俄罗斯人（俄罗斯的主体民族）

Honor guard of Russian paratroopers

Russians are the most populous ethnic group in Europe and one of the most populous in the world, with about 140 million people. About 116 million of them live in Russia, and about 20 million live in Russia's neighboring countries. About 3 million people live in other parts of the world, mainly in Western Europe , America In addition to Eastern Europe , Asia And other areas.

The ancestors of Russians are Eastern Slavs The Ross Tribe. The Russians and Finn-Ugric also have a lot in common genetically. The Fin-Ugric once lived in the north-central part of the European part of Russia, in Slavs They were partially assimilated as they moved north ^[2]

In 862, to Rurik chief The Wallangians Conquer the East Slavs, establish Rurik dynasty . It was founded in 882 AD Kievan Rus . ^[2] As the laws of Kievan Rus gave succession rights to all princes, the country gradually moved towards fragmentation and emerged Duchy of Vladimir Wait for a group of principalities.

In 1169, the city of Kiev was taken over by the Duchy of Vladimir Grand Duke Vladimir Occupied and lost its status as the capital ^[3]

In the 13th century, Principality of Moscow It was subsumed by the Duchy of Vladimir. ^[2]

In the second half of the 15th century, the Principality of Moscow united all the principalities in Rus' territory. ^[5]

In 1547, Ivan the Fourth self-styled tsar ".

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Volga River basin, Ural and Siberia All ethnic groups have been successively Duchy of Ross Annexation, making it a multi-ethnic state.

Mid-17th century Ukraine And Russia merged into a unified country.

In August 1689 Peter I Go on stage. Russia passed through 1700-1721 with another great power Sweden ongoing Northern War seized Baltic Sea the outfall To make Russia from Landlocked state Become a coastal nation.

In the 17th century it defeated Poland And the Swedish feudalists fought back.

The Russians retreated in 1812 Napoleon An expeditionary force.

In December 1825, the aristocratic revolutionaries Petersburg An uprising was held (the December Party Uprising), which was suppressed.

It was abolished in Russia in February 1861 serfdom .

It was established in 1898 Russian Social Democratic Labour Party Under its leadership, the masses of workers and peasants passed through Russian Revolution of 1905 And overthrown in 1917 The Romanov Dynasty The February Revolution was achieved on November 7 October Socialist Revolution The great victory established the world's first Socialist country .

It was established on 7 November 1917 (25 October) Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic . The Republic was soon established, after three years Civil war The armed intervention of 14 imperialist countries and the armed rebellion of landlords and capitalists in their own country were crushed and defended Soviet power .

On December 30, 1922, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Officially established, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic , Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic and Transcaucasian Soviet Socialist Federal Republic (include Azerbaijan , Armenia and Georgia ) Join in.

On June 12, 1990, the First People's Congress of Russia adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Federation.

On December 21, 1991, the leaders of the eleven republics of the Soviet Union met Kazakhstan capital Almaty Decision. The Soviets are in United Nations Security Council The seat was inherited by Russia. On December 25, the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic decided to change the official name of the country to "Russian Federation" (Russia).

On April 16, 1992, the 6th National People's Congress of Russia decided to change the name of the country to "Russia", thus restoring the historical name; On the 17th, it was finally decided to use two official names of equal status. Russian Federation "And" Russia."

Illustrations of Russian cavalry from a 1762 book

Outside of archaeological excavations, little is known about previous Russian history before 859. " Record of previous years It started in 859. Estimated at about 600 years Slavs The language is divided into three branches: south, west and east. Eastern Slavs Reside in The Sebug River and The Dnieper River Between, that is Ukraine . From the 1st century to the 10th century they moved in peace Baltic Sea Regional development, assimilation of indigenous peoples, and the formation of different Slavic tribes in the Baltic region. afterwards Belarusians And the South Russians formed their own linguistic branch and ethnic group.

Another group of Slavs from the 6th century onwards Pomerania Moving northeast to the Baltic Sea, they encountered the Wallangians and established important regional centers Novgorod . These slavs were there Tver Canton and Belogorsk Regional settlement. They mixed with the Fin-Ugric people to form what became the Northern Russian people, who spoke the Northern Russian dialect. They extend to Rostov-on-Don Nearby, the other Slavs were reconnected after centuries of separation. But there are still clear differences between North and South Russians in culture, traditions and dialects. The differences between North and South Russians are even greater than the differences between South Russians and Belarusians. As a result, some Russian historians and anthropologists see them as distinct ethnic groups. On the border between north and south Moscow And a written language using some northern dialects and some southern dialect elements produced unity Russian nation .

But the Russians also have their own characteristics: the northern Russians belong to the European race White Sea - Baltic Sea Type, tall, long head, high nose, straight or concave nose, light hair and eyes. south Russian nationality It is of the Central European type (or Alpine type) of the Europa race, medium or above medium stature, with a broad, short head, broad face, high and large nose, and wavy yellowish hair.

Russian nature characteristics and formation reasons

A Russian girl in Soviet costume at a memorial event

19th century ink Chutchev He said: "Russia cannot be understood by reason, it cannot be weighed by the usual standards, and there are exceptional instruments in its place." (1) The public knows that the first socialist country in the world turned out to be founded here, and in just a few decades, it built a super-power to compete with the United States and compete for the world; At the end of the last century, the socialist edifice collapsed and collapsed automatically without the action of external forces. At gatherings of United Nations Nations dealing with and governing major international issues, Russia has always stood up bravely and said "no" in the face of pressure. In short, Russia has often surprised and puzzled the international community and the public with its ill-conceived actions. Obviously, the nature of the Russian people is difficult to summarize in one sentence.

Of course, they are not alike Chinese Capable, Japanese The efforts of French The romance of German Correct sum of Yankee In reality, in the Russian character there are capable and hard work, romance and fantasy, but also brave, strong, forthright, warm hospitality, sense of humor and generosity of heart.

(character) brave, strong and combative; Two sides prominent; High level of urbanity; The work style pattern is extreme.

Be brave and strong and fight together

Peter the Great He guided the Fuhrer's army and people through the twenty years of the Northern War, defeated hundreds of thousands of Swedish divisions, moved the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg in order to preserve the fruits of victory, captured the Baltic Sea, and opened the "window" to Europe. (2) In 1812, Napoleon He invaded Russia with six hundred thousand men, ended up in a mess, and lost a large part of his team, leading to his subsequent downfall. In his memoirs, he wrote: "Never before had such a strong force been encountered, and the battle on the outskirts of Moscow had been refought most valiantly with the least success." (3) In World War II, both in Leningrad The 900 days and nights of the siege are still there The Defense of Moscow , Battle of Stalingrad In the middle, the Russians' energy for the jade break and strong fighting makes the world amazed. In short, when it comes to the crucial time, extra is an important key to the life and death of the country and growth, Russians can not hesitate to volunteer and reproduce the great energy of fear. Commander-in-chief of the Soviet Army in World War II Zhukov He said, "This nation has a strong ability to hold together, not to be crushed by other nations, but to overwhelm its enemies."

