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The Manchu population is distributed all over the country, mainly in Liaoning, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Beijing and other provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central Government, while others are scattered in Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Shandong, Hubei, Guizhou and other provinces and regions, as well as large and medium-sized cities such as Xi 'an, Chengdu, Guangzhou, Fuzhou and so on.
[17]
The Manchus are industrious, brave and wise people. It is also a nation that is good at acquiring foreign culture and integrating innovation. In the long-term historical development, the formation of customs and culture rich in national characteristics, Manchu customs at the age of the Han people, but maintain a lot of Manchu characteristics.
[1]
According to the
China Statistical Yearbook -2021
The Manchu population in China is 1,0423,303.
[19]
- Chinese name
- Manchu
- alias
- Manchurian , Manchu , Banner man
- Population number
- 10,423,300
- Population distribution
- Northeast China, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Beijing, etc
- species
- Manchu language , Chinese ( Mandarin And Chinese dialects)
- Wenzi
- The Manchu script , universal Chinese characters
- Religious belief
- shamanism Most people are not religious
Due to historical reasons, the Manchu ethnic group is scattered all over the country, with the largest number living in Liaoning Province, while the others are scattered in Jilin, Heilongjiang, Hebei, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Xinjiang, Gansu, Shandong and other provinces and cities, such as Beijing, Tianjin, Chengdu, Xi 'an, Guangzhou, Yinchuan and other large and medium cities. The formation of large dispersion has the characteristics of small settlements. The main inhabited areas have been established Xiuyan, Fengcheng, Xinbin, Qinglong, Fengning, Kuancheng and other Manchu autonomous counties, as well as a number of Manchu townships.
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Chinese mainland
Distribution of Manchu nationality in Liaoning
In 2010, the Manchu population totaled 10,387,958, ranking second among the 55 ethnic minorities in China.
[1]
17 - [18]
According to the
China Statistical Yearbook -2021
The Manchu population in China is 1,0423,303.
[19]
-
overseas
Some Manchus emigrated, but no statistics are available on their population.
The Sushen people were one of the earliest recorded inhabitants of the Northeast, living north of the Changbai Mountain, the Dongbin sea, and the vast areas of the Heilongjiang and Ussuri Rivers. Sushen people hunt nomads as the main business, good at riding and shooting, brave. As early as the era of Shun and Yu, the people of Sushen established contact with the Central Plains. At the beginning of the Western Zhou Dynasty (early 11th century BC), the Department of Sushen once offered "楛 arrows 砮" to the Zhou Dynasty. Zuo Zhuan records that "Sushen, Yan and Bo" are the "northern soil" of the Zhou Dynasty.
After the Warring States period, the people of Sushen changed their name to "Lou" and sometimes still use the old name. Members also hunt with 楛 砮, grow grain and are good at raising pigs, weave linen, and build boats. After The Three Kingdoms, the people repeatedly paid tribute to the Central Plains Dynasty, and directly belonged to the Central Plains Dynasty. Having "mink" in The Three Kingdoms was a treasure at that time.
In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui and Tang Dynasties, the descendants of Sushen and Yilou emerged successively under the names of Mohe and Moji, and the population developed into dozens of tribes. Mohe later developed into seven parts, such as Millet, White Mountain, Boduh, Anche Gu, Fanie, No Shi, and Black Water.
In the Tang Dynasty, Dazuorong set up the local government "Zhenguo" in the upper reaches of Songhua River and the northern foot of Changbai Mountain with Mohe as the main body. In the first year of Kaiyuan of the Tang Dynasty (713), Dazuorong was conferred the title of "King of Bohai County" by the Tang Dynasty and awarded the title of "Governor of Hu Han Prefecture". The political and military systems of Bohai State were established according to the Tang system, using Chinese characters. The succession of Kings was conferred by the Tang Dynasty. During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, the Bohai Sea maintained a close relationship with Tang, and tributary envoys entered Tang almost every year and sent students to the Imperial School of Chang 'an, capital of Tang for many times. The influence of politics, economy and advanced science and technology and culture in the Central Plains promoted the rapid development of agriculture and handicrafts in Bohai, especially iron smelting and silk weaving.
Before and after the founding of Bohai, Black Mohe often paid tribute to Tang Dynasty. In the 13th year of Kaiyuan (725), the Tang Dynasty set up the Black Water Army in the region of Heishui Mohe, followed by the establishment of the Black Water Palace, which conferred the chief of the Mohe departments, the governor and the chief historian respectively, and gave him the surname Li. Under the command of General Yun Hui, he led the Black water governor, and became a local organization directly under the Heilongjiang River basin in the Tang Dynasty. When the Bohai Sea was strong, some of the Black water Mohe was his subordinates. After the collapse of the Bohai Sea in Liao Dynasty, the people of the Bohai Sea moved south, and the Black Mohe nationality migrated south to the Bohai Sea and gradually replaced the Bohai Sea. In the Five Dynasties, the Black water Mohe was called "Nuzhen", and in the Liao Dynasty, it was changed to NV Straight in order to avoid the true taboo of the Xingzong Yelu. Since then, the name Jurchen replaced the Mohe nationality and was used until the end of the Ming Dynasty.
The Jurchens of Liao Dynasty can be divided into three parts. The Jurchens who lived in the Liaodong region were called mature women Zhen or Liao nationality Jurchens. The Jurchens who lived in the vast area north of the Songhua River were called "born Jurchens" or "non-Liao Jurchens". Those who lived between the two were called Huiba (Ouigour) Jurchen. Due to the introduction and use of iron, the production developed rapidly. Under the leadership of its leader, Wanyan Aguda, they rebelled against the Liao and established the Jin Dynasty. After the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, it allied with the Northern Song Dynasty to destroy the Liao Dynasty, and soon moved south to replace the Northern Song dynasty, forming a situation of coexistence with the Southern Song.
After the Jin Dynasty occupied the Central Plains, the capital was moved to Yanjing in the first year of Zhenyuan (1153), and the policy of "south migration and north migration" was implemented, and the Jurchen people initially moved to the Yanshan area. Later, they settled in North China, while the Han gradually moved northward. The female Zhen who settled in the Central Plains gradually merged with the Han nationality under the influence of the Han nationality and the surrounding environment. After the Mongol annihilation of gold. They are listed in the "Han" class, indicating that there is no obvious difference from the Han. The Jurchens remaining in the northeast are still relatively backward.
In the Yuan Dynasty, some of the Nuzhen people lived in the area of Liaoyang and other roads, coexisted with the Han nationality, and gradually integrated with the Han nationality. Some of them are scattered in the water Dada road of Helan, that is, the center of Yilan County of Heilongjiang Province, distributed in the Songhua River basin and the middle and lower reaches of Heilongjiang Province, and the vast area of the East coast. The Yuan "set up officials and herdsmen", successively set up fifty thousand households in these areas and the Eastern Expedition commander's office, set up two thousand households in the Wusuli River basin, and set up ten thousand households in the lower reaches of Heilongjiang Province, and "governed by custom" through the local ethnic upper classes.
According to their geographical location and social development, Jurchen in Ming Dynasty can be divided into Jianzhou Jurchen, Haixi Jurchen and Donghai Jurchen (called savage Jurchen in Ming Dynasty). Jianzhou Nuzhen is distributed in the east of Fushun River basin, with the Hunhe River basin as the center, the east foot of Changbai Mountain and the north foot, and the south to the Yalu River. Haixi Nuzhen is distributed in Kaiyuan, Huifa River basin, north to the middle reaches of Songhua River great bend. The East China Sea Nuzhen is distributed in the east and north areas of Jianzhou and Haixi Nuzhen, from the middle reaches of the Songhua River to the Heilongjiang River basin and the coast in the east. With the rapid development of society and economy, the Nuzhen people moved from hunting and nomadism to settlement, and their economy also changed from the hunting economy in the past to mainly engaged in agriculture, supplemented by hunting and gathering. From the perspective of social forms and class relations, slave owners and slave classes have emerged, and Fogg of the Qing Dynasty said in "Listening to the Rain" : "Manchuria has farms and castles," "dozens of giant ethnic groups, each occupying a walled city, small ethnic groups are also independent, dominant each other, each minister its people, all have a walled city. The natives know how to shoot and hunt and how to farm." The Ming Dynasty set up more than 380 Jimi guards and offices in the vast area of Nuzhen, and in the place of Terin, on the opposite side of the Heilongjiang River and the Henggunhe River, it set up the command and envoys of Nuer Gandu, conferred the titles of governor, capital commander, thousand households, hundred households, town governor, etc., gave the chiefs of the Nuzhen departments royal letters, seals, clothes and currency, and stipulated the time and treatment of tribute and horse market. It strengthened the direct rule of the Ming Dynasty over the northeast. From the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, with Nuer Kandusi as the center, six traffic lines and more than 40 post stations were established in the northeast region, forming a transportation network extending in all directions, and further promoting the economic and cultural exchanges between the Jurchen and Han areas.
