Ancient Greece, yes Western civilization One of the sources is ancient times Balkan Peninsula The South, The Aegean Islands and Asia Minor A general term for the coast. Ancient Greece is the most important and direct source of Western civilization.

The recorded literature, technology and art in the West all began in ancient Greece. Ancient Greece was not a concept of a country, but a term for a region. Ancient Greece is located in Europe The southeast, Mediterranean The northeast, including the Greek peninsula, Aegean Sea and The Ionian Sea Archipelagos and islands, Türkiye Along the southwest coast, Italy Eastern Hoa Sicily The eastern seaboard.

5th ~ 6th century BC, especially Greco-persian Wars After that, the economic life of ancient Greece was highly prosperous and the science and technology was highly developed, which produced a brilliant Greek culture And have a profound impact on later generations. Ancient Greek In philosophy, thought, poetry, architecture, science, literature, drama He has deep attainments in many aspects, such as mythology. This heritage of civilization after the fall of ancient Greece was Ancient Roman Continue, thus becoming the whole Western civilization The spiritual source. ^[1]

3000-2000 BC Aegean culture Is the forerunner of its history. 12th - 8th century BC Homeric age . 8th - 4th century BC Classical age . After 338 BC, fell Macedonia Under the rule. The second half of the 4th century BC Alexander's crusade Followed by Hellenistic age . Incorporated in 146 BC Roman The map. Ancient Greek culture constitutes the main part of classical culture, and the literature, art, history, philosophy and science of the classical era, especially Athens, have been left in the centuries, and have a great impact on Rome, later Europe and the world culture.

Chinese name: Ancient Greek
Foreign name: Ancient Greece
Abbreviated form: Greece
continent: Europe
capital: Without a capital, ancient Greece was not a country
Major city: Athens , Sparta , Mycenaean , Thebes , Corinth Thrace, Macedonia, etc
Official language: Ancient Greek

Time zone: UTC+2
Political system: Aristocratic republic
Major nationality: Ancient Greek
Major religion: Greece polytheism
National Day: About 800 BC
Year of death: 146 BC
Representative figure: Dionysius , Peisistratus, Periander, Pericles, etc

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EDITOR

beginning

2000 BC (there are also other books on Aegean civilization The beginning of about 3000 BC), the Aiqin civilization began Crete (There are also claims that the Greek mainland and The Aegean Islands Later, the center of civilization moved to the Greek peninsula and emerged The Mycenaean civilization . The Cretan civilization and Mycenaean civilization together called Aegean civilization, lasted for 800 years, it is the beginning of the ancient Aegean civilization.

Ancient Greek neighborhood Mediterranean and Aegean Sea , yes Marine civilization The source of (Western civilization), so the ancient Greek civilization is also known as Marine civilization.

The Parthenon in ancient Greece

Ancient Greece was located in the eastern Mediterranean, and its geographical area was larger than the present day Hellenic Republic The territory is larger and includes roughly the Greek peninsula, The Aegean Islands , The Ionian Islands and Asia Minor Peninsula The West coast. Aegean civilization is the earliest civilization in Greece, it is the general name of the bronze civilization in the Aegean Sea and the surrounding area, its center has been in Crete and Mycenae. Around 2000 BC, the first states appeared on Crete.

The Aegean region of Greece has long had human activity. Early human skulls have been found in the Karsidis region of northern Greece, and some scholars believe that they belong to The Neanderthals .

Paleolithic age Cultural relics are scattered throughout the Greek peninsula Knossos . Neolithic people lived much the same way everywhere, growing crops such as barley, wheat and beans, domesticating livestock such as sheep and goats, and worshipping clay statues that symbolized fertility. Agricultural technology probably came from West Asia via the Lesser Asian Peninsula by land and sea, possibly accompanied by agricultural migration. Notably, Greece lacked hard flint, Neolithic culture There are many residents everywhere obsidian To make stone tools with sharper edges, obsidian is only found in Milo Gully in the Cyclades Islands. This suggests that at least between 6000 and 7000 BC, Aegean Sea On the beginning of the exchange of needed goods trade.

Ancient Greek

As early as 800 years before the rise of the ancient Greek civilization, the Aegean region gave birth to the splendid Cretan and Mycenaean civilizations.

Between 1100 and 1000 BC, Dorian The invasion destroyed the Mycenaean civilization, and Greek history entered the so-called "Dark Ages".

Because most of what we know about the Mycenaean period comes from the Homer's epic Bronze and sea trade flourished again, and new city-states were founded. The first time was in 776 BC Olympic Games The holding of the Ancient Greek civilization has entered a prosperous period. Around 750 BC, as the population grew, the Greeks of Athens began to colonize. Over the next 250 years, new Greek city-states spread to include Asia Minor and North Africa inward Mediterranean Along the coast. Of all the city-states, the most powerful is Sparta and Athens .

Greco-persian Wars

At the same time that the Greek city-states expanded to the Mediterranean coast, the Western Asian Persian Empire Also expanding, the mighty Persian Empire conquered the Ionian Greek states of Asia Minor.

The goddess Athena

In Asia Minor, 499 BC Miletus Wait for the Greek cities to revolt and get support from Athens. King of Persia Darius the First After putting down the uprising, he prepared to attack Athens. In 490 B.C., the Persian army crossed the sea, but in Battle of Marathon They were defeated by the vastly outnumbered Athenian hoplites. The Greeks won the first time Greco-persian Wars The victory.

480 BC, King of Persia Xerxes I With half a million men, he attacked Greece again. The Greek city-states also formed alliances against powerful enemies. The army of the Allied Greek army Spartans The main force was the Athenian fleet. Greek army Wenquan Pass The Persian army was defeated, but it bought time for the Greek navy to gather. The Persians entered Athens and burned the city to the ground, but the Greek navy defeated the Persian navy at the Battle of Salami, and the Persians were in danger of being cut off from supplies and had to retreat. The Greeks took advantage of the victory and liberated the Greek states in Asia Minor. The Second Greek-Persian War ended in a Greek victory.

Decline and fall of Greece

After the Greco-Persian Wars, Athens became the hegemon of Greece. The Athenian navy was the most powerful military of the Greek states, and so was the Athenian democracy Pericles The government reached a golden age. During the Greek-Persian Wars, the various Greek city-states established a state headed by Athens Delian league After the war, it gradually became a tool for Athens to achieve its hegemony.