The prominent characteristics of two sides are evident

Anyone who has dealt with Russians on a regular basis has the same impression: they are warm and generous, but after a while they can leave you with a sense of disbelief. Under normal circumstances, you can feel a sincere friendship from the first meeting. When you shake hands, you do not hold your hand until it hurts. Hug when you do not squeeze out of breath up do not let go; If you don't compliment you in a conversation, then you agree. Whether in individual interactions, or in matters of sexual cooperation, the Russians are best at promises, after the matter is not because of the failure to realize and feel ashamed, but admit mistakes, and look for a variety of reasons, and even make new promises. Russian politician We often agree with people in vain. In 1989, when the crowd asked Gorbachev When asked how soon he could overcome the shortage of goods, he said, "Give me two years." Two years later, when people asked him again when to turn around the economic adversity, he said, "Give me two more years."

The work style pattern is extreme

Anyone who has been to Russia knows that an individual small market to buy equipment at 12:01, that is, during the break time, will be properly reported to the break time (this in China will be regarded as a nerve problem, not to earn money is not a fool). But it's normal in Russia, because of the difference in time perspective. On a train tour, Russians will offer to share their wine and food with you, but in the parking lot, even if you leave your car for more than a minute or two, you will be charged an hour. A Chinese friend who runs a restaurant told me that her employees go out to buy 40 bottles of wine, and when they return, they open four boxes and count from one to forty. Unlike the Chinese, "four cases, ten bottles each, a lot of bottles." Teach them several times, of course, each time to say the next time, but still count from one to forty, carefully. In addition, as far as Sino-Soviet relations are concerned in fifty years. After the establishment of New China, the Soviet Union held more than one hundred large-scale industrial projects in China, the scope and intensity of that generous assistance is very rare in the history of international relevance. However, after the division of the cognitive form category, the Soviets soon withdrew all the experts and tore up all the project treaties, so that China suffered huge losses, and China appeared at the end of the fifty years triennium Natural disasters played a role, as did the Soviet Union's repudiation of its treaties. A country can help you so generously in a few years, and a few years later can tear your face and deal with you like that, this kind of swinging, cold and hot character is really unpredictable.

lifestyle

Lifestyle is an integral part of culture. Russian culture Occupying a unique place in world culture, Russians also have a unique way of life in terms of living, dress, eating, etiquette, superstitions and taboos.

1. People's houses

Russia is rich in forest resources, so the traditional Russian residential wood as the building material, there are two main styles: one is built by logs, this wooden house is very strong; The other is made of wooden boards. This kind of wooden house is exquisite and beautiful.

Rural Russian inhabitants of the early 20th century with round wooden houses behind them

The roof of the traditional Russian wooden house is in the shape of "man", because Russia's winter snow is rich, and the slope of the "man" font roof is large, which is easy to slide the snow. Some of these wooden houses have chimneys, others do not. The upper part of the wooden house has a loft for storage or for children to live and play. There is also a half layer of the underground wooden house, about a person's height, mainly used to store food, vegetables and wine, as well as moisture and moisture. The door of the wooden house is a rectangular porch, and there are usually four or five steps under the porch. In order to enter the wooden house, you must first walk up the steps, pass the porch, and enter the door. There are generally three or four rooms in the house, with an area of more than ten or twenty square meters, respectively for the living room, bedroom, dining room and kitchen, the room is spacious, and the floor is covered with wooden floors. The Windows of the wooden house generally face south, and the window frames are decorated with triangulars or running water patterns, and the Windows have small transom Windows for ventilation, and the windowsills are wide, and POTS of flowers are placed. A side room is built next to the main room, which is used to store furniture or as a warehouse. It was surrounded by a wooden fenced yard with a vegetable garden.

The stove, bench and seat in a traditional house are unique. The stove is tall and large, and can be used for heating, baking and cooking, and people can lie on it. A stool is fixed to the wall for several people to sit together. This traditional Russian wooden house still exists in Russia. However, with the development of The Times, most of the family people live in 2 to 4 two-story houses, equipped with public facilities, and each household has a piece of land near the house, where they can grow fruits and vegetables.

In the city, housing is very tight for residents. World War II There are many people in the previous two or three generations who "live under the same roof". In the 1950s, Khrushchev After coming to power in order to alleviate the housing contradiction built a large number of matchbox-style 5-story simple buildings, now the appearance is dilapidated, facing the fate of demolition and reconstruction. In recent years, in order to rationally use land and adapt to the situation of the large increase of urban residents, a number of high-rise buildings with more than 12-19 floors have been built as the main community. There are food stores, post and telecommunications department, savings office, kindergarten, school, cinema and so on Public service facilities . At the same time, it is also possible to restore and preserve the valuable ancient buildings in the city.

2. Villa

The so-called villa is a Russian private residence in the countryside. In Soviet times, the municipal government provided 0.06 hectares of land for each cadre and employee to build villas. This policy in the geographical environment of a small number of people creates a special kind of architecture.

Russian villas are generally built on the outskirts of the hillside, the edge of the forest, the water. Most of the areas where the villas are built are designated by the state and electricity transmission is provided. People used to call these places villa villages. Russian villas are mostly wooden structure houses, there are large and small, small only ten square meters, large suites, generally simple interior furnishings, easy to move. The exterior is painted in bright colors and decorated with various patterns.

In summer, every weekend, Russians drive cars or take suburban electric trains to villa vacation. Relaxed and leisurely villa life relieves the tension and discomfort of fast-paced city life. They also grow vegetables in the garden of the villa, both to relax and to make up for the lack of supply in the city. In the summer, the area is quiet, the owners only occasionally visit, and in the winter, the villas are empty. Collapse of the Soviet Union After the economic depression, life was difficult, and the residents grew potatoes in the garden of the villa for year-round consumption. In addition, some elderly people rent out houses in the city for a fee to solve the difficulties of life, and they live in simple villas.

3. Dark bath

Russians love baths. There are often many public baths in cities.

In rural Russia, people love to take steam baths. They believe that steam baths can improve health, relieve fatigue and cure diseases. In the northern part of the European part of Russia and the residential areas of various ethnic groups in Siberia, black bathhouses are common among the people. This kind of bathhouse is generally built in the courtyard corner next to the house, mostly wooden structure, and is used as a storage room in summer. In order to keep warm, the stove in the bathhouse has no chimney, and the black smoke from the burning of firewood is emitted in the bathhouse. Over a long time, the walls and roof of the bathhouse are smoked black, so it is called the black bathhouse.

Small Russian dancers in traditional costumes

Russian National costume It's colorful, it's big, and it's Russian nation Production, life related, also reflects the heroic character of the Russian people.

The national dress for Russian men is this: a burlap shirt with a sloping collar, embroidered collar and hem, and a cover tweed A coat, or a long coat and a belt; Wear skinny pants, leather boots or leather shoes, and wear a woolen hat or fur hat; In winter, it is covered with a short sheepskin coat or sheepskin coat.