After the middle leaves of Ming Dynasty, the various departments of the Nuzhen contended with each other for leadership and often fought, forming a chaotic situation of mutual murder, and the people of the Nuzhen suffered greatly. Emperor Taizu of Qing Dynasty Nurhachi, the sixth grandson of the left guard of Jianzhou, had outstanding political and military ability. He followed the trend of historical development and began the war to unify the various departments of the Jurchen. Nurhachi lost his mother at the age of ten, and was captured at the age of fifteen or sixteen in Atai's home. Li Chengliang, the general soldier of Liaodong, saw his clewness and placed him under his command. At the age of 19, I took the opportunity to "float away" from Li Chengliang. Later, he went into the mountains to collect mountain goods, and traveled between Fushun Ma City and other places. He was familiar with the situation in Han areas, and was deeply influenced by Han culture. After he started the army, he was successively awarded the command of the Ming Dynasty, the command of the city, the governor signed and the dragon tiger general. From the eleventh year of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty (1583), Nurhachi successively spent 11 years to unify the Jurchen of Jianzhou and defeat the attack of 30,000 people by nine allied forces such as Ye He. In the forty-first year of Wanli (1613), it annexed Hada, Huifa and Wula in the Jurchen of the West. At the same time, in the war against the East Sea, the victory has been achieved. Over a period of more than 30 years, Nurhachi unified all the divisions of the Jurchen, which were scattered in the vast area as far as the Haibin in the east, Kaiyuan in the west, the Nenjiang River basin in the north, and the Yalu River in the south.
Nurhachi took a series of measures to develop the economy in the process of unifying the various departments of the Nuzhen, strengthened the contact with the Han area, promoted the economic development of the Nuzhen society, and appeared the situation of "the Manchurian people were prosperous and the state was rich". At the same time, political and military reforms were carried out, and in the fifteenth year of Wanli (1587), the city of Feala was founded on the banks of the Erdao River, and in June the "government of the State" was established and laws for the protection of private property were established. In the process of unifying the various departments of the Jurchen, Nurhachi creatively reformed the hunting organization Niulu and established the famous Eight Banners system, which had a great impact on the history of the later Jin and Qing dynasties, as well as the development of the history of Manchu society. Ming Wanli forty-four years (1616), Nurhachi in Hetuala (now Liaoning Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County) established the great Jin state, self-proclaimed "Ming Khan", known as the later Jin. Later, in the unification of the various departments of the Jurchen and the war against the Ming Dynasty, the capital was moved to Liaoyang Tokyo City and Shenyang. In the eleventh year of the Mandate of Heaven (1626), Emperor Taizong of Qing Dynasty succeeded to the throne and changed to "Tiancong". The Mongolian and Han armies of the Eight Banners were formed in succession during this period. Tiancong ten years (1636) Emperor Taiji changed the name of the kingdom "Qing", Jianyuan Chongde. Nurhachi and Huangtaiji made unremitting efforts to consolidate and develop the later Jin regime and laid the foundation for the unification of the whole country in the Qing Dynasty.
In the first year of Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty (1644), the Qing army entered the customs and gradually unified the whole country, from which the Manchu nobles began to rule the whole country.
In the early Qing Dynasty, under the influence of the Han feudal system, the Manchu people's existing slavery and serfdom outside the pass accelerated the transformation into the feudal landlord economy. This process of transformation, full of intense class struggle, also included top-down reform. The ruling classes of Manchu and Han gradually merged, the class and national contradictions tended to ease, and the social economy gradually recovered and became prosperous. Kangqian prosperous times, domestic stability, unprecedented vast territory, feudal economic development, population surge, harmonious ethnic relations.
At the beginning of Kangxi, Wu Sangui, Geng Jingzhong and Shangxili, who occupied several provinces in the south, gradually became a trend of separation, which posed a great threat to the unification of the country. Kangxi Emperor decisively decided to withdraw the vassal, with the support of the people of the whole country, launched a war to pacify the SAN Vassal. The Manchus of the Beijing Banner, the eight banners stationed all over the country, and even the eight banners in the three Northeast provinces, were mostly transferred to the front line to fight in the war, and made achievements for the suppression of rebellion and the consolidation of the national unity. In the 17th century, Tsarist Russia colluded with the Mongol Dzunggar Kardan Khan in the northwest frontier areas of China to continuously attack and harass the Mongol areas. In the 29th year of Kangxi (1690), the Kardan once pushed into the Ulan Butong area of Inner Mongolia, which was only 700 li away from Beijing, and the capital was shaken. Yu Qin Wang Fuquan led the eight banner army, launched a large-scale battle with the Gardan in Ulan Butong, and defeated the Gardan department. In the 35th year of Kangxi (1696), Kangxi personally led his army to a decisive battle with the Kaldan rebels in the Zhaomodo area, basically annihilating the main force of the rebels and achieving a decisive victory in the counterinsurgency war. After that, the 70-year struggle between Yongzheng and Qianlong destroyed the separatist forces of the Junggar noble group. In this decades-long war, a large number of officers and soldiers of the eight Banners went to the battlefield and fought bravely to safeguard the reunification of the motherland.
The Manchus also made their own contributions in defending the border areas of the motherland and stopping foreign aggression. After the middle of the 17th century, Tsarist Russia invaded China's Heilongjiang River basin continuously. In the 24th year of Kangxi (1685), Emperor Kangxi sent the Manchu capital Peng Chun to lead the eight banners and naval forces to expel the Tsarist Russian invaders, protect the national territorial sovereignty and protect the local people. In 1689, China and Russia signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk on the basis of equality, demarcating the national border, and the border areas between the two countries have maintained normal relations for more than 100 years. In the later period of Qianlong, the Gurkha rulers supported by the British colonialists attacked Tibet with armed forces. In 1795, in Qianlong's fifty-sixth year (1795), the Qing sent a Manchu Grand scholar Fu Kangan and other troops into Tibet. With the support of the Tibetan people, they defeated the Gurkha, guaranteed the security of the Tibetan border, and crushed the conspiracies of the British colonialists. At the beginning of the 19th century, the British colonizers instructed Zhang Gel to invade the border areas of Xinjiang many times, and Emperor Daoguang sent the Manchu Grand Master Chang Ling to lead the Manchu and Han troops to meet the attack, and sent the garrison men from Northeast China and other places to come to the aid and capture Zhang Gel alive, once again destroying the British colonizers' attempt to invade the territory of China.
During the Kang-Qian Period, China's territory extended from Sakhalin Island in the east, to the Zengmu Dark Sands in the south, to the Shaleng Mountains in the west, to the Balkhash Lake in the northwest, across the desert in the north, and to the Outer Hingan Mountains in the northeast. The territory of China was about 12.5 million square kilometers, and the multi-ethnic country with a vast territory was further consolidated.
After the Opium War in 1840, China was reduced to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. Together with the people of all ethnic groups in China, the Manchu people fought bravely against the foreign capitalist imperialist aggressors to defend the independence of the motherland and safeguard national dignity, and paid the price in blood and lives.