Greek mythological figures

In order to Sparta chief The Peloponnesian League dissatisfied Athens The hegemony of the two sides broke out many times friction. In 431 BC, the Spartan ally Thebes attacked the Athenian ally Pilates, which was officially triggered The Peloponnesian War . Athens relied on its powerful navy to blockade, and Sparta invaded Athens in an attempt to force a decisive battle. Both sides fought each other, but failed to achieve a decisive victory, and peace was concluded in 421 BC. The peace did not last long. In 415 BC, Athens made an alliance with Sparta in Sicily Syracuse Launched a massive expedition that ended in a fiasco. Sicilian expedition Athens was so weakened that it was unable to resist the Spartan attack. In 405 BC, the Athenian navy was wiped out. The following year, Athens surrendered to Sparta, who became the new overlords of Greece. Sparta's hegemony did not last long, and the Greek city-states fell into chaos. The downfall of Greece is inevitable. The decadence of the government and the degeneration of people's thoughts are the fundamental reasons for its demise.

Division of empire

Ancient Greek sculpture

Ancient times Macedonia Located in the northern part of Greece, it was on the edge of Greek civilization and was considered a barbarian by the Greeks. But from the 4th century BC onwards, Macedonia gradually became an important country in northern Greece. In 359 BC, Philip II Enthrone. Under Philip, Macedonia became Balkan region The premier military power. Faced with the rise of Macedonia, Greece established an anti-Macedonian coalition led by Athens. In 338 BC, Macedonia was in Caronia They defeated the Greek Allies and took control of all of Greece. In 336 BC, Philip was assassinated, his son Alexander Enthrone. Soon after Alexander took the throne, he put down the revolts of the Greek cities and consolidated his power. In 334 BC, Alexander led an army across the sea, which opened the prelude to his conquest of the world. Alexander's greatest enemy was powerful Persian Empire . Alexander defeated the Persian army at the Granikas River and then at Issus and captured it from the Persians Syria and Egypt . King of Persia Darius III He tried to make peace, but was rejected by the ambitious Alexander. In 331 BC, there was a decisive relationship between Alexander and Darius III Battle of Gaugamela Eruption. Once again, Alexander won and took advantage of the situation Babylon The Persian Empire falls. Alexander continues east until Indus valley Just turned back. In 323 B.C., when Alexander died of illness and his vast empire broke apart, Greek history came to an end, Hellenistic age Here.

Aegean civilization

Aegean civilization It refers to the civilizations in and around the Aegean Islands, including Cretan civilization with The Mycenaean civilization . About 2000-1700 BC, in Greece Crete Gave rise to a monarchy, a palace complex and hieroglyphics Its appearance is its hallmark.

Around 1600 BC, the Cretan civilization entered a flourishing period, when writing, Bronze ware Pottery, gold and silver making technology has improved significantly, the king's palace is huge.

Around 1400 BC, the Cretan civilization disappeared.

Hellenistic age

Macedonian in the second half of the 4th century BC Alexander the Great Conquered all of Greece and spread Greek civilization to the East in the process of imperial expansion, known as the Hellenistic Era. At this time, Greek literature was coming to an end, and the center of Greek civilization was gradually moving from Athens to Egypt the Alexandria . The Greek literature of this period is characterized by detachment from reality, emphasis on rhetoric and pursuit of sentimental sentiment. The more successful area is New comedy and idyll .

The new comedy is the opposite of Aristophanes The "times" Old comedy It is characterized by not talking about politics, avoiding serious topics, but showing more social customs, and pleasing the audience with twists and turns of plot and elegant style. Menander (342-292 BC) was a pioneer and representative of the new comedy in Ancient Greece, writing 105 comedies. Many of his works survive intact, including" misanthrope "Women of Samos" and so on. Menander's comedies often have a complicated love background and pay special attention to the portrayal of characters in the plays, which deeply influenced the 17th century English playwrights.

Theocritus (310-250 BC) was the first author of pastoral poetry in the Hellenistic era. His poetic style is lively and beautiful, and there are 30 complete poems. Ancient Rome the Virgil He imitated his style and created the famous" Pastoral song ". The famous poets of this period also included Apollonius and so on.

political

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EDITOR

Ancient Greece was a region full of city-states, so many different political systems were practiced and developed in this region, some of the ancient Greek city-states such as Sparta Follow in the same vein oligarchy Concentrating power in the hands of the king; Some states are like Athens Same practice Democratic politics ; Other states were ruled by nobles or controlled by a small number of people congress councils rule. Although ancient Greece was geographically small, its political system developed in a variety of ways over a wide period of time. The ancient Greeks experienced this in terms of their political system alone aristocracy , democracy , oligarchy and tyranny The evolution of... In particular, the democratic political system of ancient Greece is one of the earliest attempts to direct democracy system of ancient people, which has a profound impact on later generations.

In the Hellenistic era, political thought was replaced by autocracy, with monarchs often invoking theocracy or semi-theocracy. Alexander the Great Ruled as the Son of God in Egypt, worshipped as a glorified god in Greece. After his death, the Hellenistic countries followed his example. This situation to plug the kingdom of Lux and The Ptolemaic Dynasty More obviously, the king of the Seleucas dynasty Antiochus IV dominion Syria With the title "Epiphanes"; Ptolemaic monarchs signed their edicts in the name of "Theos" (God), only Macedonia The situation is not as obvious as the preceding two.

Military affairs

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EDITOR

Ancient Greek militaries traditionally included heavy use of infantry warfare. The most typical type of infantry in Greece was the Hoplite militia, supported by Peltast, archers, and cavalry. The infantry usually advanced in a conical or rectangular phalanx, while the spearthrowers harried the enemy from both sides. The general phalanx is composed of phalanx infantry close together with shields in front of the human wall, because the defense can have a great advantage, but the lack of mobility. The Greek hoplites got their name from the Hopllon (round shield) they used. Since all the equipment of the soldiers is purchased by themselves, the soldiers lack uniforms, and the possibility of accidental battlefield injuries is relatively high.

economy

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EDITOR

Industry and commerce

The economy of ancient Greece was quite developed, and although the scale of industry and commerce was not large, there was still a certain degree of development. except Sparta adopt Regulated economy Outside of the system, the other city-states were mostly loose and free. However, there are disparities between rich and poor in all city-states.

Hellenistic age Countries, in particular Egypt with A surname Strict controls were exercised over business and foreign trade. The Ptolemaic Dynasty Government-run factories or shops were set up in almost every village in Egypt to supplement the Treasury, and private industry and commerce were strictly regulated; Governments in Western Asia have similar tools, albeit on a smaller scale. However, disparities between the rich and the poor, as well as falling wages and rising prices, are widespread and make life hard for people. In addition, the rise of metropolises was characteristic of the Hellenistic world. Syria The population of Antioch quadrupled in a hundred years, The Tigris River Upper Seleucia grew from uninhabited to hundreds of thousands of Egyptians The city of Alexandria It was the largest city at the time, with a population of about one million.

