery unit type	quantity
Field artillery units	42
Wild battle howitzer Division (battalion level)	14
Cavalry artillery division (battalion level)	11
Heavy howitzer division (battalion level)	14
Mountainous region Artillery regiment	11
Fort artillery regiment	6
Independent fort defense Artillery battalion	10

cavalry

The Austro-Hungarian cavalry

The Austro-Hungarian cavalry was also part of the Imperial Defense Army, the Royal and Royal Local Defense Army, and the Royal Hungarian Defense Army. Cavalry regiments are divided into three types: hussar , lancer , dragoon In essence, however, when it came to war, there was no difference at all between the weapons and equipment of the three types of cavalry, and the difference in names was merely a historical relic, just as the empire itself was a historical relic.

The Wehrmacht had 16 regiments of hussars, traditionally drawn from the Hungarian part of the Empire, but not all of them Hungarian, including Croats, Romanians and Slovaks.

The standard formation of the Hussars was 2 battalions, 6 squadrons, 27 officers, 925 non-commissioned officers and soldiers, 950 horses, Draught horse 16 pieces.

Uniform of an Austro-Hungarian cavalry colonel

By 1916, due to a severe shortage of horses, all hussars had become "Hussar Marksmen", essentially infantry regiments.

The hussar wore a hard cylinder shape cap Big at the bottom and small at the top, Cap tube Central hanging belt, cap top with a spike, hard brim .

The hussar uniform, called the "Attila" uniform, is said to honor the great ancestor of the Hungarians, Attila (whether Hungarians are descended from Hungarians or not is a matter of debate), and its famous feature is that the front of the uniform has five symmetrical rows button Between the buttons, a long braid is butterfly wound.

The regiments are distinguished by uniform color, cap spike color and uniform button belt color, which are introduced separately when the regiment is introduced in detail.

The hussars are equipped with the M1890 battery carbine The officers were equipped with the M1870 military revolver , corpsman Out of gear Firing weapon However, all hussars, both officers and men, were equipped with the M1869 Cavalry saber .

The Wehrmacht had ten lancers, traditionally recruited from Austrian Poland, whose formations were no different from those of hussars.

The Lancer wore a top with a small Polish Square cap Patterned helmets, uniforms with a large piece of traditional Lancer cloth on the front, trapezoidal cloth, from the shoulders to the waist, different colors of cloth. Until the British cavalry regiments were converted to infantry or Mechanized infantry regiment However, this uniform is still worn during military parades.

Helmet of an Austro-Hungarian cavalry officer

The Lancers were armed with the M1890 serial fire carbine, the officers with the M1870 military revolver, the corpsmen were not equipped with firing weapons, but all lancers, both officers and men, were armed with the M1869 cavalry saber.

The Reichwehrmacht had 15 dragoons, all recruited from the region of Upper and Lower Austria and Bohemia, organized in the same way as hussars and lancers.

The crest of a dragoon helmet is the same Ancient Greek The helmet is an arched bridge-like ornament, but generally does not have a fringe.

Dragoons wear the same uniform as infantry, but wear their regiment Identification mark .

The dragoons were armed with the M1890 barrage carbine, the officers with the M1870 military revolver, the medics were not equipped with firing weapons, but all dragoons, both officers and men, were armed with the M1869 cavalry saber.

The Reich Wehrmacht consisted of 41 cavalry regiments, all of which were centrally organized during the war Cavalry brigade and Cavalry division It's different from the cavalry regiments of the Local Defense Corps, which are all split up into Infantry division Serve as a division and a cavalry.

Hunter

The field chasseurs, unlike the German chasseurs used as gendarmes, the Austro-Hungarian field chasseurs were Light infantry The troops, so named because traditionally their soldiers were recruited from hunters.

Unlike ordinary infantry, field hunters require the ability to operate behind enemy lines, in guerrilla warfare, without reliance on heavy firearms, and without involvement Large corps operation And other tasks.