In May 1842, the British invaders fully attacked Zhapu, an important coastal defense town in Zhejiang Province, which was also one of the eight flag garrisons of the Qing Dynasty. The flag soldiers stationed at the Temple of Heaven on the outskirts of Zhapu, under the leadership of Lieutenant Long Fu, repelled five successive British attacks, killing a large number of enemy troops, and killing Lieutenant Colonel Thomlinson of the 18th British Regiment. Almost all of the 276 Manchu officers and soldiers were killed, and even foreign records consider the Zapurman soldiers to be tenacious fighters. In July, the British army attacked Zhenjiang, stationed there more than 1,000 flag soldiers, under the leadership of the deputy capital Hai Ling, fought life and death, and insisted on street fighting after the city fell, and finally because of the disparity in strength, all heroic martyrs. Praising the bravery of the Zhenjiang defenders, Engels noted: "If the invaders had met the same resistance everywhere, they would never have reached Nanking." During the Second Opium War, the Tsarist Russian colonizers occupied more than one million square kilometers of China's northeast border territory. The local people of all ethnic groups, Manchu and Han, fought bravely to defend the territory of the motherland and oppose Tsarist Russian aggression and colonial rule. In 1894, during the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the Japanese army occupied a large part of China's territory in Liaodong, provoking the local Han, Manchu, Korean and other ethnic groups to strongly resist, they have organized regiments to fight against the Japanese, the Manchu Kui Fu, Xi Shou and other famous leaders of the regiments. In the battle to defend Liaoyang, the Manchu and Han people bravely resisted and defeated the Japanese army four times within a month. When the Boxer Rebellion broke out in 1900, the Manchu people in Beijing, the three northeastern provinces, Hebei and Shandong actively engaged in anti-imperialist patriotic struggle. Jin Chang, the Manchu deputy governor of the Chongxin Boxer Group in Northeast China, led hundreds of soldiers under the Eight Banners (Yuzi Army) to attack the French church in one fell fell, and Ji Long, a Frenchman who had shot dead Chinese people, was also executed by the Boxer. In 1911, the Revolution of 1911 broke out, and there were not a few Manchu supporters of revolutionaries. The eight banners stationed in Guangzhou, Chengdu and other places reached a peace agreement with the revolutionary Party; The flagmen stationed in Hangzhou, Jingzhou and other places had a brief exchange of fire with the revolutionary army, but it soon turned into a peaceful settlement; In various parts of Northeast China, the Manchu Bao Huinan and He Xiuzhai led the armed uprisings in Fengcheng and other places; The Manchu intellectuals Bao Kun and Tian Yabin, together with the alliance member Zhang Rong (the flag man of the Han Army), organized a "Joint Urgent Advance meeting" in Mukden and proposed the idea of building a "Manchu and Han united republic." The extensive participation of the Manchu people in the Revolution of 1911 showed the consistency of the class interests of the Manchu people in the struggle against the feudal rule and the people of all ethnic groups in the country.
[1]
The Revolution of 1911, the fall of the Qing Court, the dissolution of the banner camp, the suspension of food and pay, and the complete collapse of the eight-banner system had a great impact on the Manchu people. The breaking of the shackles of the Eight banners system liberated the Manchu people from the life of enslavement, driving and war by a few nobles, but under the background of serious ethnic discrimination during the rule of warlords, they changed from relying on pay to earn a living and went through a painful process. From the warlord rule to the Kuomintang period, the turbulent social state and the Japanese imperialist invasion of China exacerbated the hardships of the Manchu people.
The Manchu people living in rural areas, mainly concentrated in the vast rural areas of Northeast China, like the Han people, they were subjected to heavy oppression by imperialism, feudal landlords and reactionary armies, and their living conditions were extremely painful. Since the end of the Qing Dynasty, the banner land in the northeast countryside was highly concentrated in the hands of a few landlords, and the Manchu people who lost their land were displaced. According to a survey of Manchu settlements in the three northeastern provinces, landlords and rich peasants, who account for about 10 percent of the total population, own more than 70 percent of the land. The manchu who rented the landlord's land had to share the grain with the landlord in half if the land was good, and with the landlord in forty or thirty seven if the land was poor. In addition to paying the rent, there are various chores for the land. In case of natural and man-made disasters, the poor Manchu people had to borrow money from landlords and usury, and were subjected to cruel usurpations by usury, generally with annual interest ranging from three to eight percent. The hired hand is more heavily exploited and works long hours, starting five watches in the morning and finishing the lamp in the evening, for very little pay. According to a field survey in Fengcheng County, the annual income of long-term workers does not exceed 100 yuan (old currency). The income from day jobs and odd jobs is even less, only earning $50 per day. Even so, it is difficult to find employers for temporary workers during the slack season, and they are threatened with unemployment. In addition, after the Revolution of 1911, under the rule of reactionary warlords and imperialist forces, the rural areas had as many taxes as cattle hair, entrance fees, union fees, school construction fees, miscellaneous fees, comprehensive fees, etc. These extremely heavy taxes and fees had to be paid within the specified time, otherwise they would be punished, beaten, and even arrested in prison. During the Japanese puppet period, the Japanese imperialists engaged in "pioneering groups" to operate agriculture and occupied large areas of rural land, making the life of the Manchu people even more miserable. Under the "grain out of the load system" implemented by the Japanese, after the autumn harvest, the farmer must hand over all the harvest, and then rely on the "rationing system" to distribute food to live, under the layers of landowners, village chiefs, village chiefs and ration shop owners to withhold food to the farmer's hands. He also served in the military and worked as a laborer. The poor life of laborers took many lives. Laborers working on secret military projects were massacred as soon as they were finished.
In the industrial and mining enterprises run by Japanese imperialism and bureaucratic comprador capital, Manchu and Han workers of all ethnic groups suffered cruel exploitation, extremely low wages, and arbitrary abuse by supervisors at any time. Moreover, various accidents occur frequently in industry and mining, and there is a lack of life protection.
The Manchus in the inland provinces, mainly the descendants of the Manchus in the Jingqi and the eight garrison banners, were concentrated in the garrison areas and the cities around them. In the Gyeonggi area, among the descendants of the nobility and senior officials of the Qing Dynasty, a very small number of people opened some shops with their ancestral property, and most people made a living by selling real estate, jewelry, calligraphy and painting. In September 1931, the news of the "Iron hat King pulling a rickshaw" appeared in the Beiping Daily. In the past, the royal family also played small drums in the streets and sold junk for a living. The life of the lower Manchus was even more miserable, and most of them worked as laborers, casual labourers, charioteers, artisans, petty traders, and Catholic officials, living a precarious life under warlords and the Kuomintang. Since then, in the case of serious ethnic discrimination, the Manchu people were forced to change to the Han nationality, otherwise they could not find a place to live, or they lost their existing jobs and positions. They were forced to hide their ethnic identity and migrate. Guangzhou Manchu, do small traders and handicraft accounted for more than 60% of the working capacity of the population, Chengdu, Jingzhou and other places, doing odd jobs, pulling rickshaws and so on have become the main occupation of Manchu people. No regular income, often unemployed, life is difficult. There were quite a few intellectuals among the Manchu people in various places, generally members of the public church and workers in science and art. In the environment of ethnic discrimination, their jobs were extremely unstable, their wages were meager, and prices were soaring, making their lives very difficult.
[1]
In the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression and the War of Liberation, the Manchu people actively participated and made their own contributions to the cause of liberation of the Chinese people. After the "918" Incident in 1931, the Manchu people quickly set off a fever of resistance against Japan, and one after another joined the Volunteer Army, the anti-Japanese Association and the Red Guerrilla team, and took various forms to fight against the Japanese invaders and traitors. The red guerrilla forces grew stronger and stronger in the battle. They joined forces with other anti-Japanese forces and established the anti-Japanese United Army in 1935 to fight in various parts of Northeast China. A large number of Manchu people participated in the anti-Japanese United Army. Made meritorious service in the War of Resistance against Japan. After the outbreak of the all-out War of Resistance, the vast majority of the Manchu people actively supported the Eighth Route Army, the New Fourth Army and other anti-Japanese forces, and persisted in the war of resistance. Manchu Guan Xiangying once served as political commissar of the Eighth Route Army's 120th Division and participated in the pre-development of the anti-Japanese base areas in Shansui. Later He Long marched into Central Hebei, consolidated the anti-Japanese base areas in the central Hebei Plain, and became an outstanding commander and proletarian revolutionary in the cause of Chinese people's liberation.