Cause of rise

Geographical reason

Ancient Greece is located in Mediterranean The east, the three continents of Europe, Asia and Africa. Its geographical extent is roughly centered on the Greek peninsula and includes The Aegean Islands , Asia Minor West coast, The Ionian Islands and Italy Minami Hoa Sicily Of the colony. Fertile river basins and open plains are not to be found in Greece, and the land is divided into small pieces by continuous mountains and rivers. However, the vast sea gave the Greek ancestors a broad space for development, here the coast twists and turns, green islands connected, numerous harbours, Mediterranean climate Mild and pleasant, with abundant Marine resources. Mountain gullies, lack of cultivated land, barren land, limited food production, the contradiction between man and land prominent. Forced Greece to engage in overseas trade, overseas colonization and economic and cultural exchanges. The zigzag coastline and numerous fine bays provide conditions for these activities in particular. The special Mediterranean climate makes Greece rich wine and Olive oil And provided goods for overseas trade. It is these reasons that contribute to the relaxed and free social environment of ancient Greece, the idea of mutual benefit, and the national spirit of open exploration.

The ancient Greek world in 431 BC, the red part is the city of Athens

Humanistic reason

Egypt The religion of... Persia The philosophy of Phoenicia The words, Babylon The astronomy and art of "barbarian peoples," the fruits of countless ancient civilizations and thousands of years of culture were quickly spread through these roots The Peloponnese Rolling hills, spread to Attica The fruitful orchards spread to the barren mountains of Biatia. Frankti Cave in the Agolis region of southern Greece, dating from about 7000 BC Mesolithic age Ruins, for residents obsidian Making stone tools to catch sea fish. Neolithic settlements were found in mainland Greece and the Aegean islands, dating back as early as 6000 BC. Knossos Neolithic age The way of life was much the same everywhere, and in 3000 BC, the Aegean region entered Bronze Age appear Slave state . The use of bronzes led to the emergence of magnificent buildings in the Cretan civilization at that time, and the ruins of the Palace of Knossos unearthed in the 19th century were typical buildings at that time. The Cretan script, commonly known as Eteocretan (" proto-Cretan "), may have been written in an undeciphed form Linear literal A Write. In the later culture, due to The Mycenaean civilization The invasion, they switch Linear literal B An early Greek alphabet to remember things.

Around 1200 BC, another group of Greeks ( Dorian The invasion destroyed the Mycenaean civilization. For the next 300 years, Greece was completely silent, closed and poor, and Greek history entered the so-called "dark Ages". Because most of what is known about this period comes from the book Homer's epic ", bronze ware; Maritime trade was also re-developed, as the population of Athens grew. ^[2]

culture

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EDITOR

philosophy

Classical Greek philosophy is the wisdom of the life of ancient Greek philosophers, in which classical Greek philosophy has a profound influence on the development of Western philosophy, science and religion. ^[1]

Classical Greek philosophy is the summing up and thinking of the wisdom of the ancient Greek philosophers on life. In the eyes of the Greeks, philosophy and science are the same category. The task of focusing primarily on debate and inquiry is an important part of philosophy. Classical Greek philosophy had a profound influence on the development of Western philosophy, science and religion. ^[4]

The history of Western philosophy begins with ancient Greece, and in particular with a group of philosophers commonly known as the Pre-Socratic period. This is not to deny the others Ancient Egypt , Semite and Babylon A myth created by an early philosopher in the culture. It is true that great thinkers and writers existed in every culture, and we have evidence that some of the earliest Greek philosophers may have been exposed to at least some works of Egyptian and Babylonian thought. However, the early Greek thinkers added at least one element to their predecessors' thinking that distinguished them from their predecessors. For the first time in history, we find in their writings not dogmatic claims about the laws of the world, but their various arguments for these theories.

The fact that almost all of the various cosmologies proposed by the early Greek philosophers have been proved to be profoundly and unequivocally false does not make them any less important. For even later philosophers immediately rejected the answers assumed by their predecessors, but they could not escape the questions posed by their predecessors:

Where does everything come from?

What exactly is it made of?

How can we explain the nature of a large number of things?

Why can we describe them with a single mathematics?

And the form the Greek philosophers followed, and the method of conveying their answers, became as important as the questions they asked. The pre-Socratic philosophers rejected traditional mythological explanations of the phenomena they saw around them in favor of more rational explanations. In other words, they rely on inference and observation to illuminate the real nature around them, and they use sound arguments to highlight their views to inform others. Although philosophers have argued about the relative importance of reason and observation, for 2,500 years they have generally used the method first invented by the pre-Socratics.

Disputes often arise in determining the ideas of the pre-Socratic philosophers and the manner in which they used arguments to support their particular views. The problem does not arise from some defect in themselves or in their thinking, but simply from the fact that their history is so far removed from ours. Although most of the pre-Socratic philosophers produced iconic works, we do not have a complete version of any of them, only quotations from later philosophers and historians, and occasional fragments of the original text.

Tailles (Greek: Θάλης; English: Thales)

Anaximander (Greek: Αναξιμανδρος; Anaximander)

Pythagoras (Greek: Πυθαγάρας; English: Pythagoras)

Of Ephesus Heraclitus (Greek: Ηράκλειτος της εφφσσου; Heraclitus of Ephesus)

Xenophanes (Greek: Xi ενοφ; English: Xenophanes)

Socrates

Parmenides (Greek: Παρμενίδης; Parmenides) and others The Eleatic school The philosopher of Eleatic

Leucippos (Leucippus), Democritus (Greek: Δημόκριτος; Democritus) and other Atomists

Protagoras (Greek: Πρωταγόρας; Protagoras and Sophists

Socrates (Greek: Σωκράτης; Socrates, 469-399 BC) was an Athenian philosopher who pioneered the "ethical philosophy" and transformed ancient Greek philosophy from the study of nature to the study of man himself, becoming the most important icon in the Western philosophical tradition. The "interrogative" education method he adopted made a very important contribution to the Western way of thinking. See his article for more information.

Plato (Greek: Πλάτων; Plato, 427-347 BC), a very influential classical Greek philosopher who was taught by Socrates Aristotle . His most famous work," Utopia (Greek: Πολιτεία; The Republic depicts his fantasy of a "perfect" country. He also wrote the Law and many of Socrates' dialogues. Plato became a student of Socrates at a young age, and (according to his own account) participated in the interrogation of his teacher, although it was not carried out by him. Unlike Socrates, Plato wrote down his philosophical views and left behind a considerable number of manuscripts. See his article for more information.

