The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau ^[84-88] , Asia The inland plateau is the largest in China and the highest plateau in the world, known as the "roof of the world" and "Roof of the World". Third pole ". Nanqi Himalayas South edge, north to Kunlun Mountains , Altun mountains and Qilian Mountains North edge, west is Pamir Plateau and The Karakoram Mountains , East and northeast with Qinling Mountains The western section of the mountains and Loess plateau It is connected between 26°00 '~ 39°47' north latitude and 73°19 '~ 104°47' east longitude. ^[1-3]

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is about 2,800 kilometers long from east to west and 300 to 1,500 kilometers wide from north to south, with a total area of about 2.5 million square kilometers Qiangtang plateau , South Tibet Valley , Qaidam Basin , Qilian Mountains, Qinghai Plateau And Sichuan-Tibet alpine valley area and other 6 parts, including China Xizang total Qinghai (Province) , Xinjiang , Gansu (Province) , Sichuan , Yunnan (Province) Part of Bhutan , Nepal , India , Pakistan , Afghanistan , Tajikistan , Kyrgyzstan Some or all of it. ^[4-6]

The natural history of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is extremely young. Under the influence of many factors, it has formed the highest and youngest nature in the world with close combination of horizontal zonality and vertical zonality Geographical unit . The average annual temperature in the hinterland of the plateau is below 0℃, and the average temperature in the warmest month in large areas is less than 10℃. ^[7-9] The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is generally between 3000-5000 meters above sea level, with an average elevation of more than 4000 meters. It is the cradle of many major rivers in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. There are many lakes on the plateau Namtso , Qinghai Lake Let's wait. ^{[11] 10 -}

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has abundant solar and geothermal resources. On the plateau Frozen soil Widely spread, vegetation is mostly natural grassland. So is the Tibetan Plateau. Chinese nation The source of one and Chinese civilization One of the birthplaces in the history of Chinese civilization spread Fuxi , Yan Emperor Rieshan's, Gongshi Siyue, Jintian and Xia Yu are all plateaux Guqiang . The inhabitants of the Tibetan Plateau are known as The Zang nationality Mainly, forming a plateau culture system dominated by Tibetan culture. ^{12 - [15]}

Chinese name: Tibetan plateau
Foreign name: Qinghai–Xizang Plateau ^[84-88]
alias: Qingkang Tibetan Plateau , Roof of the world , Third pole
Regional scope: North latitude 26° ~ 39°, East longitude 73° ~ 104°
General altitude: 3000-5000 meters

Gross area: About 2.5 million square kilometers
Main lake: Qinghai Lake , Namtso
Source stream: Yangtse River , The Yellow River , Lancang River , Nu Chiang Etc.
Major mountain range: The Gangdises Mountains , Tanggula Mountains Etc.
Major city: Lhasa , Sining Etc.
prescription: Zang language

catalogue

Formation and evolution

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Tibetan plateau (8 photos)

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has a well-documented geological history dating back to 400 to 500 million years ago Ordovician period Subsequently, there were different data of crustal fluctuation in various parts of the Qinghai-Tibet region, either for seawater inundation or for land. To 280 million years ago (the earliest geological time Permian period Today, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is a vast ocean with turbulent waves. The sea runs through the present Eurasia The southern region, with North Africa , Southern Europe , A surname and Southeast Asia Maritime communication, called" The Tethys Sea ", or "ancient Mediterranean", when the Tethys Sea region had a warm climate and became an area where Marine animals and plants flourished. On its north and south sides is the divided proto-ancient land (also called Pangaea), and on the south is Gondwana, including today South America , Africa , Australia , Antarctica and South Asian subcontinent ; The northern continent is called Eurasia , also known as Laurea Including today Europe , Asia and North America .

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the youngest plateau in the world. 240 million years ago, due to Plate motion Separated out Indian plate It began to move and squeeze northward towards the Asian plate at a relatively fast speed, and strong fold fracture and uplift occurred in the north of the plate, which promoted the Kunlun Mountain and the Kunlun Mountain Qinghai Hoh Xil National Nature Reserve Rise to land. As the Indian plate continued to insert northward under the ancient oceanic crust, and pushed the oceanic crust to continue to fracture, about 210 million years ago, the northern Tethys Sea once again entered the tectonic active period, the North Qiangtang area, The Karakoram Mountains , Tanggula Mountain , Hengduan Mountains Detached from transgression .

By 80 million years ago, the Indian plate continued to drift northward, again causing a strong Tectonic movement . Mount Gangdise The Nianqing Tanggula Mountain area rose sharply, and northern Tibet and parts of southern Tibet also left the sea and became land. The whole terrain is wide and soothing, rivers and lakes, and there are vast plains between them, the climate is wet, and the jungle is lush. The geomorphic pattern of the plateau has basically taken shape. In geology, the tectonic movement of the rise of this plateau is called Himalayan movement .

As the Indian plate continued to advance northward and penetrate under the Asian plate, the Tibetan Plateau was formed during this ascending phase. The formation of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was not completed at one time, and its uplifting process was not a one-time surge, nor a uniform movement, but experienced several different ascent stages. Each uplift allowed the plateau landscape to evolve. Its rate of rise has stopped several times, but it has also been very rapid. Ten thousand years ago, the plateau was rising at a faster rate, reaching 7 centimeters per year, making it the largest plateau on Earth today. Roof of the world ". The central part of the Tibetan Plateau today is dominated by weathering, while the edges are still rising. ^[16-17] About 15 million years ago, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was formed. ^[78]

A general view of the Tibetan Plateau

In March 2024, Academician Hou Zengqian of the Institute of Geology (Deep Earth Laboratory) of the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, together with researchers from the Institute of Geology and Geophysics of the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, the University of Science and Technology of China and the China University of Geosciences (Beijing), proposed a new model for the eastern growth of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which solved the problem of the driving mechanism of the eastern growth of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau at home and abroad. The research results have been published online in the international authoritative geoscience journal "Nature Geoscience". ^[83]

Geological landform

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Geological environment

Geological structure

Tibetan plateau (4 photos)

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau consists of six tectonic zones from north to south, namely Qilian-Qaidam, Kunlun, Bayankala, Gangdisi, Himalaya, and Qiangtang-Qamdo, separated by the suture zone represented by ophiolitic melange, roughly bounded by the Longmuscuo-Jinshajiang suture zone.

The Qilian-Qaidam, Kunlun and Bayanqala tectonic belts in the north of the Plateau belong to the southern margin of the Eurasian ancient land, and the early Paleozoic eugeosyncline developed on the early Mesoproterozoic crystalline basement, which was formed by the Caledonian movement fold The basement was transformed into a stable cover in the late Paleozoic.

The Gangdise and Himalayan tectonic belt in the south of the plateau was integrated and taperized on the middle and late proterozoic crystalline basement, and the platform cover developed from the early Paleozoic, and the Marine sediments continued to the Eocene, among which the Gondwana facies ice sea complex conglomerate and cold-water biota developed extensively in the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian, which is a microland mass on the northern margin of Gondwana ancient land. ^{18 [20]}

Stratigraphic structure

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is divided into 7 regions by several plate suture zones Stratigraphic province :

Seven stratigraphic regions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
Stratigraphic province	Make up
Qilian stratigraphic region	The main body is composed of the crystalline basement of the middle and lower Proterozoic crystalline schist and the fold basement of the lower Paleozoic metamorphic basic and middle basic volcanic rocks with metamorphic clastic rocks.
Qaidam stratum area	It is covered by Cenozoic clastic rocks up to 6000 ~ 7000 m thick, and the basement rock series consists of middle and lower Proterozoic crystalline schist and the thick middle acid volcano-sedimentary metamorphic greenschist series of Lower Paleozoic.
Kunlun stratigraphic region	It is composed of lower Mesoproterozoic schist, gneiss, Lower Paleozoic greenschist and Upper Paleozoic Mesozoic sedimentary cover.
Bayankhara stratigraphic region	In the south of the East Kunlun and west Qinling Mountains, between the Longmen Mountains and the Jinsha River, it is characterized by extensive exposure of Triassic flysch sand SLATE.
Qiangtang-changdu stratigraphic region	The vast area between the Longmuscuo-Jinshajiang suture zone and the Bangongcu-Nujiang suture zone.
Gangdise stratigraphic region	The Nianqing Tanggula Group and Nangjiaba Group are scattered in the vast area between the Bangongcu-Nujiang suture zone and the Yarlung Zangbo suture zone.
Himalayan stratigraphic region	The Middle and upper Proterozoic crystalline schists emerge along the high Himalaya and are called Qomolangma Group and Nyalam Group. ^{18 [20]}

stratum

Crustal structure

The crustal and upper mantle mediums in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau show obvious heterogeneity both longitudinally and laterally. The lithosphere has a clear block-layer structure: vertical stratification and horizontal segmentation. The lithosphere thickness is about 140 ~ 170 km, and the average thickness of the crust is about 70 km.