[1]
In the 12th century AD, in the Jurchens of the Jin Dynasty, there appeared a social organization called "Meng Anmo Ke". Mengan is a clan unit, Mok is a clan unit. At first, a Mengan consisted of eight to ten Mok, whose leader was called "Bo Ji Li". Before the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, the custom was 1 mog per 300 households, and 10 mog was 1 Meng 'an. Mengamouk is not only a military organization, but also a social organization integrating soldiers and people. All the members of the organization are soldiers and civilians, and occupy a certain amount of land. The supreme ruler of the Jin Dynasty controlled the Mengamuke Organization through his clan and generals. After entering the Central Plains, the Menganmoke system was extended to "subservient people", including the Han and Khitan. During the reign of Kim Hee-jong (1135-1137), the feudal organization developed into a triad of military, production, and local administration. According to the Jin Dynasty official system: Meng An from the four products, in charge of military affairs, training martial arts, advised agriculture and mulberry, and with the defense of the defense of the state, the same, with the task of "preventing defense, preventing theft." Moke from the five products, the palm of the military family, training martial arts, and in addition to not manage the Changping cang county magistrate all the powers. Seek to set up villages under the village, more than 50 households set up a village to make 1 person, according to the hukou, to urge the governor to pay. Meng Amuke family usually in training, engaged in agricultural production. There was war, Ding Zhuang accepted the draft, the saddle-horse equipment out; His family still gave birth at home. Mengan Moke system, as a social organization and system established by the Nuzhen people, played an important role in the aspects of foreign war and internal rule, especially in the early period: promoting the formation of the scattered Nuzhen departments into a unified Nuzhen people; In the war of destroying Liao and attacking Song, it greatly enhanced the combat effectiveness of the Jurchen soldiers. A large number of Jurchens under the organization of Menganmok quickly moved to the newly occupied areas to settle, consolidating the rule of the newly conquered areas; At the same time, a large number of newly conquered areas were subjected to the use of the Monomuch system, which weakened local resistance. Since then, the Nu Zhen Meng Anmou households scattered all over the country often farm the land rent with the Han tenant farmers and collect the land rent. Mengan Mok does not work and neglects training, combat effectiveness gradually weakened. It is quite similar to the eight flags system of the later Jin Dynasty and Qing Dynasty.
In the process of unifying the various departments of the Jurchen, Emperor Taizu Nurhachi creatively reformed the hunting organization Niulu and established the famous Eight banners system. Niulu was originally a production and military organization during the female Zhenzhen clan system, and when marching or hunting, each marched according to its family and village, and every ten people were a marching unit, and "Niulu Yizhen" was set as the leader (Niulu was an arrow, the meaning of the Lord). Nurhachi organized on this basis, and stipulated that every 300 people would be organized into a Niu Lu, and Niu Zhen (Zuo ling) would manage all its internal affairs. Each five Niu record is a Jia La, set a jia La forehead zhen (join the collar), and every five Jia La set a Gu Shan forehead Zhen, that is, the flag Lord (later called Du Tong). Wanli 29 years (1601) initially set up Huang. Red, blue and white four flags, forty-three years (1615) added yellow, red, blue and white inlaid four flags, a total of eight flags. During the Qing Dynasty, the number of cattle and the number of people changed from time to time, but the flag system remained unchanged. In the ninth year of Tiancong (1635), Huangtaiji formally organized the "Eight Mongol Banners" into a large number of Mongol descenders and a part of Mongols under the Eight Flags of Manchuria. From the fifth year of Tiancong (1631) to the seventh year of Chongde (1642), the Eight Banners of the Han Army were gradually organized. At this point, the three parts of the Eight Flags organization were finally completed, and the Eight Flags of Manchuria, Mongolia and the Han Army were unified under the same social organization - the Eight Flags.
The Eight Banners system, as an organization of social and political integration, integration of soldiers and people, played an important role in effectively organizing people to wage war and unifying the whole of China in the Qing Dynasty. After customs clearance, the organization of the eight flags was further strengthened. At the time of entry, most of the main force of the Eight Banners remained in Beijing, and the inner city of the capital was all the headquarters of the Eight Banners. The population of the eight banners in the northeast area outside the customs were called Shengjing Garrison and Ningguta garrison; Later, the eight banners sent to the inland provinces were called direct provincial garrisons; During the period from Kangxi to Qianlong, the separatist forces of various departments in Xinjiang were defeated, and the eight-flag garrison system centered on Urumqi and Ili was successively established, which was called Xinjiang Garrison. All over the country, there are eight flags in Tongdu Dayi and Guanjin main roads, supplemented by green battalions of Han as the main body, forming a control system centered in Beijing and based on the eight flags.
The Manchu people in Qing Dynasty basically lived under the eight-flag system, and Manchu soldiers participated in almost all the wars of Qing Dynasty. On the one hand, they were proud of their ancestors' heroic war achievements, on the other hand, they paid great sacrifices for the war. One of the biggest changes in the social life of Manchu in Qing Dynasty was that the soldiers under the Eight Banners changed from the flag system in the past period outside the pass to the flag pay system after entering the pass. In principle, all adult men are soldiers or reserve soldiers, before entering the pass is three ding draw one soldier, with the population reproduction, Kangxi's five ding draw one, later there are eight ding draw one, fifteen ding draw class, when the war is tense may all wear armor to battle, and even women have to bear farming, war logistics support and other affairs. And its basic source of living is to rely on the eight flags to allocate a certain number of flag land. The output of the flag field must not only bear the living of the flag soldiers and their families, but also bear the armored equipment required for the flag soldiers to go out. After entering the customs, the soldiers of the Eight Banners also got a field in the Jinggi area according to the old system of "plan to dictate the field", but the frequent wars, the soldiers had no time to cultivate, and they were not willing to cultivate, and the Han nationality areas with fewer people could not provide enough land to allocate to them, so from the entrance of the customs, the Qing Dynasty began to pay the soldiers of the Eight banners silver and monthly rice. Salaries became the basic source of living for the population of the eight Banners. On the surface, the salaries of ordinary soldiers are generous, but after they bear the expenses of weapons and horses in wartime and the living expenses of their families, they will not be so generous. Throughout the Qing Dynasty, the number of soldiers in the eight Banners has not increased, and the population of the Eight Banners has increased significantly, and a large number of Chengding in the flag can not be selected in time to be soldiers, resulting in a silver rice of soldiers to feed a population. According to the provisions of the eight flags system, the population within the flag may not engage in agriculture, industry or business to earn a living. Moreover, the flag man can not leave the place at will, the Beijing flag population can not leave the station 40 miles, and the garrison flag man can not leave the station 20 miles. This is the origin of the serious "eight flags livelihood" problem in Qing Dynasty society. Although the Qing Court took many measures to try to solve this problem, the poverty of flag soldiers could not be changed because flag making was the basic state policy. From the perspective of class, the lower class flag soldiers, like the working people of all nationalities, are also the ruled class.
In military politics, the army of the Eight Banners is the cornerstone of the existence of the Qing regime. From the perspective of civil affairs, the eight-flag system was an effective means of separating the flag and the people in Qing Dynasty. In the early Qing Dynasty, when the ethnic contradictions were more acute, the Eight flags system separated the population of the eight flags from the Han nationality, alleviating the ethnic contradictions to a certain extent. After the middle of the Qing Dynasty, the separation of the flag and the people was also one of the means to prevent the population of the eight banners from melting into the vast sea of the Han nationality. However, for a nation, the whole people are soldiers, or reserve soldiers, or the families of soldiers, and are not allowed to make a living in agriculture, industry, and commerce, which is also a serious constraint for the population under the banner of the Manchu ethnic group, and eventually becomes a yoke for the development of the nation. After the middle of Qing Dynasty, "eight banners for livelihood" became a serious social and political problem in Qing Dynasty. After the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the financial crisis of the Qing Court was serious, and the food and wages of the Eight Banners could not be paid in full, and the life of the eight Banners population was more difficult. This situation can be summarized simply as: the population increases but the number of soldiers does not increase; prices increase but the food and wages decrease. During the Revolution of 1911, the garrison Banner of Chengdu reported to the newly established military government the situation of the flag bearer: "There are more than fourteen thousand people of the banner clan in Hecheng, of which only one-tenth or two can be independent, and the rest of them have no permanent property." Pay has been stopped for a long time, debt is high, "the flag man is helpless, no door to appeal." From the perspective of national long-term development, the eight-flag system has become a serious shackle to the development of Manchu.