Plato

Aristotle (Greek: αριστοτάλης; English: Aristotle, in most other non-English languages, is called Aristoteles Italian Aristotele, 384 BC - 7 March 322 BC), along with Plato, is known as one of the two major influences on the Western way of thinking. Their works, though related in many fundamental ways, are quite different in style and subject matter. Plato wrote several dozen philosophical dialogues (debates in the form of talks, often with Socrates appearing as a participant) and a small number of letters. While the early dialogues were mainly about the methods of acquiring knowledge, and most of them at the end about just and practical ethics, his most famous works state a concern ethics , metaphysics , inference, knowledge, and a summary view of human life. His salient ideas include the fact that knowledge acquired through intuition (perception) always leaves a confused and impure view, and the annoyance that the contemplative mind can derive 'real' knowledge from the world. Only the soul can grasp the structure of knowledge, the true nature of things, and the world we see is only a flawed copy. Such knowledge is not only of ethical importance but also of scientific importance. We can think of Plato as a idealism Hitowa rationalism Yes.

Aristotle

Aristotle, by contrast, paid more attention to the acquisition of knowledge from perception, and would acquire it relatively more empiricism The modern label. Aristotle thus set the stage for the eventual development of the century into the scientific method. The works of Aristotle that still exist today are in the form of treatises, most of which were not published by their authors. The most important include physics, metaphysics, (Nicomaco) ethics, political science, on the soul (above the soul), poetics, and many other works.

Cicero (Greek: Κίκερος; English: Cicero)

Of Kittyon Zeno (Zeno of Citium)

Epictetus (Epictetus)

Epicurus (Greek: Επίκουρος; Epicurus) and Lucretius (Lucretius)

Empedocles (Empedocles)

literature

The Age of Heroes. Myth

The 12th century BC to the 8th century BC is the beginning of the ancient Greek world The clan commune deflecting slavery A period of social transition known in history as" Heroic age ", also known as" Homeric age The major literary achievements of this period were myth and epic.

Ancient Greek mythology It is the spiritual product of primitive clan society, the oral creation of the collective creation of ancient Greeks, and the earliest literary form in the Western world, produced about the 8th century BC. It formed a basic scale on the basis of long-term oral transmission of the original people in Greece, and later Homer , Hesiod It is fully reflected in the works of others. It is produced and reflected in a geographical location from the Greek peninsula in the west to the east Asia Minor Peninsula , south to Crete The vast Aegean Sea region. The content of Greek mythology is a vast and extensive system, with numerous branches and factions, and numerous legends and stories, which are not completely consistent. But it has obvious family color, including a blood bond, there is a basic vein, roughly can be divided into god's story and hero legend two parts.

The gods in Greek mythology, like human beings, have lust, good and evil, schemes, and blood relations with each other, all of which are personified images, which is "the theory of the homogeneity of God and man". Like a heavenly father Zeus He often went down to chase and seduce earthly women, and his wife Hera And persecute her rival like a jealous woman. However, the difference between gods and humans is also obvious: immortal, can be deformed at will, each has special skills and great power, and its likes and dislikes play a decisive role in the life and death of human beings in the lower world. One of the most prominent gods is the one who dwells Mount Olympus The Twelve Lords of God.

The heroes in the legend are the descendants of gods and people, are half-gods and half-people, with exceptional talent and extraordinary perseverance, are under the protection of a certain god to complete an amazing performance, reflecting the collective wisdom and strength, showing the Greek people's hard work and courage heroism Spiritual praise and yearning. Hero legends form many systems centered on different families, mainly including Heraclitus Of the legend, Theseus Of the legend, Jason Legends and so on.

Greek mythology evolved over a long period of time, with changes in the character and duties of the gods and in the story lines. It can be said that the ancient Greek mythology is the source of the whole Western literature, and almost all later writers have drawn nutrients from the ancient mythology.

" Homer's epic It is the earliest formal written literary work in the history of Western literature. The epic consists of two parts: Iliad "(a translation of the Ilionian Period) and" Odyssey According to legend, the author was a blind poet who lived roughly between the 10th and 8th centuries BC Homer .

A tribute to Homer

The Iliad, which consists of 24 books and 15,693 lines, is based on the Greek myth of "discord. Golden apple "Of the legend. Hand down Achilles My parents forgot to invite the Goddess of Discord to their wedding Eris The angry Nevengeance threw a golden apple at the banquet, writing "for the most beautiful woman", triggering the diva Hera Goddess of Wisdom Athena amatio Oh, Aphrodite The fight between and ultimately lead to Trojan War The outbreak of... The epic is dominated by the Greek allied forces in the Trojan War Agamemnon The plot of taking away the female prisoner favored by the brave general Achilles, and the plot of Achilles' anger and no longer fighting, describes the anger of Achilles and the events of the next 51 days.

The story of the Odyssey takes place in the decade immediately following the Trojan War. For the Greek Allies in the Trojan War Wooden horse scheme the Odysseus For offending the sea God Poseidon And lost at sea, stranded in a foreign land. Later, he overcame all kinds of difficulties with unparalleled heroism and finally returned home to be reunited with his wife and children.

The theme of Homer's epic poems is to praise the glorious history of the Greek nation, praise the good qualities of bravery, justice, selflessness and diligence, euloge the optimism of overcoming all difficulties, and affirm the value of human beings and life. But epic also has a strong fatalism Color, the struggle between people is often a microcosm of the struggle between God and God. But the epics rarely make value judgments about the justice or not of the war itself, beyond the narrow nationalism .

In language, Homer reached a high degree, the rhetorical skills are quite mature, the narrative structure is also very reasonable. Homer makes good use of metaphors to describe people and to depict broad social and historical scenes. This is characteristic of all ancient literature, though it is often long and superfluous.

Poets of this period, with the exception of Homer, Hesiod It's also very famous. He lived roughly between the late 8th and early 7th centuries BC. His masterpieces include the oracular poems "Farming and the Days" and" theogony ". His writing style is very similar to Homer, and the language has traces of imitating Homer's epic.

The Great Migration · Lyrics

The 8th century BC to the 6th century BC is known as the "Great Migration Age" in ancient Greek history, and the major literary achievements of this period include lyric poetry and allegory.

Ancient Greek lyric poetry includes a variety of themes, mainly divided into couplet poetry, satiric poetry, lyre And madrigals. The earliest of these poets is said to be Calinus in the first half of the 7th century BC, but it is Semonides (556-466 BC) who wrote the most couplet. The founder of Athenian democracy Solon He also wrote a lot of poetry.