The crustal thickness is uniform in the east-west direction and has little variation, but it is greatly varied in the north-south direction. Dislocation occurs on the Moho surface in several major fault zones. For example, on the north side of the Brahmaputra fault, the Moho surface is 8 kilometers higher than on the south side. The crust on the Tibetan plateau is twice as thick as the surrounding massif. ^{18 [20]}

Magmatic zone

Magmatic zone
Magmatic zone	Description
Qilian tectonic magmatic belt	In addition to the huge thick mesobasic volcanic eruptions in the early Paleozoic, two granite belts developed along the Middle Qilian uplift belt, mainly granite, gneissic granite and granodiorite, forming huge batholith.
Qaidam tectonic magmatic zone	The magmatic activity is mainly found at the edge of the basin. In the Lower Paleozoic, the thick intermediate-acid lava and its tuff were deposited, which became the main body of the fold basement.
Jinshajiang tectonic magmatic belt	The Jinshajiang tectonic magmatic belt is accompanied by two granite belts, the Jinshajiang ophiolitic melanomie and the Triassic basic-volcanic belt of Batang Group. It is mainly composed of quartz diorite and granodiorite, with the characteristics of synfusion type.
Tanggula tectonic magmatic belt	Tanggula tectonic magmatic belt is accompanied by Bangongcu-Nujiang ophiolitic belt, and its southern side is dominated by granodiorite and biotite granite, forming the batholith. On the north side, biotite monzonitic granite is the main rock strain, which intruded into the Jurassic.
Gangdise tectonic magmatic zone	It consists of a huge batholith composed of calc-alkaline intermediate-acidic and acidic intrusive complex, 50 to 100 kilometers wide from north to south, stretching for more than 1,000 kilometers from east to west along Gangdise Mountain, and connecting with Ladakh granite to the west.
Lagganje tectonic magmatic zone	A dome extends along the Himalayan Lower divide from Kangma in the east to Mount Mara in the west via Lagganje. The dome core is granite. ^{18 [20]}

Tibetan plateau

Seismic activity

Qinghai-tibet Plateau geological belt

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the main area in the world where intra-continental earthquakes occur, which not only have high intensity, high frequency, but also strong activity regularity. The very strong seismic activity of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the manifestation of modern tectonic activities. The plateau is surrounded by thrust events and the interior is scattered with tensile seismic activities. This seismic activity law shows that the uplift of the plateau is the main form of geological tectonic activity and the background of seismic activity in the Qinghai-Tibet region today. In addition, the southern part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is located at the boundary of plate collision, but the recent seismic activity is not strong. The thrust seismic activity on the western margin of the plateau is very strong. ^[21]

The overall seismic activity of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its surrounding areas generally presents four characteristics:

First, it is widely distributed and accompanied by a small amount of volcanic activity;

Second, the intensity of seismic activity is high. In the past 50 years up to 2013, there have been more than 40 earthquakes of magnitude 7 or above on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, with the highest magnitude reaching 8.5 (1950) Chayu earthquake );

Thirdly, earthquakes occur intensively in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the Tianshan Mountains, and the strong seismic activities in the crust are basically located in the region with a crust thickness greater than 35 km.

Fourth, there are two medium-deep seismic activity centers, namely the Pamir-Hindu Kush region and the Myanmar region, with a maximum depth of 383 km. ^[22]

The earth's lofty mountains ^[71]

Filming date: April 2, 2022

Geomorphic feature

Geomorphological map of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is densely covered with mountains and rivers. The terrain is steep and varied, and the terrain is complex. Its average elevation is much higher than that of the surrounding areas at the same latitude. The high mountains on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau vary greatly, with the area above 4,000 meters above sea level accounting for 60.93% of the total area of Qinghai Province and 86.1% of the total area of Tibet. It has the highest mountain in the world Mount Everest (8848.86 m), there are also only 1503 m above sea level Jinsha River ; Himalayas The average altitude is about 6000 meters, while The Brahmaputra River The valley plain is only 3000 meters. Generally speaking, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is high in the west and low in the east. Compared with the fluctuation of the edge of the plateau, there is a region with lower fluctuation inside the plateau. ^[23]

The Tibetan Plateau is a huge Mountain range The system consists of mountains and plateaus. Due to the influence of gravity and external gravity during the formation of the plateau, the plateau surface has been deformed to different degrees, which makes the terrain of the whole plateau tilt from northwest to southeast. The edge of the plateau is strongly cut to form the lower elevation of the Tibetan Plateau, where mountains, valleys and rivers alternate and the terrain is fragmented.

glacier

There is a huge series of alpine mountains in the margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which can be divided into east-west and north-south according to the trend. East-west mountain ranges occupy most of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and are the main mountain types (divided from trend); The north-south mountains are mainly distributed in the southeastern part of the plateau Hengduan mountain area Nearby, these two groups of mountains constitute a geomorphic skeleton, which controls the basic pattern of the plateau landform. The average elevation of the mountains in the northeast is generally high, except the peak elevation of the Qilian Mountains is 4500 meters to 5500 meters, and the peak elevation of the Kunlun mountains, Bayan Kala Mountains and Karakoram mountains are all above 6000 meters. Many secondary mountain ranges are also mixed in. There are parallel canyon landforms between the two groups of mountains, as well as a wide range of Broad valley , basin and lakes . ^{[24 to 25]}

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is home to the largest and most extensive permafrost area in the middle and low latitudes of the world, accounting for 70% of China's frozen soil area. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau permafrost area is the most widely distributed in the whole plateau, accounting for 57.1% of the total area of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau permafrost area. In addition to permafrost, seasonal frozen soil is also distributed in the lower altitude areas of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, that is, the frozen soil changes with the seasons, freezing and melting alternately, showing a series of thawing landforms. In addition, the glacial landforms of glaciers and their sculptures are also widely distributed on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. ^[24] ^[26]

There are 74 modern glaciers in Gongga Mountain area, with a total area of about 200 square kilometers, which is the largest Marine glaciation area between Hengduan Mountain system and the southeast margin of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau ^[72] .

Scientific research results

On September 5, 2018, The second comprehensive scientific expedition to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau The first results were announced in Lhasa: the scientific discovery that Mount Gangdise had risen to its present height before the Himalayas. The Himalayas block the northward transmission of the South Asian monsoon air mass, which gradually dries out and cools the Tibetan Plateau. After the uplift of the plateau, the organisms in the Qinghai-Tibet region formed a coexistence pattern of "out of Tibet" and "plateau hub".