The national dress of the Russian woman is this: the upper body is also a burlap shirt, the collar of the shirt is not open, collar Pleated, embroidered shirt, shoulder set, sleeve fat; Southern Russian women wear woolen skirts, northern women wear saran, do not wear trousers; Wear leather shoes or boots; In summer, he wears a flowered turban, in autumn and winter he wears a woolen hat or fur hat, and in winter he also wears a sheepskin coat.

In the national costume, the decorations of Russian women mainly include shawls and belts. The cape comes in two styles: triangular and square, and is printed with a bright pattern of large flowers. In addition to wearing the shoulder, Russian women often wrap the shawl around their head as a headscarf. Russians believe that the belt can not only keep warm, but also bless the peace, because the belt symbolizes the circle of the sun. In the folk, the first gift of the future daughter-in-law to her in-laws is a belt, so Russian women learn to embroider and sew belts from their teenage years.

Nowadays, it is rare for Russians to wear national dress in cities. Only in the countryside, or on important festivals, do people change into traditional national costumes.

Modern Russian clothing is characterized by cleanliness, modesty, generosity and harmony. According to Russian tradition, women must wear skirts, especially in public and formal occasions. Today, Russian women continue this tradition. However, since the 1970s, Russian young women have competed to follow the Western fashion and wear jeans, which has aroused the attention of Russian public opinion.

In recent years, great changes have taken place in Russian society, and Russian dress has also been affected. Before 1990, Russian men's and women's clothing to suit and skirt mainly, few people wear denim, women wear trousers is also rare. With the increase of trade with other countries, in line with the world fashion trend, Russian clothing appeared in China's postman green down jacket, pig skin jacket, knitted acrylic with a brim cap, European rectangular wool check shawl, Italian leather boots, French flower long dress, Turkish leather jacket and light leather plus the longest coat, cowboy clothing, leisure wear and various brands sportswear Let's wait.

Russians have distinct national characteristics in their eating habits. They are good at cooking, so Russian cuisine is famous all over the world.

1. Bread

Russian brown bread and caviar

Since ancient times, bread has been a staple food in Russia. There are many varieties of bread, according to the raw materials: White bread , Brown bread Rye flour bread and corn flour bread. White bread is consumed in large quantities. But Russians also love brown bread, even more than white bread. The main raw material of brown bread is rye flour, which is rich in vitamins and has high nutritional value. The brown bread has a wheat flavor, slightly sour when you eat it, and a sweet flavor after chewing. According to the beginning, there are: big round bread, its diameter can reach 40 cm, the bread has a pattern; A bagel; Padlock bread; A bun, similar in size to a Chinese steamed bun, can be cut and sandwiched with meat and cheese; Dried bread; figure-eight Sweet bun ; Rectangular bread; Oval bread and so on.

There is another food in Russia, which is called the "second bread" of the Russian people, and this is the potato. Russians love potatoes. According to statistics, Russia consumes more than 100 kilograms of potatoes per capita every year, which is similar to the consumption of grain. There are many ways to eat potatoes in Russia: boiled potatoes, baked potatoes, mashed potatoes, small flat cakes made from potatoes, used as a side dish for steak, roast chicken and so on.

2. Three meals a day

Russians eat three meals a day in addition to bread, potatoes, beef, mutton, milk, vegetables, butter, cheese and so on. Russian meals are characterized by more meat and milk and less vegetables.

The Russian way of eating is to eat one at a time. Usually serve cold dishes first, such as salad, ham, fish jelly, cold lettuce, pickles, etc. Then the main course, there are three main courses, the first is soup, such as fresh fish soup, chicken soup, meat mixed soup, meatball and pea soup, red cabbage soup. Russians especially love to drink red cabbage soup, also known as borsch . The method of this soup is: cut the meat into small pieces, put the red cabbage, cabbage, potatoes, Onions, carrots cut into shreds into the water, add salt, sugar and other seasonings together to cook, and then pour sour cream after cooking, sometimes add mushrooms and prune inside, delicious. Russians can eat bread with soup, which is different from Westerners. Besides the white bread, there was a plate of brown bread on the table. The second course is meat dishes, such as fried steak, roast beef cubes, fried chicken, patties, etc., with potato chips, cabbage, beets. The third and final course is a dessert, usually boiled fruit, jelly, ice cream, dessert, juice, tea or coffee and other beverages. At a banquet, there's usually caviar It is the top of the dish, there are two kinds of black caviar and red caviar. How to eat: Spread butter on white bread, then dip red or black caviar on the butter.

Russians are very particular about spices in their cooking. Their idea is that condiments not only add flavor, but also add nutritional value to dishes. They often use scallions, ginger, garlic, pepper and mustard, and often add bay leaves, cloves, fennel seeds, and a salad oil with olive oil, egg yolks and spices.

Since Russian summers are short and winters are long, sunshine Insufficient, so all the year round to potatoes, cabbage, carrots, Onions, fresh seasonal vegetables and fruits are few, it is difficult to store.

3. Drinks

Russians love to drink

Russian favorite drinks include alcoholic beverages such as vodka , beer, wine, champagne ; Non-alcoholic beverages such as tea; Cool drink Kvass Let's wait.

Russians are famous for their good wine, and everyone drinks freely on holidays and birthdays. Among all kinds of alcoholic beverages, they like vodka best. Vodka is almost synonymous with Russia. Russian vodka was imported from Italy in 1428 Genoa Imported, but in power at the time Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III Vodka was banned in order to protect the interests of the country's traditional liqueur producers. Ivan the Terrible First in Moscow He opened the "Royal Wine Court", but soon after ordered that no one except his Praetorian guards should drink vodka. until Ukraine It was only after its incorporation into Russia that vodka became popular. Peter the Great also saw vodka as a major source of revenue for the state Treasury. The method of vodka is to first treat the alcohol with activated carbon to remove the imppure smell, and then add water to the alcohol content of 36%-60%. Most of the vodka on the market is 42 proof. Grain-based vodka has a crisp taste and a long aftertaste. "Capital" vodka is the best in this category.

Champagne is the indispensable opening act of various Russian festive feasts, followed by vodka. Le Golitsyn is the father of champagne in Russia.

Russians talk when they drink toast Wish meet, wish health, wish children, wish peace, wish friendship, one set after another. When the wine is drunk, they sing and dance. The first drink is usually drunk dry, and then everyone is free, according to the rules of not urging drink. The third cup of wine is often for the ladies present, the man to get up, drink dry, the woman does not have to get up, and do not have to finish. If you are a guest in the host's home, finally: a cup to the housewife, in order to thank her cooking skills and hard work. Russians do not pay attention to the food, drinking is also unlimited, how much to drink, often a drunk. Therefore, there are many alcoholics in Russia, and the disaster has caused many social problems. Alcoholism leads to higher crime rates, higher divorce rates, more car accidents, lower labor productivity, shorter lifespans for men, and so on.