However, in ancient Greek lyric poetry, the highest achievement is the lyric song, which is a kind of song poetry accompanied by music. Piano songs can be divided into two kinds, one is the solo style and the other is the chorus style.

The representative figure of solo piano songs is the female poet Sappho (612 BC ~?) . She was forced into exile during the political struggle between the Democrats and the aristocracy in Athens, and later in her hometown The island of Lesbos Create a music school. She composed a total of nine volumes of poetry, but only two of them are complete and the rest are fragments. Her language is very beautiful, sad mood, sincere feelings, the subject matter describes more sentimental love. Such as her famous work "to Anaktoria", deeply sad, touching. Sappho is said to be a homosexual. Many of her poems were published in 1703 Roman and Constantinople It was burned in public. However, in the ancient Greek world, Sappho had a high status and was once Plato Called "the tenth. Muse ".

Sappho (Portrait)

In addition to Sappho, Alcaios and Anacreon He is also very good at writing solo body songs. Alcaius was close to Sappho, but his reputation was somewhat inferior to Sappho's. Most of his compositions are political and war themes, which reflect the fierce side of piano songs. Later critics believe that it was he and Sappho who brought the lyric poetry of ancient Greece to its peak. Anacreon, on the other hand, had a bad reputation for defecting to the royal family and serving as the royal poet. His works were smooth and popular, and had a profound influence on European poetry after the 16th century.

As for choral organ songs, the most accomplished poet is Pindar (518~ 442 BC). He was taught by some famous Athenian musicians, and most of the themes of his poetry were in praise of God and the Olympic movement. He wrote 17 volumes of poetry in his lifetime, of which four complete volumes of the Ode to the Winner of the Competition exist (45 poems in total). Pindar's poetry had a great influence on later generations, Milton , Goethe And others have deliberately copied his style.

Hand down Aesop He was a freed slave in the first half of the B.C., a brilliant man who wrote many fables throughout his life.

Aesop's fables Mainly through the words and actions of some animals to convey moral teachings, famous stories include "the Lion and the mouse", "the fox and the crane", "The Lion and the Mouse". A Wolf in sheep's clothing "And" The Fox and the Grapes." Aesop's fables are usually short and thoughtful, reflecting the wisdom of the ancient Greeks, which has had an impact on the literature of the world.

The Age of Democracy · Drama

The so-called "democratic age" refers to the period from the 6th to the 4th century BC. This era was the heyday of the ancient Greek world, the city-states were prosperous and developed, and Athens, located on the bay and convenient transportation, was increasingly developed in industry and commerce, and established a slave-owning democracy. In Athens, the state had no king, and the highest authority was the General Assembly, which was elected by lot by the citizens and deliberated on state affairs.

In addition, the success of foreign wars also strengthened this prosperous situation to some extent. In the early 5th century BC, Greece and Persia Between the economic and political contradictions caused Greco-persian Wars The Greeks are in Battle of Marathon After a major victory at the Battle of Salami, many Greek city-states formed a naval alliance to defend themselves against Persian aggression, with Athens as the leader. Since then, the economic and political prosperity of Athens has been growing, and also ushered in the golden age of Greek literature.

Athenian democracy was a model not only for ancient Greece, but for the entire ancient world. The democracy of Athens was not only the first in human history, but also directly influenced the political system of the later Western countries. In modern Western languages, such as English , French , German , Spanish , Russian The word "democracy" in such languages is derived from Ancient Greek The word "demokratia" evolved. The word "demokratia" in ancient Greek is composed of two parts: "demos" and "kratos", "demos" means "people" and "region", and "kratos" means "rule" and "management", so the so-called "democracy" refers to "people's rule" or "people's management".

Athens practiced the highest degree of democracy. Direct democracy ". in Pericles All offices in Athens were open to all citizens, and anyone (except the ten generals) could be elected by lot to all levels of government. Government officials in Athens were appointed for a term of office, usually one year, and most were not eligible for re-election to avoid cliques. Athens also implemented the committee system, all important matters are made by the collective decision, the collective responsibility. Rather than one man having the final say, thus avoiding autocracy and bureaucracy. In order to ensure that democratic politics is not violated, from Cleisthenes At the beginning of the era, Athens also formulated Pottery banishment They used pottery to vote for people who might pose a threat to Athenian democracy. If a person gets more than 6,000 votes, he or she is deported abroad and cannot return for 10 years, leaving no room for political careerists.

The highest achievement of Greek literature in this period was drama.

comedy

Ancient Greek comedy originated in sacrifice Dionysius The carnival song and dance and folk burlesque. In 487 BC, Athens officially decided to add a comedy competition to the Spring Festival of Dionysus.

Ancient Greek comedy is mostly political satire and social satire, which was produced in the flourishing period of democracy with relatively free speech. The comedies of this period were highly critical, and were particularly good at satirizing figures in power. Comedy at this time was called" Old comedy ". In the 5th century BC, there were three major comic poets in Athens, namely, Cratinos, Opolis and Aristophanes Only Aristophanes has written.

Aristophanes (446-358 BC) lived The Peloponnesian War During the period, the city-state civilization of Athens was in decline, and the Athenian society appeared Gap between rich and poor Political factions and other phenomena, these become the playwright's creative material. Aristophanes wrote 44 comedy plays in his lifetime, but only 11 of them have survived in their entirety, the most famous of which include The Babylonians and the Babylonians. cloud "" The bird "" Knight" " The Akanai ", etc. Among them, Bird is the best work, the most complete allegorical comedy existing in ancient Greece, and the beginning of utopian comedy. Aristophanes was the father of comedy throughout Europe, and it was he who established the tradition of comedy in Western literature to present serious subjects in a comical form.

drama

Originated from folk songs, dances and religious ceremonies. Its themes are mostly from ancient Greek myths and heroic legends, as well as the world-famous" Homer's epic ". The poetic language and the legendary story make the ancient Greek drama have infinite charm. Its strong vitality and profound and rich philosophy still bring people enlightenment today. In the fifth century BC, the development of ancient Greek drama reached its peak and was born Aeschylus , Sophocles and Euripides Three great tragic writers, their classic works are still enduring on the stage of the world. The themes of ancient Greek tragedy generally come from mythological stories; Another part comes from the heroic legends of ancient Greece; Another part is based on Homer. The Homeric Epics not only influenced the tragedy in its content, but the poetic writing technique of the Homeric epics themselves, is directly in the chorus songs of Greek tragedy, that is chorus In the chorus song, including its syllables and rhythm, it is taken from Homer's epic.

unit

General picture

In terms of architecture, the heritage of the ancient Greeks can be considered to have two themes. One is the figurative models contained in Greek architecture. These models first included a set of decorative terms, sculptures, and styles that were more or less accepted in their entirety, or used and discarded in fits and starts. Even if they fall out of favour, it is not rash to conclude that they have completely disappeared from the databases of Western architects. The second aspect of Greek architecture that has survived is the Greek view of the nature of architecture. The form of architecture is always passively accepted, while the essence of architecture can only be understood in the mind, and instinct is often found in some obvious places. People know that to properly design the dimensions of a building, they must follow certain mathematical proportions. This view is Greek, both in nature and in the choice of proper proportions. The idea is that Renaissance period Again, sometimes the perfection of architectural form takes the trouble to repeat some favored shapes.