Over the past 50 years, the area of glaciers on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its adjacent regions has retreated by 15 percent, and the area of permafrost on the plateau has decreased by 16 percent. The number of lakes larger than 1 square kilometer on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has increased from 1,081 to 1,236, and the area of lakes has increased from 40,000 to 47,400 square kilometers. The annual runoff of Brahmaputra River and the upper reaches of Indus River showed an increasing trend, and the runoff of several tributaries of Amu Darya River, Sir River and Tarim River in Central Asia increased significantly. The imbalance of water towers in Asia is accompanied by frequent disasters. In 2016, the Aru Glacier in Ngari Prefecture of Tibet broke out, causing serious casualties and property losses and threatening the fate of water towers in Asia. Therefore, a scientific early warning system needs to be established.

In the past 35 years, the average vegetation index of the growing season on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has increased significantly, but its increase trend has slowed down since 2000. The carbon sink function of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has increased significantly, but the permafrost melting caused by climate warming in the future may reduce the carbon sink function of the ecosystem. The rise of alpine tree line increases the forest biomass, but compresses the living space of alpine shrub and meadow, which may increase the risk of extinction of endemic species at high altitude. A warming climate also poses potential risks to agro-ecosystems. ^[15]

June 28, 2020, from Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences Using reasonable assumptions about the energy balance of non-glacial periods in lakes of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, combined with remote sensing data and reanalysis data, the researchers developed a reliable method for estimating lake evaporation, and based on this, the total evaporation of lakes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is estimated to be 51.7 billion tons per year, equivalent to the water volume of 3,570 West Lakes in Hangzhou. It provides data reference for accurate estimation of lake water resources reserves in the "Asian Water Tower". ^[27]

On September 17, 2022, the first flight of China's high-altitude large unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) plateau meteorological observation test was successfully completed. The test result It will become an important basis for decision-making on water resources and ecological security in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in the context of climate change. ^[73]

Institute of Tibetan Plateau Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, October 2022 Research data show that the high-altitude forest landscape in the eastern part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, represented by Daocheng and Shangri-La, was once a low-lying desert until tens of millions of years ago sample ^[74] .

Regional scope

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Location boundary

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau ranges from 26° to 39° north latitude and 73° to 104° East longitude, rising from the west Pamir Plateau , east to Hengduan Mountain The north boundary is Kunlun Mountains , Altun Mountain And Qilian Mountains, south Himalayas It is about 2,800 kilometers long from east to west, 300 to 1,500 kilometers wide from north to south, with a total area of about 2.5 million square kilometers, in addition to the southwestern edge of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Myanmar and other foreign countries, most of which are located in China. ^[28]

Regional division

According to the topography and geomorphology of different regions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, it can be divided into 6 sub-plateau regions.

name	intro
Northern Tibet plateau	The Northern Tibet Plateau is located in the northern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region, between the Gangdises, Kunlun and Tanggula Mountains. It is generally about 4500 meters above sea level and is the core part of the Tibetan Plateau. The ground is not very undulating and is distributed with a series of high elevation mountains, but their relative height is not large. Many mountain peaks are covered with snow all year round and glaciers are widespread. ^[29]
South Tibet Valley	The South Tibet Valley is also known as the South Tibet mountain. In the southern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Himalayas and Gangdise mountains. For the upper valley of the Brahmaputra River and other rivers. It is about 1200 kilometers long from east to west and 300 to 500 kilometers wide from north to south. 3000 ~ 4000 meters above sea level. Many local plains along the river valley. ^[30]
Qaidam Basin	Located between 90°16 '~ 99°10' east longitude and 35°20 '~ 39°25' north latitude, Qaidam Basin is the largest plateau basin in Qinghai Province. It is 800 kilometers long from east to west and 400 kilometers wide from north to south, with a total area of about 270,000 square kilometers. It is under the jurisdiction of Haixi Mongolian Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Qinghai Province. ^[31]
Qilian Mountains	The Qilian Mountains are located in the northeast of Qinghai Province, bordering the Hexi Corridor of Gansu Province to the north and east, and the Qaidam Basin to the south. It consists of fault block mountains and valleys. It is 1200 kilometers long from east to west, 250 to 400 kilometers wide from north to south, and covers an area of about 100,000 square kilometers. Intermountain basins and valleys are generally between 3000 and 4000 meters above sea level, and there are many peaks above 5000 meters above sea level. The western section is high and parallel ridges and valleys are closely alternated. ^[32]
Qinghai Plateau	Qinghai Plateau is the northeast part of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. In the middle and south of present Qinghai Province. From Burhanbuda Mountain in the north, Qilian Mountains, south to the northwest border of Sichuan, east to the west slope Mountain, southwest to the Tanggula Mountain. The plateau is about 4,000 meters above sea level, the highest point is the Bukadaban peak of Kunlun Mountain, 6,860 meters above sea level, and the lowest point is in Xiachuankou village, Minhe County, 1,650 meters above sea level. ^[33]
Sichuan-tibet mountains and valleys area	Sichuan-tibet mountain and canyon areas are in the west of Sichuan Province, the east of Tibet Autonomous Region and the northwest of Yunnan Province. It is the southeastern part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, alternating between mountains and rivers. From east to west, there are Jiudingshan, Minjiang River, Qionglai Mountain, Dadu River, Daxue Mountain, Yalong River, Saluli Mountain, Jinsha River, Jingping Mountain, Lancang River, Nushan, Nujiang River, etc. 3000 ~ 4500 meters above sea level. ^[34]

Climatic characteristics

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Overall characteristics

The general characteristics of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau climate are: strong radiation, more sunshine, low temperature, less accumulated temperature, temperature decreases with the increase of altitude and latitude, and the daily temperature range is large; Dry and wet clear, rain at night; Winter is long and dry and windy; Summer is cool and rainy with hail. ^[35]

The average annual temperature on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau decreases from 20 ° C in the southeast to below -6 ° C in the northwest. As the warm and humid air in the southern ocean is blocked by multiple mountains, the annual precipitation also decreases from 2000 mm to less than 50 mm. The annual precipitation of the northern wing of the Himalayas is less than 600 mm, while the southern wing has a subtropical and tropical mountain forest climate, the average temperature of the hottest month is 18 ~ 25℃, and the annual precipitation is 1000 ~ 4000 mm. The south wing of the middle west section of the Kunlun Mountains belongs to the alpine semi-desert and desert climate, the average temperature of the warmest month is 4-6 ℃, and the annual precipitation is 20-100 mm. Abundant sunshine, the total annual solar radiation 140 ~ 180 kcal/square centimeter, the total annual sunshine hours 2500 ~ 3200 hours. The most hail days, such as Nagqu hail days more than 20 to 30 days. ^[36]

Climatic zoning

Tibetan plateau

The Tibetan Plateau can be divided into Himalayas Tropical mountainous humid climate area in the south wing, subtropical humid climate area in the south wing of the Himalayas, humid plateau monsoon climate area in the south of eastern Tibet, the middle reaches of the Brahmaputra River (that is, the three river valley, part of the south wing of the Himalayas) temperate semi-humid plateau monsoon climate area in the south Tibet temperate semi-arid plateau monsoon climate area in the south Tibet, the cold zone of Naqu ya semi-humid plateau monsoon climate area, Qiang There are 10 climatic regions, including the semi-arid plateau climate region of Tangya cold zone, the arid plateau monsoon climate region of Ali temperate zone, the arid plateau climate region of Ariya cold zone and the arid plateau climate region of Kunlun cold zone. ^[36]

Make an impact

The Tibetan Plateau is The northern hemisphere Openers and regulators of climate change. The climate change in this region not only directly drives the climate change in the east and southwest of China, but also has a huge impact on the northern hemisphere, and even the global climate change, but also has obvious sensitivity, advance and regulation. ^[35]

From 2001 to 2020, the amount of glacier mass loss on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau will be 306 billion tons, with a corresponding loss rate of 15 billion tons per year. On global sea level rise The effect is weak. ^[82]

Drainage regime

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General situation

The distribution of rivers in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is mainly affected by climate and its own topography. In addition to the abundant precipitation in the southeast, the replenishment of rivers in the inland areas mainly depends on the melting of glaciers or snow. The Qilian Mountains, Bayankala Mountains, Nianqing Tanggula Mountains and Gangdisi Mountains in the region are the dividing line between the inner and outer water systems. This boundary between the inner and outer water systems divides the rivers of the Tibetan Plateau into two parts: the outflow zone and the inner flow zone. The outflow area is mainly located in the east and southeast of the plateau, such as the Yellow River and the Yangtze River that flow into the Pacific Ocean, and the southwest water system that flow into the Indian Ocean, such as the Brahmaputra River and the Salween River. Most of the internal flow systems are located in the northwest of the plateau, which mainly refers to the Qiangtang Plateau and Qaidam Basin and some small closed lake basins. The water from most internal rivers flows into these depressions, forming numerous saltwater lakes.