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the Manchus became masters of the country together with the people of all ethnic groups in China and enjoyed the rights of ethnic equality. In 1957, a number of Manchu townships were established successively in the suburbs of Beijing: Huairou County, Huangougoumen Manchu Township, Zhuanshanzi Manchu Township, Qidaohe Manchu Township, Changshaoying Manchu Township, Donghuangliang Manchu Township, Miyun County, Tanyingmanchu Township and Mongolian Township. 1958 The Manchu autonomous Township was changed into a people's commune. After the reform and opening up, Tanying Manchu and Mongolian ethnic Township was restored in 1983, followed by the restoration of Manchu townships such as Horn Gulmen and Changshao Ying. At the same time, in some areas where Manchu scattered, Manchu and other ethnic minorities also united to establish ethnic townships, such as Qianxi, Dafang and Jinsha counties in Guizhou Bijie area in 1982, established six ethnic townships, such as Miao Yi Manchu and Miao Manchu.
From the mid-1980s to the early 1990s, a number of Manchu autonomous counties were established successively in Liaoning, Hebei, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Jilin and other provinces and regions: Liaoning has 10 autonomous counties, of which 8 are Manchu, namely: Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County under Anshan City, Xinbin under Fushun City, Xinbin under Fushun City.
Qingyuan Manchu Autonomous County
Benxi City has jurisdiction over Benxi, Huanren Manchu Autonomous County, Dandong City has jurisdiction over Fengcheng, Kuandian Manchu Autonomous County, Jinzhou City has jurisdiction over Beizhen Manchu Autonomous County. There are 6 autonomous counties in Hebei Province, 4 of which are Manchu Autonomous counties, namely Qinglong Manchu Autonomous County under Qinhuangdao City, Kuancheng, Fengning Manchu Autonomous County under Chengde City and Weichang Manchu and Mongolian Autonomous County. Jilin Province Siping belongs to Yitong Manchu autonomous County. Among them, Fengcheng Manchu Autonomous County of Liaoning Province was approved by The State Council on March 8, 1994, and Beizheng Manchu Autonomous County was approved by The State Council in March 1995. At present, there are still a number of Manchu (or Manchu combined with other ethnic minorities) autonomous townships and towns all over the country, including 87 in Liaoning Province, 11 in Jilin Province, 11 in Heilongjiang Province, 81 in Hebei Province, 3 in Beijing, 1 in Tianjin and 3 in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.
With the implementation of the Party's ethnic policy, Manchu cadres have been growing and enjoying equal political rights. In 1959, the Manchu population in Beijing was 89,181, including 1,586 cadres. According to statistics in 1978, before the reform and opening up, there were 19,287 Manchu cadres in Liaoning Province, including 10,716 professional and technical cadres of all kinds. In 1978, Mr. Pu Jie was elected as a deputy to the National People's Congress, and Professor Qigong, a Manchu calligrapher and painter, served as deputy director of the Beijing Ethnic Affairs Commission. There are many Manchu representatives in the National People's Congress and the CPPCC in Beijing and all over the country. At the 9th People's Congress of Xiuyan County in 1980, 176 of the 345 people's deputies were elected, accounting for 51% of the total number of deputies, slightly higher than the proportion of Manchu in the total population of Xiuyan at that time. The Fifth National People's Congress has 17 Manchu deputies. In 1996, the number of minority cadres in Liaoning Province reached more than 160,000, accounting for more than 10% of the total number of cadres in Liaoning Province, and the number of minority cadres in the Party and government leading groups at all levels has increased significantly.
Since the founding of New China, with the care and help of the Party and the government, the Manchu economy has been greatly developed. Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County is a mountainous area of eight mountains, half water and half field. The Manchu people in Xiuyan County united with the people of all ethnic groups, based on agriculture, diversified business development in an all-round way, and the living standard of the people has been greatly improved. Manchu farmers in Tanying, Miyun County, on the outskirts of Beijing, with the help of the government, built water conservancy and renovated the former banner camp housing. The Manchu people in Tanying have savings in every household and surplus food in every family, and they are very happy to say: "The Communist Party has come, and Tanying has changed." On the industrial front, the northeast is the old industrial base of our country, and it is also the inhabited area with the largest Manchu population. Manchu workers in the northeast were mainly distributed in the steel, machinery, coal, textile and transportation sectors. The majority of Manchu workers actively participate in socialist construction, there are many technical innovation experts, there are a lot of innovation and creation. During the ten years of unrest, Manchu workers and workers of all ethnic groups insisted on production and ensured the normal operation of Anshan iron and steel production.
Since the reform and opening up, the Manchu autonomous areas have made great progress in economy.
In agriculture, the reform and opening up have brought about historic changes in agriculture in Manchu inhabited areas. In Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County of Liaoning Province, where the Manchu ethnic group accounts for 70% of the total population, the new economic policy of the Party has really linked the labor of farmers with their income, greatly aroused the enthusiasm of farmers in production, and sustained the development of agricultural economy. After 2000, according to the requirements of joining the WTO and developing the market economy, Xinbin County adjusted the agricultural industry and product structure, and formed a new pattern of characteristic agriculture dominated by five major industries: forestry, Chinese herbal medicine, forest frog farming, herbivore feeding, mushroom, high-quality rice and wild vegetables. In 2004, Xinbin became the national demonstration county of comprehensive development of mountain areas, the national demonstration county of ecological construction, the national straw cattle base county, the hometown of China's forest frog, the key county of Liaoning Province's forestry production, the province's traditional Chinese medicine, mushroom, wood production base county, and Liaoning Province's tourism county. Yitong Manchu Autonomous County of Jilin Province is one of the national commodity grain base counties, and the grain yield per unit area ranks first in the province. In the rural areas near Beijing where the Manchus live in compact communities, the system of contracted responsibility for joint production is implemented, just like in other ethnic minority areas, and efforts are made to develop diversified farming, forestry, animal husbandry, secondary farming and fishery in the areas where the Manchus live in compact communities.
The social and economic development of Manchus in various places has been strongly supported by the Party and the government. For example, in 1997, in order to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the establishment of Qinglong and Fengning Manchu autonomous counties, the relevant departments of Hebei Province implemented various support funds of 28.63 million yuan for the two counties. Fengning Manchu Autonomous County completed the investment of 770 million yuan in fixed assets in 2000, which directly supported the social and economic development of ethnic minority areas. In Sungezhuang Manchu Autonomous Township, Jixian County, Tianjin, until 1999, the municipal government allocated 1.5 million yuan of special financial funds for three consecutive years, and all of them were in place, which produced great social and economic benefits, making this long-term backward mountain township keep up with the pace of the city's rural prosperity.
The Manchu inhabited areas with relatively weak industrial base have made great progress in industry and transportation after the reform and opening up. In 2005, the GDP of the ethnic autonomous areas in Liaoning Province reached 31.063 billion yuan, and the investment in fixed assets was increased. In 2005, the total investment in fixed assets of the whole society was 9.96 billion yuan, an increase of 262.2% over the end of the Ninth Five-Year Plan period. By the end of 2002, the industry of Yitong County, Jilin Province, mainly has seven industries such as mechanical processing, metallurgy, chemical industry, building materials, food, textile and medicine. Oil and natural gas development and supporting projects, automobile supporting industrial base projects have made great progress. In Xiuyan County, Liaoning Province, which is famous for its high-quality jade, there are 100,000 people engaged in jade mining, jade processing and jade sales, which is equivalent to one out of every five Xiuyan people engaged in "jade industry", increasing employment opportunities for people of all ethnic groups. The annual output value is 2.5 billion yuan, and the annual profits and taxes are 500 million yuan. Benxi Manchu Autonomous County has 38 large and medium-sized industrial enterprises, forming a complete industrial system dominated by mining, metallurgy, chemical, mechanical and electrical, building materials, light industry, etc. The industrial economy of Fengning Manchu Autonomous County in Hebei Province is dominated by resource development, and has initially established an industrial economic system of gold and silver extraction and smelting, iron ore extraction, stone development, wine making, food and beverage, dairy product processing, beef and mutton segmentation and processing, gas equipment manufacturing, wood product processing, brick and cement building materials production.