A corner of the Acropolis

The existing architectural ruins are mainly shrine , theater , Arena Such public buildings, especially the temple as an important activity center of a city-state, it is also the most representative of the architectural style of that period. The life of the ancient Greeks was dominated by religion, so of course the biggest and most beautiful buildings of the ancient Greeks were the Greek temples. The ancient Greeks believed that the gods were also human beings, but they were more perfect than ordinary people, and they believed that the place provided for the gods to live was only a more superior residence than ordinary people. Therefore, the earliest temple buildings in Greece were simply rectangular buildings with porches where the nobility lived. Later, the column style was added, and it gradually developed from the early "end post door gallery" to the "front gallery", that is, the front porch of the temple is composed of four columns, and later developed to the "front and back gallery", and the gallery style evolved into the standard form of Greek temple architecture before and after the 6th century BC - "encircle column", that is, the rectangular temple is surrounded by colonnades. The overall style of Greek temple architecture is solemn and elegant, with harmony, magnificence and sublime beauty. These style characteristics have distinct performance in all aspects.

peculiarity

According to the remaining Greek architecture, we can summarize several characteristics of ancient Greek architecture.

The first feature is that the plane is composed of 1:1.618 or 1:2 rectangle, the center is the hall, the hall, and the surrounding columns, which can be collectively referred to as the ring column architecture. This kind of modeling structure makes the ancient Greek architecture more artistic. Because under the sunshine, the buildings produce rich light and shadow effects and virtual and real changes. Compared with other closed buildings, the sunshine eliminates the dull feeling of the closed walls and strengthens the characteristics of the sculpture art of Greek architecture.

The second feature is: the type of column. There are four types of columns: 1. the Doric column, 2. Ionic Column, 3. Corinth Style pillar, 4. Girl statue pillar. These four types of columns are slowly formed in people's exploration, and there is a certain connection between the back column and the front column, and there is a certain sense of progress. Running through the four columns is the eternal harmony of human beauty and number. The development of columns played a decisive role in the structure of ancient Greek architecture, and had a major impact on the architectural style of Ancient Rome and Europe later.

The third feature is that the double-sided sloping roof of the building forms a specific technique for the decoration of the gabled wall before and after the building. Ancient Greek architecture has round carving, high relief, bas-relief and other decorative techniques, creating a unique decorative art.

The fourth feature is that the harmony of human beauty and number is advocated by the progressive artistic taste of the common people. The ancient Greeks admired the beauty of the human body, whether it was sculpture or architecture, they believed that the proportion of the human body was the most perfect. Grand architect Vitruvius Paraphrasing the ancient Greek theory: "Buildings... Strict proportions must be set according to the pattern of the parts of the human body." Therefore, the proportions and norms of ancient Greek architecture, the style of the external form of the column is completely the same, are based on the human scale and the beauty of the human body as the fundamental basis of its style, their modeling can be said to be the artistic manifestation of the beauty of human demeanor, shape, face and behavior, and their proportions and norms can be said to be the image embodiment of the proportion and structure of the human body. Therefore, these columns have a lively noble beauty, because they express the pride and nobility of man as the spirit of all things.

The fifth feature is: the architecture and decoration are carved. Greek architecture and Greek sculpture are closely linked. It can be said that Greek architecture is a work of art carved out of stone. From the swirl on the Ionic column, to the swirl on the Corinthian column Honeysuckle The flower basket composed of leaves, the girl who looks at ease on the column of the statue of a girl, the relief on the cornice of the gable of each temple, are exquisite carving art. It can be seen that sculpture is an important part of ancient Greek architecture. It is sculpture that created the art of ancient Greek architecture, and it is precisely because of sculpture that Greek architecture is more mysterious and perfect.

influence

The need of public activities is an important reason for the construction of a large number of public buildings. The existing architectural ruins, such as temples, theaters, and arenas, deeply reflect the artistic tastes of the ancient Greeks. Its most prominent architectural vocabulary - the four types of columns in the building, the Doric column, the Ionic column, the Corinthian column, and the girl statue column, make the ancient Greek architecture left a unique and immortal style. The beauty of the human body that it advocates makes Greek architecture produce a kind of lively sublime beauty both in proportion and shape. The relief on the building makes the building full of vitality and artistic sense. Therefore, if you want to study the history of ancient Greek art, Greek architecture is the starting point for the study of all art, because it contains not only how to build a building that amazes future generations, but also the ancient Greek aesthetic concept and sculpture art. Ancient Greek architecture is one of the great achievements in the history of human development, and has left an immortal art classic for mankind. Its architectural vocabulary has deeply influenced the architectural style of later generations, and it almost runs through the entire two thousand years of architectural activities in Europe, whether it is Renaissance period , Baroque period , The Rococo period Even in the collectivist period, we can see the reappearance of Greek words. Ancient Rome Its architecture was most influenced by ancient Greek architecture, and the Roman period also developed its own kind of hybrid column, which was derived from the Greek column.

Ancient Greek architecture

Ancient Greek architectural style is characterized by harmony, simplicity, solemnity and clear layout. The temple architecture is the concentrated embodiment of these styles, and it is also the most far-reaching architecture in ancient Greece and even the whole Europe. Among them, in the history of ancient Greek architecture, such artistic classics as the Parthenon Temple and Zeus altar (Pergamon) have left valuable artistic heritage to the world, and have a significant and far-reaching influence on the world architectural art. If we say that the culture of ancient Greece is the source and Treasury of European culture, then the architectural art of ancient Greece is the source and Treasury of European architectural art.

Ancient Greek architecture gives people a huge and strong shock through its own sense of scale, sense of volume, texture of materials, shape and color, as well as the painting and sculpture art contained in the building itself, and its powerful artistic vitality makes it enduring. Its beam and column structure, the specific combination of its building components and artistic decoration techniques have deeply influenced European architecture for two thousand years. Therefore, it can be said that the architecture of ancient Greece is the pioneer of Western European architecture.