The inner flow area is blocked by high mountains, which makes it difficult for warm and humid air to reach and rainfall is scarce. However, due to sufficient sunshine, evaporation is relatively large, so most of the internal rivers have smaller runoff and shorter flow. Most of the inland rivers take meltwater as the main supply water source, so the seasonal changes are obvious. Summer is the flood season, winter is generally frozen, and the flow is often interrupted, that is to say, there are many intermittent rivers. Because most of the internal rivers are injected into basins or depressions, a large number of saltwater lakes have been formed, such as the famous Qinghai Lake and Namtso.

The outflow area can be divided into the Yellow River system, the Yangtze River system and the southwest water system. The Yangtze River and the Yellow River all flow into the Pacific Ocean, which belongs to the Pacific water system. The Southwest water system has 4 branches, including Lancang River , Nu Chiang The Ganges-Brahmaputra River and the Indus River (which originates on the southwestern edge of Tibet), all of which are injected The Indian Ocean ^[81] It belongs to the Indian Ocean system. In efflux river systems, The Yellow River , Yangtse River , The Brahmaputra River With numerous tributaries and wide drainage basins, it is the most important type of outflow water system on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Since most of the outflow water systems originate in the southeast or east of Tibet, the main way of recharge is rainwater. Therefore, compared with the internal river, the outflow water is huge and the process is long, and the two sides of the ground through which it flows are often eroded and accumulated to form impact plains or platforms of different sizes. ^[24]

Main river

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the birthplace of many rivers in China, with a dense network of rivers in the southern and eastern marginal mountainous areas. The largest outflow rivers include the Yarlung Zangbo River of the Indian Ocean (its major tributaries include the Lhasa River, the Nianchu River, the Niyangqu River and the Palong Zangbo River), the Nu River and the Pengqu River, and the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, the Yellow River and the Lancang River of the Pacific River. ^[37]

Important river
name	intro	picture
Yangtse River	The Yangtze River originates from glaciers on the south side of Gradanddon, the main peak of Tanggula Mountain on the roof of the world. At 6,621 meters above sea level, it is the largest glacier distribution center in the Tanggula Mountains.	Yangtse River
The Yellow River	The Yellow River originates from Gezi Geyashan (4980 meters above sea level) at the northern foot of Bayan Kala Mountain, taking Kariqu as the positive source, and converging to the northeast with Maqu and Zagqu, and flowing east into Zhaling Lake and Eling Lake.	The Yellow River
Lancang River	The Lancang River is one of the major rivers in southwest China. It originates from Tanggula Mountain in Qinghai Province, runs through eastern and southern Tibet, and flows out of China in southern Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan Province. ^[38]	Lancang River
The Brahmaputra River	The Yarlung Zangbo River is one of the highest plateau rivers in the world, flowing through the southern Tibetan Plateau, between the Himalayas and the Gangdise Mountains. ^[29]	The Brahmaputra River
Nu Chiang	Nu River, also known as Lujiang, known as Black water and Lushui in ancient times, is one of the great rivers in southwest China. It originates from the southern foot of Tanggula Mountain in the middle part of Qinghai-Tibet border and flows south through eastern Tibet and western Yunnan. ^[39]	Nu Chiang

Main lake

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has more than 1,500 lakes, of which 1,091 are larger than 1 square kilometer, covering 44,993.3 square kilometers, and 346 are larger than 10 square kilometers, covering 42,816.10 square kilometers, accounting for 49.5 percent of China's total lake area. The lakes in this area are mainly salt water lakes and salt lakes, the more famous lakes are Namtso, Qinghai Lake, Qarhan Salt Lake, Ing Lake and so on.

Important lake
name	intro	picture
Qinghai Lake	Qinghai Lake was called the West Sea in ancient times. It is called "Kukunor" in Mongolian, which means "blue lake". In the northeast of Qinghai province Datong Mountain, Riyue Mountain, Qinghai Nanshan. It was caused by the collapse of a fault. It is the largest inland saltwater lake in China.	Qinghai Lake
Serin Nuur	Serin Lake has a height of 4530 meters, a lake area of 1640 square kilometers, and a salinity of 18.27700 mg/l. It is the third largest saltwater lake in China. The Zaga Zangpo River flows into the lake. ^[40]	Serin Nuur
Namtso	Namtso is located in the north of Nianqing Tanggula Mountain, within the territory of Dangxiong and Bangor counties, 4718 meters above sea level, an area of 1940 square kilometers, the full name of Namtso Qiumodogu Gunzama, is the second largest saltwater lake in China. ^[40]	Namco
Bangong Lake	Pangong Lake is an international lake on the border between the western part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the Kashmir region. It runs east-west, about 155 kilometers long and 15 kilometers wide from north to south. It covers an area of about 2300 square kilometers. ^[40]	Bangong Lake

Major mountain range

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EDITOR

name	intro	picture
Kunlun Mountains	Kunlun Mountains The mountains stretching from the Pamir Plateau in Xinjiang to the west of Qinghai and northwest of Sichuan in the east, collectively known as the Kunlun Mountain System, are huge mountain systems in central Asia. It is 2,500 kilometers long, including the Pamir Plateau, the Kunlun Mountains, the Karakoram Mountains, the Altun Mountains and the Hoh Xil Mountains in northern Tibet. ^[41]	Kunlun Mountains
The Karakoram Mountains	The Karakoram Mountains In the southwest of China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and northeast of Pakistan, it extends to the north of China's Tibet Autonomous Region, with a total length of about 400 kilometers. The average altitude is above 6000 meters. Snowy peaks and huge glaciers. ^[42]	The Karakoram Mountains
Tanggula Mountains	Tanggula Mountains Lying in the middle of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, it borders the Karakoram Mountains in the west and the Nushan Mountains in the Hengduan Mountains in the southeast. It is the boundary mountain between Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province. It stretches from Little Tanggula Mountain in the north to Amdo, Tibet in the south, and is 160 kilometers wide. The main part of Tanggula mountain is above 6,000 meters above sea level, but the relative height is mostly about 500 meters. ^[43]	Tanggula Mountains
Hengduan Mountains	Hengduan Mountains It is located in the western part of Sichuan and Yunnan provinces and the eastern part of Tibet. It is a general name of the north-south mountain range, with an altitude of 2000 ~ 6000 meters. The northern mountains are snow-capped glaciers, the river valleys are deep, the terrain is steep, the altitude is 4500 ~ 5000 meters, and the highest mountain Gongga is 7590 meters. ^[44]	Hengduan Mountains
Mount Gangdise	Mount Gangdise From the Shiquan River in Ali region in the west, the upper source of the Indus River in the south, the Karzangpo and the upper reaches of the Yarlung Zangpo River valley, the boundary between northern Tibet and later Tibet. It is 1040 kilometers long, about 80 kilometers north and south on average, and the average altitude of the mountains is 5800 ~ 6000 meters. ^[33]	Mount Gangdise
Himalayas	Himalayas In the border zone of China, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan, the eastern section enters the territory of China. Located between the Tibetan Plateau and the South Asian subcontinent. The mountain system starts from the Lankapalbat peak in Kashmir in the west (8,126 meters above sea level) to the Namjbarwa peak (7,756 meters) at the great bend of the Brahmaputra River in the east, slightly projecting an arc to the south, about 2,450 kilometers long; 200-350 km from north to south; The total area is 594,400 square kilometers. ^[45]	Himalayas
Nianqing Tanggula Mountain	Nianqing Tanggula Mountains It is located in the central and eastern part of Tibet Autonomous Region. Near east-west. Gangdise Mountains to the west, Transduan Mountains to the east. It is 1400 km long and 80 km wide on average. The average altitude is 5000 ~ 6000 meters. ^[46]	Nianqing Tanggula Mountain