Transportation has also developed greatly. During the Ninth Five-Year Plan period, the relevant national and provincial departments increased their investment in the transportation development of poor ethnic autonomous counties at the national and provincial levels. In Liaoning, Jilin and other ethnic autonomous counties in the Manchu inhabited areas, each county increases its transport subsidies by 300,000 to 500,000 yuan each year, and allocates special funds for key projects and traffic bottlenecks to support the development of transport in ethnic minority areas. Such as the investment of 30 million yuan, open Huanren Manchu Autonomous County Huaben line Dawaoling tunnel, completely solve the Huanren Manchu Autonomous County traffic "old difficulty" problem. Before 1998, it invested 30 million yuan to complete the renovation of the secondary highway from Dandong City to Kuandian Manchu Autonomous County. Priority will be given to county (township) roads, Bridges and culverts, roadbeds, and black pavement renovation projects in ethnic autonomous areas. In 1999, Liaoning Province subsidized 4.6 million yuan in transportation funds to ethnic autonomous areas, and allocated more than 420 million yuan in road construction funds, of which more than 60 million yuan was allocated to the Southeast highway in Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County alone, greatly improving the situation of backward transportation in ethnic autonomous areas. There are 13 towns and 110 villages in Huanren Manchu Autonomous County, Liaoning Province, all connected by roads. Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County has realized that all townships are connected by asphalt, 70% of administrative villages are connected by asphalt, and 91% of administrative villages are connected by road. Highway construction in Yitong Manchu Autonomous County has achieved extraordinary development, and the expressway exit to the North Bridge bridge widening and renovation project, the People's Road construction project, the first and second phase of the Jiukai Highway, and the road construction project from Yitong Town to Xiwei Town have all been completed, improving the road grade and traffic capacity.
The private economy in Manchu inhabited areas has also developed greatly. Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County relies on and gives full play to the advantages of local resources, focusing on the intensive processing of agricultural products such as wood, forest frog, Chinese medicinal materials, edible fungi and livestock products, and forms a number of resource-based processing industries. A number of enterprises and enterprise groups supporting large and medium-sized cities have been cultivated. Some of them have become leading enterprises in the same industry nationwide. Chengdu Manchu set up chicken farms, township enterprises, private enterprises or enterprise groups to promote the development of commodity economy.
With the development of economy, the Manchu people, together with the people of all ethnic groups, have become rich and their living standards have generally been significantly improved. In 1997, the total social output value of Manzu Township in Sungezhuang, Tianjin was 70 million yuan, an increase of 26.1% over the previous year, and the per capita net income was 2266 yuan, an increase of 28.9% over the previous year. At the end of 2001, the per capita income of farmers in Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County reached 2,466 yuan, an increase of 12 percent over the previous year, and has increased year by year since then. In 2005, the per capita income of farmers in Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County reached 3,000 yuan, with an average annual growth rate of 6.9%, and the savings balance of urban and rural residents was 2.6 billion yuan. The income of Manchu farmers in Liaoning increased significantly, gradually narrowing the gap with the province's average level. In 2005, the per capita net income of farmers in ethnic autonomous areas reached 3,462 yuan. In 2000, Fengning Manchu Autonomous County in Hebei Province achieved a GDP of 1.38 billion yuan, a fixed asset investment of 770 million yuan, a fiscal revenue of 65 million yuan, and a per capita net income of 1,009 yuan for farmers. People's living standards have improved considerably.
Manchu culture and education have made new progress. Since 1984, the Manchus, like other ethnic minorities, have enjoyed preferential admission policies in institutions of higher learning, technical secondary schools, and technical secondary schools. Television universities, vocational colleges, correspondence departments of colleges and universities, and night universities have also taken care of ethnic minority candidates, which has provided ethnic minority students with more opportunities for further study. In terms of the introduction of ethnic education and the Hope Project, and the improvement of teaching facilities, the Party governments have given the Manchu the same preferential policies as other ethnic minorities. In terms of Manchu education, some scientific research institutions, universities and Beijing Manchu Academy have opened Manchu classes and trained a number of Manchu talents.
In literature and art, many accomplished Manchu writers and artists, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, radiate revolutionary youth and make positive contributions to the cultural cause of the motherland. Cheng Yanqiu, the famous Manchu Peking Opera artist, has profound artistic attainments and unique style. Lao She, a patriotic Manchu writer and people's artist, wrote a large number of literary works such as "Longxigou", "Shop Girl", "Teahouse" and "Under the Red Flag", which were loved by the masses. Mr. Lao She is the "people's artist" that the people will always remember. Luo Changpei, a Manchu linguist, devoted his whole life to the development of Chinese grammar, phonology, dialects, dictionary compilation and phonetic experiments, and vigorously advocated and promoted the investigation and research of minority languages, making valuable contributions to the development of language science in New China. Crosstalk artist Hou Baolin was already a famous crosstalk artist during the War of Resistance. After the founding of New China, Hou Baolin refreshed his artistic youth, revised and processed traditional crosstalk, and created a number of new crosstalk reflecting real life, which was well received by audiences at home and abroad, and was praised as "crosstalk art master" and "magnificent national treasure". The Manchu people also made great achievements in traditional Chinese painting. After the founding of New China, with the care and help of the people's government, many old Manchu artists such as the famous "noodle Ren Lang", "clay figure Tang" and "Hualijin" in Beijing have played their ancestral craft skills and made many crafts that are welcomed and loved at home and abroad. Manchu artists are also good at jade carving and nuclear carving, and they use their exquisite skills to depict the new look of the motherland on all fronts after the founding of the new China.
The reform and opening up and the Party's policy of enriching the people have given the Manchu a broad space for full development, and the Manchu has made new progress in politics, economy and culture. Taking the revitalization of the old industrial base in Northeast China and the construction of a new socialist countryside as a new opportunity, the Manchu people, together with the people of all ethnic groups in the country, entered a new historical period.
[1]
The Manchu people have their own language and writing. Manchu belongs to the Manchu branch of the Manchu - Tungusic languages of the Altai family. The Manchu script was founded in the late 16th century. In the Song and Jin dynasties, the Nuzhen people had their own characters. The early Nuzhen characters were derived from Chinese characters, but they have been lost for a long time. At the end of the 16th century, after Nurhachi unified the northeast, he spelled the Manchu pronunciation with the Mongolian alphabet, forming a new script called "old Manchu". In the period of Huangtaiji, circles were added on the borrowed Mongolian letters to distinguish sounds, which was called circles and dots Manchu or "new Manchu".
As an official script, Manchu was used for a long time in the Qing Dynasty and once became a widely used script throughout the country, leaving a large number of archival materials and becoming a treasure in the treasure house of Chinese cultural heritage. After the middle of the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu language was gradually abandoned, and the Manchu people basically used the northern dialect of Chinese, only the internal banner people and flag officials, and still had to use Manchu on some specific occasions. By the 1980s, Manchu had disappeared, except for a few remote areas in northeast China and the elderly Xibe minority in Xinjiang who could still speak it. However, as a once widely spoken language, Manchu has left a deep mark on Chinese dialects in many places. Today, there are still a large number of Manchu sounds and vocabulary in the Chinese spoken in Northeast China and Beijing. The descendants of the garrison flag people living all over the country speak the northern dialects mixed with local pronunciation, forming a "dialect island".
[2-6]
haidongqing
Nuzhen people often live together in a mukun, and after the Song and Yuan dynasties, they were deeply influenced by the Mongolian people, so they were called by their first name rather than their surname. After entering the customs, ethnic relations continued to develop, and the Han army Banner people were mostly named in the way of Manchu name rather than surname, and the Manchu Banner people were deeply influenced by Han cultural customs, and many Chinese characters were used for surnames, such as Gualjia's transliteration to Guan surname, Nuhuru's free translation to Lang (Wolf), Irgen Jueluo, also known as Min Jueluo, and the Han Dynasty was called Zhao.
There are also the first word of the Chinese transliteration of the surname as a surname, such as Tong Jia's abbreviation tong, Ma Jia's abbreviation Ma, and Tu, de, da, violence, Hu, A, Zhao, west, cloth and other surnames, most of the original surname, with Chinese characters for short. The Qing rulers were very dissatisfied with this situation, and after Qianlong, the Qing government repeatedly banned it, but it did not have much effect. After the Revolution of 1911, the vast majority of the Manchu people generally used Chinese surnames, or changed their Han surnames, so that others would not know that they were Manchu, so that today many Manchu people do not know their old surnames.