At the same time, some of the field hunting troops are actually mountain light infantry troops, these troops are recruited from the traditional mountain people, the habit of climbing mountains and wading water is naturally like walking on the ground, because they often hunt and excellent marksmanship, and have a certain field survival ability, is the execution of mountain infiltration, harassment and other tasks of the rare excellent troops.

The Wehrmacht had a total of 29 independent field hunting battalions, and four Tyrolean hunting regiments, which together with four regiments of Tyrolean Archer units belonging to the Royal and Royal Local Defence Forces constituted the Empire Mountain troops However, when Italy declared war, four Tyrolean hunter regiments belonging to the Wehrmacht were fighting on the Balkan front.

The Wehrmacht also had four Bih infantry regiments, which wore blue uniforms and red Turkish beanies (so-called fez caps), accompanied by chaplains (for Orthodox Christians) and imam (for Muslims).

Since 1878, the Empire has occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, although nominally the two provinces still belong to the former territories Eurasian Feudalism in three continents of Africa theocracy Great Empire - Ottoman Empire. In 1882, the Austro-Hungarian War Ministry officially divided Bosnia and Herzegovina into four supplementary districts. Sarajevo , Banja Luka - Dorenya Tuzla and Mostar Unlike the Empire's other supplementary districts, which were subordinate to the various military districts, these four supplementary districts were directly under the Imperial General Staff. The Wehrmacht first recruited a base company in each of the four supplementary sectors, then expanded the company into battalions in 1885, two battalions in 1889, and two battalions each in 1892, by which time all 16 battalions needed for the four regiments had been constructed. In 1894, after the establishment of regimental headquarters and supplementary battalions, four BiH infantry regiments were constructed. In 1903, the Imperial War Ministry recruited a field hunting battalion from the entire region of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

navy

Soldiers of the Austro-Hungarian Navy

Austro-hungarian Navy Existed between 1867 and 1918, it was the maritime power of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, inherited from Austrian Imperial Navy In 1867, the Austrian Empire changed its name to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was dissolved in 1918 and Austria no longer owned it shoreline The Imperial Navy ceased to exist.

economy

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EDITOR

A 20 kronor note issued by the Austro-Hungarian Empire

During the 51 years of its existence, the economy of the Austro-Hungarian Empire developed rapidly, facilitated by technological improvements Industrialization and urbanization . During these 51 years, the capitalist mode of production spread throughout the empire. old feudalism Institutions are disappearing. Near Vienna, deep in Austria, Alps The foothills, the Czech Republic and Budapest are the centers of economic development. At the end of the 19th century, the central plains of Hungary and The Carpathian Mountains The economic development of the region is also rapid. In 1913, the industrial output value of Austria-Hungary accounted for 4.4% of the world, and the other seven powers accounted for 35.8% of the world, Germany 15.7%, Britain 13.6%, France 6.1%, Russia 8.2%, Italy 2.4%, Japan 2.0%, and Austria-Hungary ranked sixth in the world.

The economy of the entire empire Speed of development The difference is quite large. Generally speaking, the development of the west is much higher than that of the east. Throughout the empire in the early 1900s Speed of economic development They're all very high. From 1870 to 1913, per capita productivity About 1.45% per year. Compared with other European countries (UK 1.00%, France 1.06%, Germany 1.51%), this rate of development is relatively high. But the country's economic development still lags behind other countries, because it started relatively late. Britain's figure was about three times that of Austria-Hungary, and Germany's was twice as high. This crude comparison does not capture empire Internal development The imbalance of.

Railroads spread quickly throughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The predecessor of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1841 Austrian Empire A railway core was established in the west from Vienna. At this time, the government recognized the military significance of the railway and began to invest heavily in its construction. Prague, Budapest , Krakow , Venice , Graz A surname Ljubljana and Bratislava They're all connected Railway network . By 1854 the railway network in the Empire was 2,000 km long, of which 60-70% was state-owned. Because of the revolutions of 1848 and Crimean War The Imperial government resolved its economic difficulties by selling its railways to Private investor .