Resource profile

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EDITOR

Water resources

Water resources on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau exist in the form of rivers, lakes, glaciers, groundwater and other water bodies, with river runoff as the main body. The drainage area of the outflow water system accounts for 53.56% of the total area of the plateau. With a dense network of rivers in the south and southeast of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, it is the birthplace of many famous rivers in Asia, such as the Yangtze, Yellow, Salnu, Lancang, Brahmaputra, The Ganges , Indus Let's wait. The total annual surface water resources of the Tibetan Plateau, represented by river runoff, are 638.3 billion cubic meters. The total area of the plateau glaciers is 49,000 square kilometers, and the average annual melting water is about 35 billion cubic meters. The total area of the plateau lake is 36,889 square kilometers. The total amount of surface water and groundwater on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is 638.66 billion cubic meters, of which groundwater accounts for 28.35 percent. Water resources account for 22.71% of China's total. ^[36]

Land resources

The regional distribution of land resources on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is obvious, and the quantity composition is extremely unbalanced. The land suitable for grazing accounted for 53.9% of the total land area, the land suitable for forestry accounted for 10.7%, the land suitable for agriculture accounted for 0.9%, and the land area unsuitable for temporary use accounted for 34.5%. The land resources in Yinong are mainly concentrated in the valleys of the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in the south, the Nujiang River, Lancang River, Jinsha River and other tributaries in the southeast, the Yellow River and Huangshui Valley in the northeast, and around the Qaidam Basin in the north.

According to the restrictive factors such as climate, water conservancy, soil quality and slope, the cultivated land accounted for 17.7% of the first class land, 27.6% of the second class land, 53.1% of the third class land, and the remaining 1.5% of the other fields were returned farmland. The suitable grazing land resources are distributed in the sparsely populated alpine and non-forested areas, the ecological environment of grassland is different, and the performance of suitable grazing is also very different. 95% of the land in Yilin is concentrated in the southern Himalayas and the southeastern Hengduan Mountains, and it is also scattered in the Qilian Mountains, East Kunlun - West Qinling Mountains and Hehuang Valley in the northeast of the Plateau. ^[36]

Animal resources

Tibetan plateau (4 photos)

In terms of lower animals, Tibet alone has 458 species of aquatic protozoa, rotifera 208 species, crustacean 59 species of branchiopods; There are 20 orders, 173 families, 1160 genera and 2340 species of insects. In terms of vertebrates, there are 152 species of fish in 3 orders, 5 families, 45 genera. There are 1047 species of terrestrial vertebrates in 3 genera, accounting for 43.7% of the total number of such animals in China. Of the 1,009 species of endangered or threatened higher plants listed in China, more than 170 species are on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and 95 species of endangered or threatened terrestrial vertebrates are known on the plateau (301 species are currently listed in China). ^[47]

Plant resources

The Tibetan Plateau has Vascular plant More than 1,500 genera and 12,000 species, accounting for more than 50% of the total genera and 34.3% of the total species of vascular plants in China.

meadow

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is an important pastoral region in China, and the natural grassland types in the region can be classified into eight categories: alpine meadow grassland, alpine scrub meadow grassland, subalpine sparsely wooded shrub meadow grassland, alpine grassland grassland, alpine desert grassland, alpine swamp grassland, mountain scrub grassland, and alpine sparse and cushion grassland. Alpine and alpine grassland is the most widely distributed and the largest grassland type. ^[48]

forest

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is an important forest area in China, or a rare virgin forest area in China, with common tree species Joss pine , Pinus alpinus , Pinus yunnanensis , hemlock , Big fruit sequoia , Cypress xizangensis and Qilian Cypress The main forest types are subalpine dark coniferous forest, pine forest, subtropical long green broad-leaved forest, low mountain tropical forest, deciduous broad-leaved forest and larix deciduous forest. Despite the diversity of forest types and tree species on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the forest coverage rate is low and the distribution is uneven. The forest area is also small, but its forest stock volume and unit area stock volume are higher, especially in Tibet, where the forest stock volume reaches 2.266 billion cubic meters. ^[48]

Cash crop

Highland barley In Tibetan, it is called "Nai", also known as Naked barley Rice barley. Highland barley Xizang , Qinghai (Province) , Gansu (Province) and Sichuan Such as Tibetan areas, is one of the important food for Tibetans. Highland barley has a long history of cultivation in Tibetan areas, and the planting area is large, up to more than 80%. Highland barley is a kind of barley, divided into two kinds of white and black, the growth period is about four months, with the characteristics of cold and drought tolerance, so it is suitable for growing in the cold, drought, frost-free period of short Tibetan Plateau. ^[49]

Plateau grassland

Mineral resources

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is a vast area with a long and complex geological history and rich materials formed in various environments. More than 100 kinds of mineral resources have been discovered, and nearly 70 kinds of reserves have been proved, among which chromium , copper , lead , zinc , Crystal , asbestos, Salt lake Large hydrothermal mineral reserves; silver , gold , tin Mineral reserves of platinum group elements and rare earth elements are also considerable.

Copper deposits in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are widely distributed, large in scale and reserves, with many deposit types and associated minerals, which are often compound polymetallic deposits associated with lead, zinc, diamond, silver and other minerals. The most typical copper mine is the Yulong Copper mine in eastern Tibet, with preliminary proved reserves of 6.5 million tons of copper metal resources. ^[36]

Light resource

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is rich in light resources. The total annual solar radiation is 5,000 to 8,500 trillion joule Most areas are above 6500 megajoules per square meter, with only a few areas in the southeast and east below 6500 megajoules per square meter. The annual sunshine duration is 2500 ~ 3400 hours in most areas except for the eastern and southern parts less than 2500 hours. Light resources are not only abundant, but also the seasonal distribution is more uniform, which is conducive to the development and utilization of agricultural and solar energy resources. ^[50]

Geothermal resources

geothermy

The geothermal resources on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are characterized by many hot fields, wide distribution and high heat reserves. There are more than 600 hot springs on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, many of which are high-temperature boiling springs, the temperature exceeds the local boiling point, especially along the Brahmaputra River and its sides in southern Tibet, a large number of high-temperature boiling springs, geysers and fumaras are widely distributed. The Yangbajing geothermal field is one of the earliest geothermal fields developed in China and is used for power generation, heating and greenhouse irrigation. ^[36]

Environmental problem

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EDITOR

Glacier ablation

The Tibetan plateau is more vulnerable than other areas of the ice sheet, and the snow is melting at an alarming rate. In the century to 2010, the average temperature on the Tibetan plateau increased by 2.6 percent Fahrenheit Twice the rate of global warming. In some areas, the warming is even faster. At the same time, most of the glaciers on the Tibetan plateau are at high altitudes and low latitudes, which means that they are particularly sensitive to climate change, so the melting rate will be further accelerated. ^[51]

In about 30 years from 1984 to 2014, the area of glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau and its adjacent areas shrank from 53,000 square kilometers to 45,000 square kilometers, a 15% retreat. China has more than 46,000 glaciers, mainly on the Tibetan Plateau. Melting glaciers increase river flow in the short term, but in the long term, once some of the glaciers disappear or the area of the glaciers decreases, their downstream runoff will gradually decrease.