Manchu bow
Manchu clothing, men from the top of the head of the back half of the hair, the braid hanging in the back of the head, after the clearance of customs, forced to promote across the country, so that it became the Qing Dynasty Manchu, Han, Mongolian ethnic groups common hair. Women's hair, the same as boys in childhood, slightly longer, leaving one or two braids at the back of the head, and wearing mother-of-pearl when married. Usually, there is a bun on the top of the head, with a shelf head and two first-class styles. Wearing earrings with a three-ring pattern. The men's robe is split on both sides, and the belt in the waist is convenient for riding. Among them, the "arrow sleeve" (Manchu: Waha) has a unique feature, which is a semicircular cuff on the narrow cuff, shaped like a horseshoe, commonly known as "horseshoe sleeve", usually pulled up, put down when hunting or fighting in winter, covering the back of the hand to keep out the cold, and later became a specified action in the Qing Dynasty etiquette. Young women wear a wide straight leg cheongsam, sky-foot, flowered shoes, flowered pot bottom and boat bottom and other patterns. In the early days, the rich wore sackcloth and the poor wore roe deer skin. After entering Liao and Shen, the nobility and rich wore silk, while the common people wore cloth, and the clothing was also graded. After entering the customs, Manchu Han clothing gradually converged, and the men's shoulders are still in use, while the women's cheongsam has evolved and has now become the representative of China's traditional women's wear.
Manchu food is also very distinctive, has always been "full of Chinese food" said. The most representative of Manchu and Han food culture integration is the "Manchu and Han dinner". The selection, preparation and eating of its dishes have maintained Manchu characteristics, among which mountain delicacies such as monkey fungus, bear's paw, ginseng, deer antler and so on are mostly from the northeast region. It is a fine fusion of Mandi and Chinese cuisine, in the Qing Qianlong period has been formed, spread for more than 200 years, Qianlong "Yangzhou Painted Boat Record", Yangzhou local "Mandi Han banquet", there are more than 100 dishes. In daily life, Manchu folk also has many flavor snacks and a wide variety of dim sum. Like to eat millet, yellow rice and yellow rice cake (bean bag), every festival to eat "Ai Ji Ge Bo" (dumplings). Every Lunar New Year's Eve, dinner eat Manchu unique flavor food boiled pork, grilled pork and pastries still exist in the "Saqima" and so on. Today, dumplings, hot pot, sauerkraut and Beijing cakes in north China are all related to Manchu food culture.
Manchu houses, courtyards surrounded by low walls, the courtyard has a screen wall. There are generally three rooms in the west, middle and east, the west room is called the west upper room, the middle is the kitchen, the east room is called the east lower room, and the door faces south. For example, there are two main rooms, and the outer room is the kitchen with a cooker. There are three beds in the inner room, the west kang is expensive, for the ancestor God position, the west wall has the ancestor God board. The north kang is large and the south kang is small. Home visitors live in the west kang, family elders live in the north kang, the younger generation can live in the south kang. Manchu houses are mostly open south window and west window, warm in winter and cool in summer.
In the old time, Manchu people attached great importance to marriage and prevailed in early marriage and marrying older women. This is related to the men in the flag who are soldiers and hope to have children early. In the aristocratic and official families, finger marriage is prevalent, and the marriage object is designated by the court, and the general flag people also have the situation of finger marriage by the patriarch. The "draft" of the Qing Dynasty court was to select the concubine for the emperor and the prince, which was generally limited to the internal selection of the eight banners. The age of men and women in the eight banners to 16 or 17 years old, can be engaged, and the age of engagement and marriage for men may be younger. The marriage is arranged by the parents. The man invites a matchmaker to visit the woman three times. Carry a bottle of wine each time, and you will not know if it is successful until the third time. So there's a saying, "Three bottles of wine." If so, the woman's parents ask the man for the bride price, pig, wine, cabinet, clothes, jewelry and so on. The bride price given by the man shall be the property of the girl. The old Manchu marriage process is more diverse, there are marriage, small set, big set, gift, send days, unlock, send dowry, marry, sit on the tent, Gejin, points size, return door and live on the month a whole set of processes. When getting married, the bride should sit on the kang in the bridal chamber for a day, which is called "sitting blessing". In the evening, put a table on the ground, put two wine POTS and wine cups on the table, the groom and bride arm in arm, drink around the table three times. A pair of candles are lit on the kang, which will not be extinguished all night, and one or several people outside the house sing happy songs, called "empty home", or some people sprinkle black beans on the window of the new house, and disperse after an hour or two. Three days later the bride and groom returned to their mother's house.
The Manchus value etiquette. In the past, the younger generation gave the older generation a small gift for three days and a big gift for five days. The younger generation every three days to the elders, every five days to see the elders kowtow, the form of thousands of men and women are different, men waist, right hand down the left hand to support the knee, like lifting objects, women with hands to support the knee squat. When you meet an elderly person you do not know on the road, you should bow down and ask "Sai Yin" (Manchu, good meaning). If riding a horse, dismount and give way to the side of the road, wait for the elders to pass, and then mount. Distant friends and relatives meet, regardless of men and women are holding the waist to meet the great gift.
Manchu funeral also has a process of evolution. Affected by the natural geographical environment and other factors, the funeral rites of the Manchu ancestors were relatively simple and crude, and there were sky burial, earth burial, animal burial, tree burial, water burial, cremation and other forms. Before entering the customs, the Manchu people mainly cremated, since the late period of Shunzhi Emperor, under the influence of Han culture, the Manchu people generally changed to coffin burial, and combined with the characteristics of their own nationality, formed the Manchu characteristics of burial customs. Before Qianlong, the people stationed in various places to send the dead and their families back to Beijing, so they still kept the cremation, and the ashes were placed back to Beijing. After Qianjia, it was allowed to bury the garrison flag in the local burial, but also changed to earth burial. The early Manchu nobles had the custom of martyrdom, and later changed to the servants of martyrdom and burning paper. In rural areas, it is not allowed to die in the west Kang and North Kang, because the door is where the living enter and exit, so the dead can only be carried out through the window after being placed in the coffin. After a man dies, he sets up a pole on the west side of the courtyard, about ten feet high and five feet high, and hangs cloth flags, nine feet long and made of black and red cloth. The head and tail of the flag are black cloth, and the middle four are red cloth. At the funeral, relatives and friends should grab the cloth on the flags, make clothes for their children, and think that they can ward off evil spirits and do not have nightmares. Today, the Manchu people in Guangzhou maintain a complete Manchu cemetery, and some characteristics of Manchu burial customs can still be seen.
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In the long social and historical development, the Manchu ancestors formed a culture full of their own national characteristics, such as as far away as the Bohai period, the Spring Festival, the Dragon Boat Festival and other festival customs. These customs are related to the influence of Han culture, but also have their own national characteristics, such as the Dragon Boat Festival, picking mugwort, eating mogwort, tying the lock of longevity, shooting willow to heaven and other customs. After entering the customs in Qing Dynasty, the Manchu culture and Han culture combined, absorbed each other, and gradually became consistent, which still showed some characteristics of Manchu culture. Such as the Manchu Spring Festival to eat dumplings, eat Saqima, the Manchu Dragon Boat Festival is not to sacrifice Qu Yuan but to fitness and so on.
The Spring Festival is an important traditional festival for Manchu people. Before the festival, we should make traditional Manchu pastries - Saqima, post couplets, window flowers, hanging paper (according to the flag affixed red, yellow, blue, white), and hang the word "Fu". After the "God paper" was distributed at midnight, the younger men went to each family to "say goodbye". At midnight on New Year's Eve, every family eats dumplings, which means "more dumplings". Also put a copper coin (some rich people use money and gems, etc.), hidden in the dumplings. Whoever eats it dies. On New Year's Eve, every yard vertical lantern pole, up to two zhangs, pine branches, high red light, red light to the sixth day, and every night. In the palace, the "sky lantern" was hung on the 24th day of the twelfth month, until the sunrise of the third day of the following February.