In addition to drinking alcohol, Russians also have a fondness for tea. Russian preference Black tea The average person consumes 500 grams per year. Russia is only in the south Sochi It produces a small amount of tea and therefore relies mainly on imports. Jasmine tea from China and black tea from India are very popular among Russians. Every afternoon from 5pm to 6pm is the time for Russians to drink tea. Over the years, Russians have developed unique tea-drinking customs:

(1) They like to drink sweet tea, that is, put sugar, jam or honey in the tea, but also eat some sweet things, such as homemade cakes, dessert Cookies, candy, etc.

(2) Like to use samovar Make tea . The samovar is a unique Russian kettle for boiling water, traditionally made of copper, now common is stainless steel, the structure is similar to the charcoal burning copper hot pot in northern China. The lower part of the pot is equipped with a hollow cylinder for burning charcoal, as well as wood shavings and pine cones. Almost every Russian family has a copper or stainless steel samovar, and modern families use electric samovars. Hospitable housewives often invite relatives and friends to tea and treat guests with homemade snacks. When drinking tea, the hostess will first pour the strong tea from the porcelain teapot into the guests' cups, and then bring the cups to the samovar to refill the water. Samovars and tea are signs of hospitality.

(3) Like to drink strong tea, modern people often put some in tea rum .

In addition to drinking tea, the traditional summer drink of Russians is Kvass It is a refreshing drink made by fermenting mint, flour or black flour, raisins, berries and other fruits with white sugar. In recent decades, mineral water has become the main drink at large and small meetings.

Russians are a people who pay attention to etiquette, and maintain the traditional etiquette unique to the nation in daily life and in the treatment of people.

Russian youth

Russians are very polite. "Hello", "hello", "good morning", "good day", "good night", "all the best", "thank you", "please forgive", "goodbye", "please" and other polite language, people not only often hang on the mouth outside, is also inseparable from the mouth at home.

Acquaintances always greet each other when they meet. People who do not know each other, if they meet face to face in a place where there are not many people, they are also used to saying hello. There are few people in the countryside. Farmers always greet strangers warmly when they meet them on the road. When saying hello, those who have their hands in their pockets always pull them out, and those who hold their cigarettes in their mouths temporarily take them off. The man always greets the woman first, then the one wearing the hat also raises the hat, and the one wearing colored glasses also takes off the glasses for a while. At night, people who are together say "good night" to others before they go to bed. Usually, someone sneezes, the next acquaintance will say to him (her) : "I wish you (you) health!" When you meet and shake hands, neither too hard nor too weak. Do not hold your hand for too long. Do not shake your partner's hand. If men and women shake hands, men can not extend their hands first, if men wear gloves should be taken off before shaking hands, women do not need to take off. When a young person shakes hands with an older person, he must wait for the older person to extend his hand first.

Russians have the habit of hugging and kissing relatives when they meet or say goodbye to each other after a long separation, whether at home or in public. Men usually hug each other only, or at the same time also get a touch or two (one on each side of the face) cheek. Women often appear more affectionate and kiss each other. Between friends and relatives. Elders kiss the younger generation generally kiss the cheek, often kiss three times, and often kiss the forehead; The younger generation kisses the older generation on the cheek, usually twice in a row. Kissing between men and women who are not relatives is more careful, if the relationship is general, the man only kisses the woman on the cheek. Only on Easter Day, inside and outside the church, people were allowed to kiss anyone they met, and young men were allowed to kiss girls as well. Tsarist Russia It was also popular for men to kiss the back of a woman's right hand, which was only occasionally seen on a few grand occasions. They also kissed the hands, the skirts, and even the feet of people who were considered sacred and noble, and some devout believers did this to certain priests.

When Russians speak to people, if the other person is an elder, a stranger, a person who is not close, a person who is considered important or to be respected, they must address them as "you", and the tone contains a sense of pure business, politeness, solemnity or respect. right Of the same generation Or younger family members, very familiar people, people who do not need to be polite or respectful, then called "you", the tone contains casual, uninhibited, intimate, friendly meaning.

Russian names are very long, and a person's full name consists of a first name, a patronymic name, and a surname. As in the novel What should I do? The full name of the author is Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky In the first part Nikolai is a given name, in the second part Gavrilovich is a patronymic (meaning: son of Gavrilil), and Chernyshevsky is a surname. Galina Selgyevna Ulanova The full name Galina is the first name, Sergyevna is the patronymic (meaning the daughter of Sergei), and Ulanova is the surname. The first, patronymic, and last name all tell whether the person is male or female. Women's names generally have an a at the end: names such as Anna, Yelena, Aksinia, Vera, Galya, etc., patronyms such as Ivanovna, Simonovna, Maksinovna, etc.; If men and women have the same surname, the woman's surname is also added to the end of the "a", such as Lenin's surname was Ulyanov, and his sister's surname is Ulyanova. After marriage, women generally adopt their husband's surname, and now some continue to use their original surname or husband's original surname.

Such a long name, what do you call it? In solemn occasions and official documents, the full name is used, and the first name, patronymic name and surname are used. Sometimes it's a little simpler. Omit patronymic, just first and last name. Usually, to elders, peers or superiors, in order to show respect, the name and patronymic, such as "Vladimir Ilyich", "Ivan Ivanovich"; That's what they call married women. Students also address teachers by their first and patronymic names, not by teacher. Teachers call students by their first name, and sometimes by their first name. Daughter-in-law to parents-in-law, son-in-law to parents-in-law, if you feel that the parents are not used to, you can also call their name and father's name. Between the elders and the younger generation, familiar with the peers, usually called the name, simpler.

But the name (that is, the first part of the full name) has different forms of formal name, nickname, pet name, and so on, which makes things complicated. A formal name is used for general formal occasions. Nicknames are used for elders juniors Between the same generation of relatives, lovers, close companions, classmates, friends, containing intimate meaning, affectionate caresses meaning more than nicknames.

Nickname is a kind of casual address, when used among close friends, it shows informality, and when used among people who are not close, it often has a sense of contempt. The composition method is more free, and most of it is added a "card" sound after the first name or nickname.

Russian name The complexity and variability of the Russian language has increased the expression of the Russian language and made it more colorful, but it is more difficult for foreigners to remember and use it. When we Chinese read Russian novels, we often find the names of the characters difficult to remember and distinguish.

When Russians visit someone's home, they usually inform the host in advance. To invite people to their home, generally in advance of the invitation, uninvited or surprise guests, is considered impolite, unless it is very close friends. After entering the door, guests must first greet the hostess, and then greet the host and others, because Russians also implement the principle of "women first" in public places and social occasions, just like people in Western countries. The place where the guest sits should be designated by the host, not on the bed, nor on the sofa with women sitting. If there are several guests who do not know each other at one time, the host will introduce them first Female guest At first, men stand up when they are introduced to women. Smoking should be approved by the hostess or guest. Do not interrupt others when talking, do not ask others' salary, the age of the woman. A man cannot leave a woman with him to talk to someone else unless the woman is already talking to someone else. Don't stay long on your first visit. Russians like to send flowers, there are many florists, people often give the hostess a bouquet of flowers when visiting, send the beard is singular (even number of flowers to sacrifice the dead), can not be yellow (yellow indicates disloyalty); Giving toys or stationery to the children of the host family is also very popular. If the host receives the cake fruit candy given by the guest, it should be put on the table for everyone to see.