Land desertification

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is located in the middle and upper troposphere, and the atmospheric activity is intense and frequent, which provides enough power for the sand and dust to enter the atmosphere and carry out long-distance transmission. In addition, the large moving sand dunes and desertified land on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau provide sufficient source for the occurrence of dust weather. For example, the Yarlung Zangbo River and its tributary river valleys, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River source areas have large areas of active sand dunes. In addition, the area of desertification on the plateau is also increasing rapidly.

Sandstorms occur mainly in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the arid and semi-arid areas in northern China. From December to March each year, the dust storm center is concentrated on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and the center moves northward with time. Compared with other sandstorm areas, the plateau is more likely to lift fine dust materials such as sand and dust to an altitude of 5,500 meters, and the westerly jet stream at this height is the main driving force for long-distance dust transport in Asia, and even can transfer dust to the distant North Pacific region. ^[52]

Soil erosion

According to the survey data in 2006, since the founding of the People's Republic of China, the area of soil erosion in Qinghai Province on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has reached 382,000 square kilometers, accounting for 49.1 percent of the total land area of Qinghai Province, and it is still expanding at a rate of 3,600 square kilometers every year. The Yellow River, Yangtze River and Lancang River basins in Qinghai Province account for 39.5%, 31.6% and 22.5% of the soil erosion area, respectively, making them the most affected areas.

Soil and water loss (source of Yangtze River)

Human history

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EDITOR

Primitive society

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the cradle of the Chinese nation, the birthplace of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, and the vast plateau is one of the birthplaces of the entire Chinese culture. However, due to the limitations of the plateau geographical environment and other factors, archaeologists only collected and discovered some of them on both sides of the Yellow River bordering Gansu and Qing in the first half of the 20th century. It was not until the 1950s that archaeological investigations and excavations were carried out on the entire plateau.

The relics of the Paleolithic Age have been collected in the Nali region in the west, the Hengduan Mountains in the east, the Kunlun Mountains in the north, and the Himalayan mountains in the south. The remains of the Mesolithic Age have been preliminarily identified as Shenzha and Nyalam. Neolithic remains are found almost all over the Tibet Autonomous Region and adjacent areas, including stone tools and other artifacts.

Tibetan plateau

The stone tools of different ages found so far, their shape and processing, have the characteristics of stone tools in the Yellow River basin, but also with certain local characteristics. The age of the microstone is still to be identified, but it belongs to the same type as the microstone in northern and western China. ^[53]

Shang Zhou to Tang

Since ancient times, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has been inhabited by the nomadic western and Qiang ethnic groups. Shang Dynasty general name "Qiang Fang"; The Zhou Dynasty called the western border people the Rong people and the southern border people the barbarians; The qin dynasty , han At this time, they were first called Yaqiang people. The later Han Dynasty had contacts with the Xiandao and Shaodang Qiang tribes in the Gan and Qing regions, which in turn had contacts with the Tangtuo and Fa Qiang tribes in Tibet.

In the early 4th century, Xianbei nationality The Tuyuhun Department moved from Liaodong along the Yinshan west to the Gansu and Qing regions, established local authorities, and had direct contacts with the Xihai tribes in Qinghai and the Xiqiang tribes in Tibet. The Sui Dynasty unified China, the forces far west of Qinghai Lake, in addition to the Tuyuhun Ministry, but also with the Xinu State, Dayangtong, Supi, Dangxiang, Fuguo, Southwest Zhuman and other Qiang departments also had good contacts, and through the Qiang Department contact with Bailan, Jialiang, Xibuye and other departments.

The Sibuye Department was a branch of the Shanyu tribes, living in the Yalong River valley. During the Sui Kai Emperor's reign at the turn of the 6th century and 7th century, it gradually became the leader of the Tibetan tribes alliance, and its power spread across the vast areas on both sides of the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River. In the long river of historical development, more than 150 ethnic groups of the ancient Xiqiang merged and formed several local governments. ^[54]

In the early 7th century, Tang Dynasty Sui and xing. At about the same time, the chief of the Sibuye Department of Pibo City in the Yalong Valley conquered more than ten tribes in Bobao, Niangbao, Gongbao, Dabao, Luoyu, Menyu, Xiaoyangtong (Xiangxiong), etc., and made Luzi (Luzi) the capital, establishing the Tubo Dynasty.

Qinghai-tibet Plateau agricultural planting area (2 photos)

Tubo Zampu (king) set up four military and administrative areas in the headquarters, including Wulu, Yaoru, Yeru and Rula, and reached Yangtong in the west, Supi in the north and Erdomi in the east. He successively occupied Balan, Dangxiang (Miyao), Xishan States, Tuyuhun (Achai), Khotan (Li Yu) and Bolu vassal states, and fought with Tang Dynasty for the four towns in the Western Regions for a long time. It confronted Shuofang, Hexi, Longyou and Jianfu of the Tang Dynasty, and its armed forces reached as far as Nanmian (Sanyu), Nibora, Tianzhu (India), as well as Dashi and Tujue states. It set up garages in Khotan (Li Yu), Shazhou, Liangzhou, Domi, Wusheng Army and Dongdao, and dominated the motherland Xishou, making outstanding and glorious contributions to the exploration and development of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

In the middle of the 9th century, Zampu was murdered and the Tubo dynasty ended. The native Tubo royal family was divided and quarreled with each other for a long time. The tribes in the Tubo territory were independent one after another, and Gan, Su, Gua, Sha and other states were subordinate to the Tang Dynasty. Soon, the whole Tibetan Plateau broke out in a great riot of slaves and people, and the Tubo establishment in various places was completely destroyed and nothing remained. ^[55]

Five dynasties and two Song Dynasties

From the early 10th century to the late 13th century, the Central Plains experienced the Liang, Tang and Tang dynasties. jin , Han, weeks and The Northern Song Dynasty (960-907) , The Southern Song Dynasty The regime changes, the strength becomes weaker, no time to look west; Since the beginning of the Song Dynasty, it has been delimited by the Dadu River and blocked from the Tubo provinces. Only Xiliang (six Gu), Miao Chuan and other local leaders, have received the royal court. The Western Xia dynasty with Dangxiang (Miyao) as its main body was a threat to the northern part of the Song Dynasty, while the Qinghai 唃 Siluo (Zongka) regime was a supplement to the Song Dynasty.

In the homeland of the Tubo Dynasty, it was divided into three places: Usi (former Tibet), Tibet (later Tibet) and Narisu, with the exception of Moyu (Ladakh), Guge and Buang. Other local governments such as Yazer, Luasa, Wusan, and Yalong have never been developed; The regions of Sanga, Dabao, Gongbao, Bobo, and the Zangqu River basin are still divided and separate from each other. After the 11th century, a number of local regimes under theocratic feudal systems were gradually formed. In the Tubo Dynasty, the former areas under its jurisdiction, such as Menyu, Luoyu, Kamu and Tosima, were more dispersed and became numerous nomadic communities. In the peak period of the Tubo Dynasty, the Dali, Khotan (Li Yu) and Jiameiro, which had arrived, gradually intermingled with the local tribes. ^[56]

Yuan Dynasty

Into the late 13th century, Yuan Dynasty The whole of China was unified, and at the same time Zhongshu Province set up provinces in Gansu, Shaanxi, Yunnan and other places, it began to formally establish the "land of counties and Tubo" across the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Yuan Dynasty took the Tibetan Plateau as the birthplace of the Tubo Dynasty, so it was collectively called "Tubo". The special Proclamation Council (originally known as the General Council of Buddhism) was established in the Central Government and administered directly to its territory. In case of emergency, we will set up an executive Council and send officers and soldiers to it.