The Lantern Festival on the fifteenth day of the first month is also called "Lantern Festival". In addition to hanging lanterns, the Manchu people also make "ice lanterns". The main content of the Lantern Festival is not to eat yuanxiao, but to watch colorful lanterns. In towns inhabited by the Manchu ethnic group, the streets are decorated with thousands of colorful lanterns. In the countryside, there is also the custom of "steaming noodle lanterns" on the night of Lantern Festival. In the "Yangcheng Lamp Market" of Guangzhou in the late Qing Dynasty, the lamp made by the flag man is the most dazzling and has become a special product of Guangzhou.
Manchu customs are similar to the Han nationality, but they maintain many Manchu characteristics. On the 16th of the first month, Manchu women all over the north, popular lying ice and "rolling ice", symbolizing the removal of bad luck; The 25th day of the first month "add warehouse", pray for a good year; On the second day of February, the dragon raises its head and prays for good weather; March 3 "open horse trip"; Qingming Festival "sacrifice tomb", the grave inserted willow; Dragon Boat Festival to go out, batting, game swing and so on. In recent years, many Manchu people have celebrated the "gold Festival" folklore: in the later Jin period, Huangtaiji in the lunar calendar October 13, 1635, the ethnic group was called "Manchu" (or Manshu, Manshu), the Manchu people took this day as the birth day of the Manchu, held the Manchu "name day", that is, "gold Festival" celebration.
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The Manchus used to believe in shamanism. "Shaman" is a Tungusic word meaning "crazy person." The Chinese translation is wizard. The Manchu shamanism has the four meanings of nature worship, totem worship, ancestor worship and idol worship, so the gods worshiped are both numerous and miscellaneous. The way of sacrifice is also different, there is the difference between the court and the people, the rich and the poor and the difference between the region and the family. In the early Qing Dynasty, the shaman in the palace was more than a smart woman who was familiar with the dialect of the Aisin Juelo clan, called the shaman wife, who was in charge of the emperor holding various divine rites, chanting Manchu sacrifices to God, and the shaman who was different from the folk who treated people. Until the founding of New China, in the northeast of Ningguta and Aihui and other places, the Manchu still maintained shamanism. There are two kinds of folk shamans, one is a shaman who hops to cure diseases, ask questions, and ask God to exorcize ghosts, and the other is a family shaman who manages sacrifices and is responsible for offering sacrifices to ancestral gods. In the past, Manchu farmers "believe in witches and do not believe in doctors", and when they were sick, they first asked shaman to jump to God, and then asked a doctor to diagnose and treat them. When the shaman prayed to jump, he wore a pointed hat, a five-color paper strip, a drooping cover, a small mirror hanging outside, a long cloth skirt, a brass bell tied around his waist, and danced with drums, muttering words in his mouth. The house shaman has one name in each family name. When offering sacrifices to ancestors, dance and sing Manchu god songs, sing praises for a year's harvest, or praise the merits of ancestors.
On the west wall of the Manchu main room, there is a "ancestor board" of one foot eight inches wide and one foot and a half long, which is called "Japanese garage" in Manchu language. The sacred sword (Hamma sword) and arrow are placed during the sacrifice, indicating that they are things used by ancestors. Hanging beside the god board is a yellow cloth bag called "mother's pocket", also called "descendants of the mother", in which there are three or four zhangs of silk rope called "descendants of the rope" and "long life rope". Before ancestor worship, first the ancestor box received the west kang, put three tables for yellow rice cake. Then the elder in the family opens the box, and the whole family knocks three rattles in order of seniority, and kneels respectively to the north and south Kang or outhouse. At this time, the shaman began to dress, put on a skirt, tie a bell, wear a god hat, hold a drum, pray before the ancestors, and begin to jump. When jumping, turn three times, take three steps back, recite the message, and walk the steps, generally jumping for three days and nights.
Worship is usually done on the second day of ancestor worship. Every Manchu courtyard has a screen wall, behind the screen wall stands a ten-foot high pole, called "Soren pole", the top of which is pierced by a pig's neck bone. Sacrificial "Sauron pole" is a black boar with no hair on the whole body. After slaughter, intestines and bladders are put into the bucket of the pole for crows to eat. It is considered lucky to eat them within three days. Plus. Chop the pork, put a little millet porridge, called millet meat porridge, please relatives, neighbors, and even passers-by to eat porridge. The meat porridge must be eaten outside the house and must be eaten the same day.
Manchu folk sacrificial activities are divided into family sacrifices and family sacrifices in scale, and there are dynasty sacrifices and Xi sacrifices in time, and there are many kinds. In different regions, the contents, methods and procedures of sacrificial rites of different families are also different. As the saying goes, "One surname, one altar."
In the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu also believed in Buddhism and Guan Yu, but the sacrificial ceremony still used shaman sacrifice and was different from other nationalities. The descendants of those who garrison the flag have their ancestors' bags at home, which contain soil from their hometown brought from outside the pass. Guangzhou Manchu sacrifice "Luo Guang Zu", the first generation of ancestors to settle down in Guangzhou.
Manchu traditional sports are mostly related to hunting, such as weightlifting, wrestling, vaulting, camel jumping and skating. "Vault" to cross the horse when the horse gallops; The jumping camel jumps from the back to the hump. Jumping horse and jumping camel, are for the enemy and hand-to-hand contact, easy to fly on the enemy riding grasp technology, and become one of the regular exercise of sports. Running skates were a military skill that Eight Flag soldiers had to practice before the mid-19th century. During the Qianlong period, the skating of children of the Eight Banners was reviewed on the North Sea ice in Beijing every year in the tenth lunar month, as one of the systems for training troops. The number of participants in this parade was 1,600 (200 per flag). Such a grand skating conference was unparalleled in the world at that time. In addition to the performance of speed, there are figure skating, ice football competition, ice acrobatics, skating archery and so on. The wooden skates used by the old banner people can also be found in Beijing folk.
Manchu is a nation that attaches great importance to culture and education. Since the Qing Dynasty, under the background of the continuous development of ethnic relations, Manchu education and culture have also made great progress. The popularization of Manchu education and the types of schools have reached a historical record. There are eight banner official schools affiliated to the Imperial School, and there are schools and Jue Luo schools affiliated to the Zongren Mansion, which are in charge of the education of the children of the clan and Jue Luo. Outside the Gyeonggi area, official schools were set up in the garrison area of the Eight Banners and in the northeast where it originated. Ordinary flag people are mainly on the eight flags. Free school belongs to the flag ginseng collar, eight flags children over the age of ten to study. Many of the garrison places also have free schools so that the children of the poor banners can also enroll in school. Teachers are generally selected under the leadership of the banner, learning Manchu and riding archery, and their academic achievements are filed. In the later period, there were also local Han Confucian teachers, and the learning content also turned to traditional Han culture. In terms of imperial examinations, the Eight flags examination was set up in the early Qing Dynasty, and Manchu translation examination was set up. At first, the imperial examination was still the flag, Han branch examination, and then gradually integrated examination. The popularization of education has played an important role in the development of Manchu culture.
Cao Xueqin, who created a dream of Red Mansions
Early Manchu works, such as "Old Manchu File", "Record of Taizu" and "Foreign Land Record" by Tu Licen, are well known works, and the books for learning Manchu application, such as "Enlightenment in Qing Dynasty", "Required Reading for Beginners", "Guide to Chinese Characters" and "Qing Dynasty Code", are books explaining Manchu grammar, reading methods, calligraphy and sentence formation in Chinese. Manchu translation of Chinese classics is very common, most Chinese classics translated into Manchu. Apart from official books, folk tales such as The Romance of The Three Kingdoms, The Story of the Western Chamber, A Dream of Red Mansions, Golden Vase Plum, and Tales of Liaozhai have all been translated into Manchu. Zhakdan's translation of "Liaozhai Zhi Zhi", the expression of the original book is vividly translated, the expression of the text has reached a very high level.
People's artist Lao She
After the middle of the Qing Dynasty, there appeared a new drum song among the banner people, only singing words, not speaking white, singing with the drum board three strings, called "Qingyin Zishu", which spread widely in Beijing and Shenyang and other cities, and was loved by the general public. His brother's book "Borrowing Boots" and "Bodyguard Sigh" written by Han Xiaosang and Lu Lu are the most widely circulated. There is also a folk "octagonal drum" singing and drumming, until the end of the Qing Dynasty is still widespread.
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