Treating people for dinner or refreshments at home is considered more friendly than in a restaurant. Please be sure to put on the tablecloth, generally with cotton, usually with color, more exquisite with white. Linoleum and plastic sheets are considered discreet and are only used when there are no guests or close friends. A bottle of fresh flowers is usually placed on the table when a guest is invited. The formal dining table is rectangular, with two ends as the top seat. The husband and wife are separated, the host sits next to the female guest, and the hostess sits next to the male guest. If the guests are in a couple, sit together. Set out a set of utensils for each diner in advance: a large plate (for eating food), a medium plate (for bread, placed on the left of the large plate); A fork (between the plate and the middle plate), a knife, and a spoon (on the right of the plate); Two or three small glass glasses (placed in front of the plate). Hold a fork in the left hand and a knife and spoon in the right hand. Use a knife to take food from the tray, use a fork to bring food to the mouth, can not use a knife to eat. Bread should be torn into small pieces and fed into the mouth, and wood should be nibbled in large pieces. No smoking at the table. From time to time, the host says to the guests: "Please eat for health", which is equivalent to the Chinese saying: "Please help yourself to eat", "please eat more". The guest did not get up until the hostess had left the table.

In Russia, it is generally possible not to make a loud noise in public places, and the voice of speech is very low; Don't spit, don't eat while walking, don't throw cigarette butts, fruit peel, etc.; unseemly Stretch oneself Yawning, scratching, nose picking, Pick one's ears ; Don't point at strangers; Do not look at the disabled or deformed persons; Walking, getting on and off public vehicles are taking the initiative to let the elderly, women in front, in the car to let them sit. Attend meetings, plays, etc., on time. When a few people are late for a play, they quietly enter their seats facing the audience in the same row. Generally speaking, the public morality of Russians is relatively good, pay attention to civility.

(1) Greetings

A common Russian greeting is" Hello. ", "Hello". Russians believe that when two people meet, they must say hello; When dining in a cafe or restaurant, you should also say hello to your table mates and those who come in first, and then take a seat; When you ask for directions, say hello first. In the Russian countryside, people still keep the habit of saying hello to strangers.

(2) Kissing

Kissing is also a traditional ritual in Russia. On grand occasions, when national leaders meet, in order to show respect and friendship, they generally hug and kiss each other's cheeks three times, first left and then right and then left. On solemn occasions, sometimes men bend down to kiss the back of a woman's right hand to show respect. When friends meet, women usually hug, sometimes kiss, men just hug. When brothers and sisters meet again or part, hug and kiss.

(3) Give gifts

On holidays or festive days, Russians pay attention to giving gifts to relatives and friends. Gifts vary from person to person. They think the best gift is flowers. When sending flowers, it is important to note that the number of flowers can only be an odd number, because Russians believe that an even number is lucky and an even number is unlucky, and only send an even number of flowers when someone dies. Carnations and tulips are common flowers.

When choosing a gift, be careful: don't give a knife to a friend. Russians believe that a knife will cut off friendship. If you want to accept a knife from a friend, you have to give a token amount of money; Do not send an empty wallet, because an empty wallet is considered a symbol of poverty, if you want to send, be sure to put a symbolic amount of money in the wallet, meaning that you wish the other person will always have money.

(4) Respect women

Russians have the virtue of respecting women, getting on the bus, going up and down the stairs, and going out of the room, men should let women go first and open the door for them, even if they do not know the woman. In the theater's cloakroom, men are required to take off their coats for women, open the way for women to enter and find a seat, and men are not allowed to sit until a woman is seated. When men and women walk together, men are empty-handed, and women are not allowed to carry heavy objects. And the man should walk on the left side of the woman to protect her, so that she is in the safest position; When a woman crosses the street, a man sends her.

(5) In public places

In public places, such as theaters, Russians do not speak loudly, nor do they spit or litter. The audience generally enters on time and watches the program quietly. If someone is late, he or she should sit quietly in front of the audience in the same row and apologize to the other party. It is impolite to squeeze in with his or her back to the audience in the same row. Do not pick your nose, stretch, scratch or cough loudly in public. If you want to cough, cover your mouth with a handkerchief and cough quietly. Don't point at each other and others with your index finger while talking; It is inappropriate to speak to someone in front of others in a language they do not understand. When taking buses and subways, you should offer your seat to the elderly, the sick, the disabled, pregnant women and children.

(6) Dining etiquette

When Russians eat, they take separate meals and use knives and forks. The position of the knife and fork is: the fork is on the left of the plate, the knife and spoon are on the right, the glass is in front of the plate, the diner should hold the knife in the right hand, the fork in the left hand. When you finish a dish, place the knife and fork side by side on the plate with the hands facing right, and the waiter will take them away. If you need to use a knife and fork for the next course, there is no spare knife and fork left or right on the plate, you should put the knife and fork on the table.

In the formal banquet, each dish to change a pair of knives and forks, generally all the knives and forks are first placed on both sides of the plate and above, when eating in order to use from the outside to the inside, how many pairs of knives and forks indicate how many dishes. Eat different food with different forks, eat fish with three forks, other with four forks, eat cold food fork is smaller, eat hot food fork is larger.

It should be noted that different foods have different ways to eat: noodles, fish, eggs, pudding and jelly cannot be eaten after cutting with a knife. Eat noodles in your right hand fork Fork two or three noodles, and then rotate the fork, roll the noodles on the fork and then into the mouth, do not suck the noodles with your mouth, let alone make a sound; When eating fish, hold a piece of bread in the left hand to hold the fish, and remove the thorn with the fork in the right hand before eating; When eating boiled eggs, do not knock them on the table, but use a spoon to break the shell of the head of the egg, peel off the shell, and then use a spoon to dig and eat; When you eat fried eggs, eat them tender with a spoon, and eat them old with a fork. When you eat soup, use the tip of a spoon facing your mouth and bring the soup into your mouth, not directly Soup plate The spoon should be kept on the soup plate until it is finished. When eating steak, fork the teeth of the fork down to the steak, and then cut a piece to eat a piece of the knife, you can also cut the steak into several pieces at a time, and then eat and eat, remember not to be extremely indecent in the plate to cut; When eating chicken and duck, you should use a knife and fork, and only when you are at home can you eat with your hand; Bread does not need to be cut with a knife, you can eat it with your hands.

Do not talk loudly when eating, do not hold a knife and fork gestures: use the right hand when drinking, chew things to shut up, can not chew out; At a banquet, a man should take care of the women next to him. After a meal, if the hostess invites the guest to drink coffee or tea, the guest should pass the cup.