Chronology of construction

The year 2000 BC

Middle Bronze Age and Middle Minoan, Cretan civilization: The large palaces of Crete

▲ 1800 BC

The Kingdom of Hittia in Asia Minor: the earliest architectural site of Troy

▲ 1600 BC

Late Bronze Age and Late Minoan, the hegemony of Knossos: the castles of Heti, the palaces of Tirins and Messenes, the royal tombs of Mycenae, the Treasury of Atreus of Mycenae

1400 BC

Troy de McGalon

The year 1300 BC

The Trojan War, the fall of Knossos

▲ 1100 BC

The fall of Mycenae, the beginning of the Dark Ages, and the origin of Greece

▲ 1000 BC

The earliest Greek colonies were established in Ionia: sacrifices to the gods, the earliest brick and wooden structures of the Magalons

The year 776 BC

The Earliest Olympiad and the beginning of the Greek Chronicles: the earliest architectural remains of the Holy Site of Olympia

The year 753 BC

The founding of the city of Rome, the time of the poets Homer and Hesiod, extensive Greek colonization of Sicily, Italy and Spain: the earliest columns of colonnades of wooden temples

▲ 600 BC

The political power of the city-states, the beginning of democracy in Greece, Pythagoras of Samos: the beginning of the Ancient Art period, the earliest gables decorated with sculptures, the ancient Doric temples of Selitenon and Pocidonia, the earliest large Ionian temples of Artemis at Epheso, and the Temple of Hera at Samos

500 BC

The beginning of drama: tragedy and comedy, the beginning of the war against the Persian invasion, Battle of Marathon (490 BC), the beginning of the urbanization of Greece, the Delian League, Pericles' plan to rebuild the city of Athens: the beginning of the Classical Art period, the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Poseidon in Poseidon, the reconstruction of the Parthenon and the Acropolis, the earliest theatre at Attica

▲ 400 BC

Plato, Aristotle, beginning of Macedonian hegemony, Alexandrian dynasty, greatest expansion of Greece: the first Corinthian (circular building)

The year 323 BC

The death of Alexander and the beginning of the Hellenistic Age: The Theatre of Epidavouro

▲ 300 BC

Macedonian Wars The Library of Alexandria, the large Apollonian oracle at Diduma, the Shrine of Asclepius on Kos, the Shrine of Linduus Athena on Rhodes

▲ 200 BC

The Roman provinces of Macedonia, Acea, Pergamum, and Egypt: The large Zeus altar at Pergamum

100 BC

The architect Hermogenes

▲ The first year of AD

The Beginning of the Roman Empire: Vitruvius' Ten Books of Architecture

100 AD

Bothanias: A journey to Greece

Ancient Greek architectural terms

▲ Concave: vertical cut decoration on the surface of the column.

A common plant in Mediterranean climates, its leaf shape is used as a decorative motif for Corinthian capitals.

Acropolis: Usually a higher part of a city with a number of sacred buildings such as temples, usually with walls.

Adilon: A room at the back of a Greek temple, usually enclosed but sometimes with the inner sanctuary.

Central square: A central square or open space in an ancient Greek city for meetings, which was also used to open markets, hold trials, and set boundaries for the city's main civil buildings.

Column lintel: The main beam that crosses the entire column of colonnades, fixed directly on the column head, and the lintel is placed with a sash. In Doric architecture, the beams are smooth, while in Ionian architecture, the lintel is raised in three strips.

▲ Column: a building with columns on it.

Plinth: a platform-like component of a building on which the building is placed.

Capital: The finishing part at the top of a column, above which is a beam or lid.

▲ Caryatid: statue column. The most famous is a statue of a young woman supporting a portico in the temple of Erechtheon on the Acropolis.

Inner sanctuary: A sacred and enclosed place, accessible only to members of the monastic class, and the core of a Greek temple.

▲ Round hoop line: a small, parallel, incision-like line used in Doric columns to decorate the column body below the capital.

Lintel: A short beam placed above a hole in a wall to support the weight of a wall built on it.

Tooth decoration: arranged in a string, small rectangular tooth decoration, this is the characteristic of the Ionian carved belt.

Doric: The traditional architectural and decorative style of the Doric people, which spread throughout Greece from the 6th century BC.

Column top plate: the horizontal structure above the column on the column head, including the column top lintel, carved belt and cornice.

▲ Cylindrical microcurve: Determine the curvature of the outline of the Greek column, which is formed by the gradual reduction of the diameter of the cylinder from the bottom to the top.

▲ Bell circle: A member on the base of a Doria column, shaped like a disk.

Pedestal: Boundary of the last step of the base of a Greek temple.

Column body: the part between the column head and the column foot of a cylinder.

MUSICIANS

Music culture, more than the music of ancient Greece.

Since the time of mythology, Greece has attached great importance to music and art. From 3200 BC to 1200 BC." Aegean culture During this period, people learned from the tomb paintings at that time that people's musical life at that time was mostly accompanied by singing and Musical Instruments. Human self Egypt After Mesopotamia entered the Greek era, music began to have scientific research; Then, in 776 BC, when the first Olympic Congress was held, it was also Greece and its territories Asia Minor (now Türkiye Along the coast, music was particularly developed during the period.

Ancient Greek culture flourished, according to Keizo Horiuchi The History of Western Music dates from 650 BC to 338 BC, which is later than the peak of Egypt's Mesopotaic period. The musical forms of the time included songs, dances and musicals. In terms of Musical Instruments, most of them inherited this early ancient musical instrument. At the time, the most widely used in Greece was Lyra (LYRA), the famous blind poet Homer HOMEROS used to sing two of his epic poems, "Homeros", accompanied by a Lila. Iriarte "And" Odyssey ". This period, the poet Sappho Then [SAPPHO, a passionate woman poet in the 10th century B.C.] came to life and then came the most prolific period of narrative poetry.

At this time, the ancient Greek music genre is extremely rich, there are sacrificial songs, drinking songs, wedding songs, love songs, celebration songs, songs of praise to the gods, carols to heroes. Many were singing and dancing. There is an idea that "by holding games and sacrifices year after year, we make it possible for the mind to rest, just as in the routine of the home environment, we have daily amusements to drive away boredom and lethality."

Musical theatre flourished in ancient Greece, with famous tragic writers and works such as Aeschylus (525-456 BC), the tragedy of the Bound Prometheus Oedipus by Sophocles (496-406 BC), and Oedipus Euripides Iphigeni at Tauride (480-406 BC), Iphigeni at Oride; Famous comedy writers and works such as Aristophanes (450-388 BC) The Akanai ".