The Ministry of Propaganda and Reform directly administers the Ministry of Propaganda and Consolation in three places: first, in the place of Tusi Ma; (2) In the place of Kamu; Three, for: Wusi, Tibet, Narishulusun and other three road pacification minister, in the original Tubo dynasty. He placed his house in Saskar and appointed Governor and pacification Minister of Uszang. In Narishulusun, following the old system of three local governments established in the region after the collapse of the Tubo Dynasty (Ladakh), Guge, and Bujan), the Chief Marshal's office was set up in Narishur (Leh). In Wusi (former Zang) and Zang (later Zang), the political and religious leaders who were closely combined with the local chiefdoms at that time set up six thousand households each and one thousand households between the two places, making a total of 130,000 households. ^[57]

Ming Dynasty

Ming Dynasty After the unification of China, the "Xuan Government Yuan" was abolished, the outdated title "Tubo" was abandoned, and the two provincial command departments and a military and civilian command office were rebuilt, directly under the command of the imperial court. Duogandu command envoy: in Dasi Ma and Khamu place, it is roughly equivalent to the Tufan and other places of the Tufan and other roads of the Yuan Dynasty. Uszandu Command Department; At first it administered 130,000 households; It was soon replaced by the canonization of Kings.

Tibetan Plateau pastoral area (2 photos)

Olis Military and civilian commander's office: that is, Narishulushun old administered Ladakh, Guge, Bujan three local authorities. It is located in Oris (Leh). In the Ming Dynasty, five powerful political and religious leaders in Uszang and the region bordering on it, were successively awarded the title of King, and the most powerful was Yilevudong's Bamuzhu Wanhu, who was awarded the title of King Chuanhua. In addition, the Ming Dynasty also named the leaders of various sects as several Dharma Kings, but the Dharma Kings were not hereditary and had no fiefdoms. Only the three Dharma Kings Dabao, Mahayana and Dasi have a certain reputation and influence among the people. The Ming Dynasty also referred to the plateau tribes as "West Fan people". ^[58]

Qing Dynasty

Tibetan Plateau desert region

Set up in the Qing Dynasty ribana It was the same as the six departments, dealing with minority affairs. The Manchu and Mongolian people call the Tibetan people "Tangut". Calling Tibetans "Tibetans"; Therefore, the Tibetan Plateau is called "Tangut" and Tibet is called "Tibet" (hence the English word Tibet). At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the Ming Dynasty abolished the Duogan and Usi Tibetan command Department and the army and civilian command office of Oris, stopped the subfeoffing of Kings, and appointed various Erut Mongol Kings and chieftain, soil officials, etc. to manage local affairs. The Qing Dynasty dedicated itself to the Gelug School of Huangism, and successively conferred titles on the Dalai Lama and Panchen Erdeni. During the Kangxi Dynasty, quarterbacks (former Zang), Zang (later Zang) and Ali were named Tibet, and imperial officers were sent to work in Tibet. The local Mongol king was abolished. During the Yongzheng Dynasty, he was appointed minister of Qinghai Affairs and stationed in Xining to manage local affairs in Amdo. He also appointed the Minister and deputy minister of Tibet Affairs to work with the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama in Lhasa to supervise the Kashag government in managing local affairs in Tibet. As for the Kamukang area, part of it was managed by the minister in Tibet to the east of the Lancang River; Some were administered by the Sichuan-Shaanxi Governor to the west of the Jinsha River, and then turned over to the Sichuan governor. Until the end of the Qing Dynasty, he set up a special post of Sichuan-Yunnan border minister in Kamu, and administered local affairs together with the governor of Sichuan and the minister in Tibet. ^[59]

Republic of China

Xinhai Revolution The uprising in the provinces was successful, and the imperial system was abolished, by Republic of China The government approved the establishment of Gansu, Sichuan and other provinces, the establishment of QinghaiMengpan Pacification missions, and the demarcation of Sichuan as special zones. In the 18th year of the Republic of China (1929), Qinghai Province was established and Xining was established. In the 28th year of the Republic of China (1939), he established Xikang Province and was stationed in Kangding. In the early years of the Republic of China, the central government set up the administration of Tibet and Mongolia affairs (from the 29th year of the Republic of China, known as the Mongolian and Tibetan Committee), but after the overthrow of the local ministers in Tibet, the republican system failed to be established. The central government restored the title of the 13th Dalai Lama and appointed a chief of the Office in Tibet, but he was unable to take up his post due to the British division and various reasons. The British had planned to designate the Tibetan Plateau as inner Tibet and outer Tibet, and attempted to annex the Menyu, Luoyu and Xiachayu regions, but they were always rejected by successive central governments and the Dalai Lama. When the Dalai Lama forced the Panchen Chen to leave Tibet and live in the interior, the Wei (former Tibet), Zang (later Tibet) and Ngari regions were put under the administration of the Kashag local government under the supervision of the Dalai Lama, and were divided into Ngari, Zang, Wei, Luoka, Changtang, Dagong and Duomai (Kham) regions, with a number of municipalities, 豀 (counties and districts) under their jurisdiction.

In the 18th year of the Republic of China (1929), the Ninth Panchen Lama set up an office in Nanjing, and in the 20th year of the Republic of China (1931), the 13th Dalai Lama set up an office in Nanjing. After the death of the 13th Dalai Lama in the 22nd year of the Republic of China (1933), the Nationalist government, at the request of the Tibetan region, sent officials to deal with the situation, and later set up an office of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission in Lhasa. ^[60]

Tibetan Plateau -- Lhasa

Modern development

Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has seen improvements in transportation, with the goal of providing access to cars, planes and trains. On December 25, 1954, the Qinghai-Tibet and Sichuan-Tibet highways were officially opened to traffic. On May 26, 1956, the route from Beijing to Lhasa was successfully tested. On July 1, 2006, Qinghai-tibet railway Completed and opened to traffic.

After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the primary, secondary and tertiary industries on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau developed in an all-round way, laying a certain foundation for the development of a distinctive economy. The characteristic economy of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau now has various industrial sectors and economic processes of agriculture, animal husbandry, industry and tertiary industry. Characteristic agriculture and animal husbandry include plateau animal husbandry and planting; Featured industries include clean energy geothermal, wind energy, hydropower and other industries, advantageous mining, national special needs industry, green food processing industry, etc. The tertiary industry includes tourism and cultural industry. However, the overall level of economic development on the plateau is relatively low. ^[61]

Qinghai-tibet railway

Plateau culture

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EDITOR

Xiangxiong culture

Xiangxiong is the name of the Tibetan Plateau before the rise of Tibet, which is divided into three parts: inside, middle and outside Xiangxiong, respectively, to today's Zada County, Naga County, Naga County, Qiongzong, Qamdo City Dingqing county Qiongbozizhu Mountain as the center of the historical territory. The Xiangxiong culture began with Kailash in the area of Aligandis Mountain as the center. From the beginning, it feared the nature of the universe and began to respect sacred mountains, Sacred lake Primitive worship, such as gods and spirits, was listed as the original "Ben" ideology, and then gradually formed the "Ben religion" in the Xiangxiong culture with various rituals or content differences, such as Duben, Qiben and so on, and a relatively chaotic existence in the Xiangxiong culture. shamanism It is a kind of sect that belongs to the early stage of this religion in the Xiangxiong culture. The main rituals are sacrifice, witchcraft and divination.

Xiangxiong cultural site

Xiangxiong culture These systems, including medicine, architecture, statology, enlightenment, Buddhism, philosophy, and astronomy, have accumulated over thousands of years and become the crystallization of the wisdom of the ancestors of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. ^[62]

Living habit

Be dressed in

In Tibetan market towns and villages, the upper body of men and women are mainly Tibetan robes, men wear trousers and women wear long skirts. Tibetan robe Most of them are made of woolen wool (cloth woven by yak), wool or cloth, most of them are black, brown or dark gray in color, with a wide front and a lace cuff at the collar. Because the robe is long, the waist is raised and a belt is tied when worn. ^[63]

Tibetan robe

diet

1. Ghee

butter It is extracted from yak milk or goat milk and has high nutritional value. Warm yak or goat milk slightly, then pour it into a "snow dong bucket", stir until a layer of fat floats on the surface, scoop the fat into a bag, and cool it to form ghee. Ghee can be made into butter tea, or added to the glutinous rice cake.