Russians usually use "you" in communication in three ways: (1) to children under 16; 2, between close relatives and colleagues (young people); 3. Young to young. The elderly, strangers (except children) and leaders are addressed as "you". Children may be called by their first name, while the elderly, strangers and leaders should be called by their first name and father. In Russia, "Sir", "comrade" and "citizen" coexist. It is customary for people to call each other "Sir" in business, news media and official institutions; The term "comrade", which was widely used in Soviet times, is still used in state enterprises, the army, and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. "Citizen" is usually used in public places, such as train stations, shops, etc. When speaking in public, the spokesman's family name is generally followed by "Mr.", "comrade" or its corresponding title "professor", "engineer", etc., such as: "Now please Professor Zarov to speak." When writing an official letter, generally write the recipient's name plus the father's name; In very formal letters, the recipient's last name should be preceded by "Mr." or his or her corresponding title. Most Russians eat at home and only go to restaurants during lunch breaks at work. When there is a festival or a wedding, Russian residents usually hold it in a restaurant, paid by the inviter. Gatherings of friends are usually held in a family setting. Guests usually bring small gifts (cake, wine) and flowers to the host.

Russian Orthodox Baptism

It was introduced around the 10th century Orthodox Church The majority of residents are faiths Three schools of Christianity One of the Orthodox. Due to geographical and cultural differences, a series of local ethnic groups emerged within the Russian people in the mid-19th century. The big differences are between northern Russians, southern Russians, and middle Russians in between Volga River basin and Volga River, Okha Between the inhabitants, whose language and culture are both northern and southern).

About 63 percent of Russia's population professes to be Orthodox. Most of which belong to Russian Orthodox Church The church played an important role in the formation of the Russian national sense. Russians in other countries belong to the local Orthodox Church. These churches are either directly connected to the Russian Orthodox Church (e.g Ukraine ), or have a historical connection (such as the Orthodox Church in the United States).

Even non-religious Russians identify themselves culturally with the Orthodox Church. A minority of Russians believe Old liturgical This split from the Orthodox Church rejected the ritual reforms introduced in the 17th century. There are also small splinter factions.

There are few other religions among Russians. Chief among them Baptists There are more than 85,000 followers.

1. When you meet and shake hands, do not form a cross shape.

2. Russia has a traditional saying that "the left is the main culprit, the right is the best", so you should not extend your left hand to the other person, whether it is shaking hands or handing back items.

3. Meet the elderly, women, superiors should not take the initiative to reach out, to wait for each other.

4. When addressing a woman, do not use the word "wife", which will cause the other party's displeasure. Have the title to call the title, or give the other party the opportunity to introduce, to act on the occasion.

5. Do not point with the finger, no matter on any occasion is so, Russians think that this is a great insult to people. In front of people, do not hold hands into fists, thumbs in Index finger The gesture, called "Gukish" in Russian, is a rude act of contempt and ridicule. The American gesture of touching the thumb and forefinger in an "O" shape, with the other three fingers extended (OK), is an indecent sign in Russia.

6. Do not use shoulders to collide with each other in communication, this behavior generally only occurs between friends, otherwise, the body collision is extremely disrespectful behavior.

Seven. Avoid the use of the word "you should" in conversation. Russians respect individual opinions and dislike being dictated to by others.

8. You can't say things like "You're gaining weight." When friends meet again after a long absence, they must not talk about fat and thin. Russians think this is to describe it as bloated and ugly.

9. Greetings avoid asking: "Where are you going?" This is not a polite greeting, for Russians, it is an inquiry into someone's privacy.

10. Not just one cigarette, but the whole box. When lighting a cigarette, it is taboo to strike a match or use a lighter to ignite three people at the same time, and can not bring other people's cigarettes to smoke.

11. Men and women in social occasions, when parting, men should wear coats for women, open the door, let women first, can not open the door themselves and leave.

12. No two things should be given as gifts - a knife and a handkerchief. In Russia, a knife means that friendship is broken or there will be a fight or argument between each other; The handkerchief symbolizes parting.

13. Not in... Thirst for wine Encourage or drink alcohol deliberately. Russians are very greedy, drunkards are despised, and deliberately causing others to get drunk is hated and disgusted.

14. No farewell on or under the bridge, such a farewell means leaving forever.

Fifteen. Do not kick dogs or other animals with your feet. When you meet a blocking dog, talk it away. Russian dogs understand commands, and kicking is frowned upon.

Russian superstitions and taboos are also distinctive.

1. Color

Russians believe that each color has its own unique symbolic significance. According to the Russian concept, red symbolizes beauty, luck and happiness, so the red and their favorite people or things associated, such as" Red Square ", "beautiful girl", etc.; Green symbolizes peace and hope; Blue symbolizes loyalty and trust; Purple symbolizes majesty and nobility. As for yellow, it symbolizes sadness, parting, betrayal and madness, so young lovers or lovers avoid sending yellow items such as yellow roses. Black symbolizes solemnity and foreboding, so Russians hate black cats, they believe that if a black cat passes in front of them, they will encounter unlucky things. When they meet a black cat on the road, they stop and let someone else pass or take a detour. During thunderstorms, some people also throw black cats outside, because according to Russian superstition, demons and ghosts will be attached to black cats in order to escape lightning strikes.

2. Animals

The Russians regarded the horse as an animal that could drive away evil and bring good luck. They believed that a horse's shoe had the power of subduing demons, and if they found one on the ground, they would pick it up, take it home, and nail it to the front door or wall. Russians regard rabbits as timid and incompetent animals, such as rabbits running in front of them is a bad sign. According to the Russians, the rooster has great magical powers, and its cry can drive away evil spirits, night spirits and ghosts. Therefore, in some rural areas, farmers decorate the beams with wooden roosters to ward off evil spirits. Russians believe that dreaming of roosters is a good omen. In the eyes of the Russians, cuckoo A woman who symbolizes sorrow is a prophet of death and a bad omen; And the bumbling bear is their mascot, known as the "king of the forest" and so on.

3. Numbers

Russians, like other Westerners, avoid the number 13 because it's in Christianity In the legend, betrayal Jesus the Judas It's exactly 13th. They hate the number 666 because it's Bible It's a code name for the devil. They often use the number 7, that 7 symbolizes happiness and success, some newlyweds after the wedding to take the float through seven Bridges to be satisfied, which shows the Russian people's love for 7.

Russian servicemen

Russians don't like to knock over a salt shaker, seeing it as a sign of family discord. If someone knocks over the salt shaker, he will be scolded and quarrel will break out, and only by throwing the spilled salt on his head can the quarrel and misfortune be relieved. This is because in ancient Russia, salt had to be transported from great distances, so it was very expensive and very precious. Food preserved in salt lasts a long time and is not perishable, resulting in the symbolic meaning of salt: durability, reliability, friendship and respect.

Russians treat the mirror as a sacred thing, the reflection in the mirror as the embodiment of their own soul, if someone in the family does not increase the luck of death, in order to make the soul of the dead rest, all the mirrors are covered with black cloth.