From 1854 to 1879 almost all railway construction was by private individuals Completion of investment Yes. The Austrian part of the railway network was extended by 7,952 km and the Hungarian part by 5,839 km. Many new areas were connected to the rail network, and existing rail networks were linked together. Before that the Austro-Hungarian Empire was the main conveyance It was shipping, the development of the railway network that coordinated the economic development of the whole empire.

After 1879 the government slowly began to reestablish itself railway Nationalization of the net. The main reason is 1870 Economic depression make Private enterprise Investment in railways has slowed to meet government demands. From 1879 to 1900, 25,000 km of railways were built, mostly to supplement the existing railway network. New railways were also built in the east. Some areas were not connected by rail until this time. The railway network greatly reduced the number of trains within the Empire Transportation cost , for which Internal economy Opening up new markets.

religion

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EDITOR

Region/Religion	The whole country	Neletania	Transletania	Bosnia and Herzegovina
Catholicism	76.6%	90.9%	61.8%	22.9%
Protestantism	8.9%	2.1%	19.0%	0%
Orthodox Church	8.7%	2.3%	14.3%	43.5%
Judaism	4.4%	4.7%	4.9%	0.6%
Islam	1.3%	0%	0%	32.7%

diplomacy

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EDITOR

Austrian and Hungarian Minister of Foreign affairs Carry on often Diplomatic relations Negotiation and consultation. The Austrian part and the Hungarian part of the government against the central government Foreign policy Has a slightly different attitude. Budapest Politicians feared that the expansion of the empire would reduce the proportion and influence of Hungarians. However, the Imperial government was united with Germany in 1879 German-austrian alliance The alliance against Russia was welcomed by the two regional governments, because they both regarded Russia as the biggest Military threat .

In 1878 Treaty of Berlin The Austro-Hungarian Empire occupied it in August 1878 Bosnia and Herzegovina . It was formally incorporated into the Empire in October 1908. This place Be regarded as Both parties jointly administer the territory and are assigned to the Ministry of Finance. To address this anomaly, some Viennese politicians considered merging this region with other Slavic-majority areas in the southern part of the Empire into a third region of the Empire. The local Croats are probably closer to Vienna than to Budapest.

nation

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EDITOR

The two peoples that dominated the two parts of the Empire were not in fact dominant: in the Austrian part the Germans were only 36%, and in the Hungarian part the Hungarians were less than half.

Czechs, Polish The Ukrainians, Slovenians and Italians are all trying to get a greater say in the Austrian part.

In Hungary, Romanians, Slovaks, Croats, and Serbs also challenged Hungarian rule. Romanians and Serbs also fought for peace with the newly formed state of Romania Kingdom of Serbia Merge.

The Hungarian rulers were more reluctant to surrender their power than the German rulers in the Austrian part. But in 1868, before they got autonomy A year later, they were awarded Kingdom of Croatia Partial autonomy.

One of the most contentious issues in the Austro-Hungarian Empire was the question of language. Which languages are Official language Or official language is always a problem. Minorities want to use their own language and educate them in their own language. On April 5, 1897, for example, the Austrian Prime Minister ordered a general in Bohemia Czech With German as the same official internal language, the result was attacked by German nationalists throughout the empire Prime minister Get fired.

Ethnic proportion
The Germans	23%
Hungarians	21%
Czechs	12%
Polish	11%
Ukrainians	8%
Romanians	5%
Croat	7%
Slovak	3%
Serbian	6%
Slovenians	3%
Italian	3%

bloodline

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EDITOR

Franz Joseph I

Franz Joseph I, the first emperor of Austria-Hungary

Franz Joseph I was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary (1830-1916) of the Austro-Hungarian Empire founder And the first Emperor (1867-1916).

Carl I

The second and last emperor Karl I

Karl I (August 17, 1887 - April 1, 1922), The full name Karl Franz Josef Ludwig Hubert Georg Mariavon Habsburg-Lothringen is The House of Habsburg With the last Emperor of Austria-Hungary (1916-1918). Act as Emperors of Austria He was called Karl I; As King of Hungary, he was called IV. Karoly; King of Bohemia, Carlisle V (KarelV) was the last emperor of the 600-year-old Habsburg Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1916-1918).

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