Highland barley glutinous rice cake

Highland barley wine

Buttered tea

butter

2. Butter tea

Buttered tea It is the most common drink among Tibetans. The production method is to boil the tea brick into a thick tea juice, and then pour it into the butter tea bucket with ghee and seasoning, stir until the water and milk blend, boil and drink. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau climate is dry, lack of vegetables, and Tibetans mainly eat meat, so the heat and fire of butter tea is their daily indispensable drink.

3. Zanba

Highland barley belongs to barley It is cold-tolerant, drought-tolerant, and has a short growing period. It is the most important food crop on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The highland barley will be dried, fried, ground into powder, add ghee pinch pinch into a ball, become" Zanba, roasted barley flour It is the staple food of the Tibetan people.

4. Highland Barley wine

Highland barley wine It is made of highland barley, the alcohol content is about 10 degrees, the taste is sour and sweet, like rice wine in the mainland, more like it is Sichuan obliquely Fermented glutinous rice . Highland barley wine is an indispensable beverage for the festive banquet of the Tibetan people. Visitors to Tibet in the mainland, even if they do not drink, can also drink several bowls happily.

Traditional Tibetan food also "baozi" (Tibetan dumplings), yogurt and dried beef and mutton. ^[63]

reside

1. Lhasa

Lhasa In other big cities, the common form of housing is a 2-3 story stone blockhouse, people live on the upper floor, and the first floor is a warehouse or captive livestock. The walls are painted white, the balconies and Windows are planted with flowers and plants, and the brilliant colors of a charming painting appear against the clear sky of the plateau.

2. Rural Areas

Most of the buildings in the countryside are wooden and stone bungalows with rammed earth on the roofs, piled with yak dung and wood and other fuels. There are also colorful flags in the corners of the houses, which fly in the wind.

3. Pastoral area

The tent is the residence of Tibetans during the summer nomadic period, in order to facilitate the relocation of nomadic, the design of the tent is simple, easy to remove, the central wooden pole support, and the surrounding rope can be pulled open on the ground. The space inside the tent is about 10-15 square meters, and there is a stove surrounded by stones, which can be used for simple cooking. The tent is stitched with wool, thick and tough texture, quite warm. ^[63]

Traditional entertainment

1. Tibetan songs and dances

Tibetan song and dance

Traditional folk songs are the crystallization of Tibetan folk literature, using metaphor, association, personification and other techniques to describe Tibetan life, customs, feelings between men and women or historical stories. Generally divided into "jumping fruit harmonic", "jumping string", "Zhuo" and "hot bar" and so on. ^[63]

2. Tibetan Opera

Tibetan opera, called "Ajram" in Tibetan language, originated in the 8th century Tibetan religious art, known as the "living fossil" of Tibetan culture. In the 17th century, Tibetan opera was separated from the religious ceremonies in monasteries and gradually formed into a life-style performance based on singing and combining basic procedures such as singing, chanting, dancing, table, Bai and ji. ^[64]

Cultural festival

Cultural festival
Festival name	Description
Tibetan New Year	Among the Tibetan festivals, the Tibetan New Year is the most solemn. From the beginning of December of the Tibetan calendar, Tibetans began to prepare for the New Year, cultivate highland barley seedlings, prepare "Kasai" (flour snacks fried with butter), "Lu" (sheep's head sculpted with butter flowers), "Chelma" and other offerings, in order to pray for good weather and good crops in the coming year. ^[65]
Sholton Festival	"Xueton" means "cheese banquet" in Han, also known as the Tibetan Opera Festival, a traditional Tibetan festival in the Tibet Autonomous Region, which begins on July 1 of the Tibetan calendar every year and lasts from five to seven days. ^[66]
Bathing festival	Tibetan traditional festival. It is called "Kamalji" in Tibetan, which means bathing. Popular in Tibet Autonomous Region. The festival is the annual Tibetan calendar July 6 to 12, a period of 7 days, so it is also called "bathing week". ^[67]
Horse racing archery pageant	Horse running archery legend originated in the 15th century, originally only religious sacrificial activities, later joined the horse running, horse shooting wrestling, weight bearing and other recreational activities, and evolved into horse running archery pageant. ^[65]

Tourist attraction

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EDITOR

Tourist attraction
Tourist attraction	Description	picture
Potala Palace	Potala Palace Standing on the Red Mountain in Lhasa, Tibet, it is a key cultural relic protection unit in China. Over 3,700 meters above sea level, the Potala Palace covers a total area of 360,000 square meters, with a total construction area of 130,000 square meters. The main building is 117 meters high and has 13 floors, including palaces, pagodas, Buddhist halls, sutras, monks' dormitories and courtyards. It is the highest and largest palace-style building complex in the world today. ^[68]	Potala Palace
Jokhang Temple	Jokhang Temple In the center of Bajiao Street, the old city of Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region. It was built in the middle of the 7th century, and the existing buildings were built successively after the 11th century. The temple sits east facing west, with a total construction area of more than 25,000 square meters. It is divided into three parts: the vestibule, the main hall and the Lashtra (Living Buddha office). The main hall is centered and the halls surround it. The architectural style of the temple is a combination of Chinese and Tibetan elements. ^[69]	Jokhang Temple
Norbulingka	Norbulingka, located in the western suburbs of Lhasa, means Treasure Garden and was named by the 7th Dalai Lama Kelsang Gyatso. Originally the Summer Palace of the Dalai Lama, since the seventh Dalai Lama, the successive Dalai Lamas have moved from the winter Palace Potala Palace in the summer to deal with government affairs here. It is now open to the public as a park. The whole park is composed of two parts: buildings and gardens, covering an area of about 360,000 square meters.	Norbulingka
Ta 'er Temple	Ta 'er Temple It is located near the lotus mountain col and stream in Rusal town, Huangzhong District, Xining City, Qinghai Province. It was built in the thirty-ninth year of Jiajing Ming Dynasty (1560). The main buildings in the temple are large Jinwa Temple, small Jinwa Temple, small flower Temple, large Sutra Hall, large kitchen, nine halls, Dalalang, Ruyi Pagoda, Taiping Pagoda, Puti Pagoda, passing tower, etc. The architectural style and decorative techniques of the whole temple blend the architectural traditions of both Chinese and Tibetan temples. ^[70] ^[80]	Ta 'er Temple

Ecological protection

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EDITOR

On April 26, 2023, the Second session of the Standing Committee of the 14th National People's Congress voted to adopt the Ecological Protection Law of the Tibetan Plateau. The law will come into force on September 1, 2023. ^[75]

September 1, 2023, Tibetan Plateau Ecology The Protection Law shall come into force. ^[77]

On October 22, 2023, a research team composed of the Institute of Atmospheric Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Meteorological Bureau successfully established a multi-element self-detection system in Wollongong, 5,896 meters above sea level in the Kunlun Mountains At present, the station is the highest meteorological station in the whole Kunlun Mountains, and the stepped meteorological observation network in the Middle Kunlun Mountain area on the north slope of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has been basically built. ^[79]

Environmental assessment

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EDITOR

On May 27, 2023, the Scientific Assessment of the Impact of Human Activities on the Ecological Environment of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, led by the Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research and the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, was released . From the perspective of ecological environment changes, the ecological environment on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is generally improving. ^[76]

Meteorological observation

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EDITOR

In 2021, China will establish a tropospheric atmospheric microwave radiometer observation network on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which can conduct real-time and continuous unattended observation under almost all weather conditions.

Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, June 2024 For the first time, the scientific research team has obtained a continuous tropospheric atmospheric profile of the Tibetan Plateau Annual observation data It can provide data support for the study of weather process and environmental change on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and the forecast of severe weather. ^[89]

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