On some grand occasions, Russians will deliberately break several plates to celebrate.

Russians believe in the superstition that everyone is surrounded by two gods, the devil standing on the left and the patron saint of goodness standing on the right. So when someone gets angry in a bad mood, it is said that he got up with his left foot first. Russians still have the habit of not shaking hands with others with their left hand, and students do not use their left hand to draw lots in the exam room.

Russians also don't want to whistle in their rooms, or they will blow the money away. They sit quietly for a few minutes before sending their loved ones out. In their opinion, if someone burps, it is someone chanting or scolding him behind his back.

The "New Russians" are Collapse of the Soviet Union A group of nouveau riche in post-Russian society, known in the West as "New Russians," typically earn more than $15,000 to $20,000 a month. Their average age is around 36 years old Moscow It is dominated by people, 70% of whom have received higher education and 86% of whom come from intellectual families. They are the titans who control the military and energy industries, or the financiers or private bankers who speculate. The government has many ties to them, and some have served in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Communist Youth League or KGB (National Security Council) Some of them held important government posts. Most of them got rich by doing business, opening banks, investing in securities, etc. They are known as "bureaucratic millionaires" because of their power and connections, using price differentials, exchange differentials, interest rate differentials and tax differentials to monetize state assets.

New Russians dress the world Brand-name clothing They live in a single-family villa, enter and exit a luxury hotel, they enter and exit a Mercedes-Benz 500 or Mercedes-Benz 600, and have bodyguards with them. At night, they take their wives or mistresses to the glittering nightclubs or luxurious restaurants, tasting food and drinking XO , Martell Wait for wine, watch strip shows, play Slot machine , roulette They often lose thousands or tens of thousands of dollars overnight. Every summer, they bring secretaries, health doctors, massage therapists, and so on. to Türkiye , Greece , Italy , France, Spain Wait for a vacation.

New Russians generally send their children to Western countries for education, for which they pay high annual tuition fees, but they consider this to be their biggest long-term investment.

The new Russians in Moscow and St. Petersburg And other places to own property. The houses and offices were magnificently decorated, and luxury villas were built in the suburbs. Moreover, 60% of the new Russians live in the United Kingdom, Spain, the United States, Cyprus , Portugal Greece, France and other countries have bought houses with cash to leave to future generations.

Although the new Russians live a "paradise life" that is the envy of ordinary people, money also brings disasters to them. Because they are rich, they have become the main target of the triad, and the triad has been extorted from them, and the heavy is kidnapping and demanding their lives. In Moscow, new Russians are killed all the time. In 1993 alone, 11 bankers were killed.

Russian surnames can be broadly divided into three categories according to their origins:

In the distant past, Russians had no last names. By the Middle Ages, as the ruling class, the princes and ministers owned a large amount of land and property, and at the same time, they also owned their own domains. According to Russian law at the time, these territories could be hereditary. In order to pass these properties on to their descendants, it is urgent to have a common name of the family as a sign of the interests of the whole family. In this way, the family name was born. But what is the surname? The princes and nobles adopted the simplest method, which was to use the name of the territory as their family name. For example: the territory in ShuYaHe and ShuYaCheng nobility with shu yi base (Ш й с seem и й), and the territory in jeju landmark and dimensions of the economic area, the duke to d jas dhi muskie (В second з е м с seem и й) as a surname.

In the days when surnames were the prerogative of rulers, it was customary for most Russian commoners to still have no surnames of their own. However, with the increasing of people's social contacts, the social relations between people become more complex, especially the development of social trade and handicraft industry, which makes the original ways of addressing each other unable to meet the needs of People's Daily communication, so they begin to seek another way of addressing each other based on family relations. If surnames had previously been the prerogative of rulers, by the time of Peter the Great, city dwellers were beginning to gain the right to own them. Folk surnames are mainly derived from people's occupation, social status, natural objects, nicknames and so on. This is also the main source of Russian surnames. For example, a man who likes to fight is called P. hov, and a man with long, slender legs is named Ж y.

Russians in traditional dress

In the history of Russia, tens of thousands of Russians, some people's surnames are relatively concentrated, becoming the main surname. The emergence of these big names is mostly related to some political changes and has become the product of historical changes. It was abolished in Russia in 1861 serfdom Thousands of serfs were given a new lease of life, and the main sign of their freedom was having a surname. They usually took the surnames of their lords. Thus, the whole village was named Gagarin and Lvovkin. World War I During this time, many peasants joined the ranks of the soldiers. However, the first problem they encountered on the first day of enlistment was that many farmers did not have surnames at the time. At that time, the regimental clerk or chief of department responsible for registration took on the job of naming the names of the enlisted peasants. Some followed the old customs, and some made a large number of new surnames at random according to the appearance and characteristics of the soldiers, typical surnames at that time were Belov (BYEL), Veselov (BYEl), Smirnov (S). At that time, because more people joined the army every day, there was a phenomenon that those who joined the army on the same day or at the same time were given the same surname.

During the Civil War and the Great Patriotic War, many families were devastated and many children were orphaned, and these children were placed in orphanages or nursing homes. Since they are too young to remember their original family names, orphanage and nursing home staff have adopted some names for them during registration. For example: the Bzeimensky (bzeimensky), that is, a person who has lost both parents. Judging from the composition of these surnames, there is a clear brand of The Times.

Russian writer Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy

In literature, music, sports, science and the arts Russians have made great contributions. Famous Russian scientists are Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev , Alexander Popov , Nikolai Egorovich Zhukovsky , Sergei Pavlovich Korolev , Andrei Tupolev , Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov Let's wait.

The first Artificial satellite Sputnik One It was launched by the Soviet Union and designed primarily by Sergei Pavlovich Korolev. The first astronaut Yuri Gagarin He's a Russian.

In order to Fyodor Dostoevsky , Leo Tolstoy , Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev , Anton Chekhov , Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin Represented by, etc Russian literature It has a very high position in world literature.

Famous Russian composers are Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky , Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich , Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov , Sergei Prokofiev and Sergei Vasilyevich Rachmaninoff Let's wait.

World War II In total, the Soviet Union lost 27 million people, which is equivalent to half the number of people killed in World War II Allied forces Most of the deaths.

Lenin Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov was born in Russia on April 22, 1870 Volga lateral Simbirsk Lenin is his pseudonym. Lenin's father was a man with democracy Ideological education activist, brother Alexander due to participate in the plot tsar And was put to death. Under the influence of the family, in the autumn of 1887 Lenin entered Kazan University However, he was soon expelled from the school for his participation in the student movement and was arrested and exiled. The next year, back Kazan After that, he began to study Marx 's Das Kapital "And" Plekhanov His writings. In 1892, he began to build again Marxism Group, and will" Communist manifesto He also wrote his first book, The New Economic Changes in Peasant Life. By this time Lenin was already a revolutionary democrat, so some say he was a prolific writer. In 1923, Lenin's condition began to deteriorate and he died the following year at the age of 54.

Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin (М и х а и ́ л И kind guide а ́ н о kind guide и discusses some related problems К а л и ́ н и н, November 19, 1875 - June 3, 1946), the statesman, revolutionist, the early leaders. Ever since October Revolution He served until his death Soviet Russia And the nominal head of state of the Soviet Union.

Kalinin was born Russian Empire the Turville Province, a farmer's son, was employed by a landlord when he was young. Then he went to St. Petersburg He worked in an artillery factory and participated in the revolutionary movement in 1891. He joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898. Then Kalinin joined Lenin the The Bolsheviks He was arrested several times by the Russian government Run away Of the record.

Gorky March 28, 1868 ^[4] - June 18, 1936), pseudonym Maksim Gorky (Russian: Manshka) socialist, realist literary founder, political activist, poet, Soviet literature One of the founders. His most famous works and novels are: mother "" childhood "" On earth "" My university "; Essay:" petrel ".

Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (1894-1971), an important leader of the Soviet Union, served as the first Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union . Khrushchev in 1956 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Published a "secret report." Yes Joseph Stalin Full criticism, shaking Socialist camp , sparking a series of riots in Eastern Europe. During his term of office, he implemented a de-Stalinization policy Great Purge The victims of the Soviet Union were rehabilitated, and the Soviet literary and artistic field was thawed. At the same time, he actively carried out agricultural reforms, which improved the livelihood of the Soviet Union. In October 1964, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union dismissed Khrushchev "for his subjectivist and voluntarist errors". He died in Moscow on 11 September 1971.

Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov (Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov; Ru: Ю ́ р и й В л а д и ́ м и р о kind guide и discusses some related problems А н д р о ́ п о kind guide, June 15, 1914 - February 9, 1984), the Soviet politician, a longtime Soviet party, political leadership positions, the former KGB (National Security Council) He took over as head of state in November 1982 Brezhnev become Communist Party of the USSR The General Secretary. After two years in office, he passed away in 1984 Chernenko He took over as general secretary.

Konstantin Ustinovitch Chernenko (English: Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko, Russian: К о н с т а н т и ́ н У с т и ́ н о kind guide и discusses some related problems Ч е р н е ́ н seem о ‎, September 24, 1911 - March 10, 1985), the Soviet politician, the Soviet party and statesman, and outstanding organizers of the workers' movement. On February 13, 1984, Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov After the General Secretary's death, he became General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. After taking office as General Secretary, he was already ill, but his health deteriorated and he was unable to perform his duties properly, and he died after 13 months as General Secretary. by Gorbachev He took over as general secretary.

Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov (Vyacheslav Mikhaylovich Molotov, 1890.3.9-1986), who served during World War II People's Committee of the Soviet Union Chairman and People's Commissar on Foreign Affairs, People's committee First Vice President and People's Commissar on Foreign Affairs, National defense commission vice-chairman ^[1] .

Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Vasilevsky, a prominent Soviet strategist and commander, Marshals of the Soviet Union (1943), twice Heroes of the USSR (1944.7.29, 1945.9.8). Chief of Staff of the Soviet Army in World War II, Stalingrad The leader of counter-offensive operations, Crimea The recapitulator and Konigsberg The destroyer of the Soviet Army, the most talented general outside the troika. His memoir "Life's Work" is of great reference value to the study of the strategic decisions and combat deployment of the highest command of the Soviet Army during World War II.

Born November 21, 1902 Saratov Province Hvalensk Poor peasant family in Shakhov village (now Pavlov District of Ulyanovsk Oblast). The Russians. From 1918 to 1920, he worked in the Poor Peasant Committee of Shakhov Village. He joined the Russian Communist Party in 1921. He graduated from the Moscow Academy of Workers and Peasants in 1924. After graduating from the Plekhanov Institute of National Economy in Moscow in 1928, he was a graduate of the Faculty of Economics for the Red Professor, while at the same time Moscow University And the Stalin Institute of Technology. From 1931 to 1934, he worked at the Central Supervisory Commission of the Communist Party of the United States (BU) and the Workers' and Peasants' Inspection Institute. From 1934 to 1936, he led the Soviet Supervisory Committee of the People's Committee of the Soviet Union. 1937-1939 Communist Party (Cloth) Rostov Oblast Minister and Secretary of the CPC Committee. In December 1937, he was elected to the first through the tenth term Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union On behalf. From March 1939 to February 1941, he was a member of the Central Inspection Committee of the Communist Party of the Union (Communist Party of the Union). From 1939 to 1944, he was First Secretary of the Stavropol Border District Committee of the Communist Party of the Union. In February 1941, he was elected as a member of the Central Committee at the 18th Congress of the Communist Party of the United States (Bolshevik). The Soviet Union Great Patriotic War During this period, he served successively as a member of the Military Committee of the North Army Group of the South Caucasus Front and Chief of staff of the Stavropol Border Area guerrilla command. From December 1944 to 1946, he served in the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the United States Republic of Lithuania Chairman of the Central Bureau. From March 1946 to 1947, he served as the head of the Propaganda and Agitation Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the United States (BU).

Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (N - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n - n Comintern One of the leaders of, Marxism Theorists and economists. He was a member of the CPC Central Committee and the Political Bureau of the Communist Party of China. Executive Committee of the Comintern Member, presidium member, secretary of the Political Secretariat. " Pravda "Editor-in-chief. He was once known as the "number one thinker in the Party" of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Lenin After his death, he stood with Stalin and played an important role in the victory over the "New Opposition" and the Toti League. Post-causal sum Stalin The political differences were dismissed and expelled from the CPSU in 1929. Great Purge When he was executed. He was reinstated on 4 February 1988.

Sergei Milonovich Kirov (Former name Kostrikov, Sergei Mironovich Kirov, 1886-1934), one of the main leaders of the Soviet Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in the 1920s and 1930s, and successively served as the first secretary of the Leningrad Provincial Party Committee. In February 1934, he became secretary and member of the Organization Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union Members of the Bureau. He was awarded the Order of Lenin and the Order of the Red Banner. On 1 December 1934, he was assassinated by the enemy at Smolny Palace in Leningrad and buried in Moscow Red Square .

Marshal of the Soviet Union. Used to work under the alias of Galen National Revolutionary army General military advisor, participated in the Chinese Revolution and Northern expedition And guide the CCP to launch Nanchang uprising . Also translated as Bleucher. Known as the "soul of the Far East Army" Vasily Konstantinovich Blyucher (В а с и л и й К о н с т а н т и н о kind guide и discusses some related problems Б л ю х е р) is Russia grew up a fuses iconic civil war period, he had created by a division of a large number of tanks and armoured vehicles of mechanization White Guard The miracle of... He was one of the first five Grand Marshals of the Soviet Union in 1935, commander of the Far Eastern Front, and the top general of the Soviet Far East in the long-term defense against Japanese aggression. He was secretly executed on November 9, 1938, for being a Japanese spy inside the Soviet Union. He was rehabilitated in 1956.

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