With the prosperity of narrative poetry and musical drama, the status of music is increasing day by day, and people begin to pay attention to the study of music theory. In the 4th century B.C., in Plato "On the State" and Aristotle 's poetics All of them have discussed the important role of music in the country and society and some problems related to art, which is related to China's ancient times Confucius The idea of ritual and music is the same. At almost the same time, in two regions separated by oceans, it is very interesting that such similar ideas should arise. ^[2]

Olympic Games

More than 300 kilometers southwest of Athens in ancient Greece, there is a piece of mountains and rivers, such as shade, beautiful scenery of the hills, called Olympia village. It is Olympic Games The birthplace of...

Ancient Greece is a mythical kingdom, beautiful fairy tales and twists and turns of bizarre folklore, for the origin of the ancient Olympic Games cast a layer of mysterious color. Relate to Ancient Olympic Games There are many legends about the origin of the Olympic Games, the most important of which are the following two: First, the ancient Olympic Games were for sacrifice Zeus And regularly held sports competitive activities. Another legend relates to the son of Zeus Hercules Relevant. Hercules was nicknamed "Hercules" for his strength. In the city of Elise, he completed the task that ordinary people could not complete, and in less than half a day, he swept away the king's cow barn, which was full of cow dung, but the king did not want to fulfill his promise to give 300 cows, and Heracles drove the king away in anger. To celebrate his victory, he held a sports meeting at Olympia.

The most popular story about the origin of the ancient Olympic Games is Perops The wedding story. Ancient Greek Republic Elis In order to choose a civil and military son-in-law for his daughter, the king proposed that the candidate must race his chariot. In the game, 13 young people were killed by the king's spear, and the 14th young man was the grandson of Zeus and the princess's sweetheart, Pelops. Inspired by love, he bravely accepted the king's challenge and finally won with wisdom. In order to celebrate this victory, Pelopus and the princess held a grand wedding in front of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, at which chariots, gladiators and other competitions were arranged, which was the original ancient Olympic Games, and Pelopus became the legendary founder of the ancient Olympic Games.

In fact, the origin of the Olympic Games is closely related to the social conditions of the ancient Greek Republic. 9th-8th century BC, Hellenic Republic Clan society Gradually disintegrating. City-state Slave society Gradually, more than 200 cities were founded. The city-states were divided, there was no unified monarch, and the city-states were at war with each other. In preparation for war, the city-states actively trained their soldiers. Sparta Children in city-states are raised by the state from the age of 7, and engage in sports, military training, and lead a military life. War needs soldiers, soldiers need strong bodies, and sport is a powerful means to train soldiers who can fight well. The war promoted the development of sports in the Hellenic Republic, and the events of the ancient Olympic Games also had obvious military brand. The continuous fighting disgusted the people and made them yearn for a peaceful environment in which to rest. Later the King of Sparta and the King of Elise signed the "Holy Armistice Month" treaty. As a result, military training and sports competitions for the preparation of troops gradually became games of peace and friendship.

In ancient Greece, there were four major ritual games, which were dedicated to Zeus, the king of the gods Olympic Games It is the largest, longest lasting and most famous. Among all the games in ancient Greece, no one is more valued by the Greeks than the Olympic Games, and no one has more participants than the Olympic Games. The Olympic Games is a symbol of the entire Greek national spirit in the minds of the ancient Greeks, and its long duration and far-reaching influence are rare in human history. ^[5]

Science and technology

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EDITOR

Maths

Developed ancient Greek mathematics

Ancient Greek mathematics is divided into three periods

1. From The Ionian School to Platonic school By the middle of the seventh century BC to the third century BC;

2. Early Alexander, from Euclid By 146 BC, Greece was under the control of Rome;

3. The Late Alexandrian period was the period of Roman rule that ended in 641 when Alexander was conquered Arab Occupy.

The most famous mathematician and contribution of ancient Greece

Diophantus Known as algebra The originator;

Apollonius , Conic curve The study of;

Euclid He wrote "Elements of Geometry", which laid the foundation of later European mathematics;

The Pythagorean School Found several theorems, including Pythagorean theorem And found Irrational number ;

Archimedes Drive the development of geometry and make good use of it Method of exhaustion The concept of convergence (very close to modern calculus ).

biology

The ancient Greeks came up with their own hypothesis about the origin of life in nature. Tailles The idea that everything originated from water was the first representative of this hypothesis, and modern science has shown that life arose from the Earth's primordial hydrosphere. to Aristotle Aristotle and his students carried out an in-depth study of biology, they dissected and classified animals, accurately described the forms of animals and plants, and put forward the idea of biological levels, thinking that there are high and low differences between organisms, and can be arranged in a ladder from low to high, human is the most advanced animal in nature, is a "natural flower" that other life is to look up to. Biology is truly born out of their research.

society

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EDITOR

The ancient Greeks believed that love only happened between men and women, and that there was only sex, marriage and reproduction between men and women.

Early stage Mediterranean civilization Since the beginning, there has been a distinct culture of male beauty worship. The ancient Greeks believed that the male body was extremely beautiful, resulting in a large number of artistic works showing the male body. Male lovers are divided into "lovers" and "loved ones."

As "beloved" men, they would marry women and have children after adulthood, but they would still stay in love with men, because ancient Greek men believed that women were only tools of reproduction, not worth pouring affection on them. At this time, they have changed from "loved ones" to "loved ones" to pursue and educate those beautiful teenagers. In ancient Greek society, which admired masculine beauty, love between two adult men was not respected, it meant that one party was always in a passive position. Inactive, weak adult men will be ridiculed by the outside world.

After the fall of ancient Greece, Roman Republic and Roman Empire Inherited the male culture of ancient Greece, and carried forward the carnal desire between men, so that it reached the degree of lewdness. This development also led to the subsequent restriction of male culture in the Roman Empire. Conversion of Roman emperors Christianity After Christianity began to become the mainstream religion in Europe, the golden age of male culture finally came to an end. ^[3]

city-state

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EDITOR

In the 8th - 6th centuries BC, Ancient Greece city-state Gradually form. City-state refers to a form of state in ancient Greece, which is generally centered on a city and consists of surrounding villages. The main body of city-state residents is a collective of male citizens who have the right to participate in politics. The largest of these city-states is Sparta and Athens . They fought each other, consumed a lot, and after the late 5th century BC, ancient Greece declined.

Sparta covers an area of 8,400 square kilometers, about half the size of Beijing, and has a population of about 400,000, with a maximum of 90,000 male citizens. Athens territory of about 2550 square kilometers, about one seventh of Beijing, the population of 200,000 to 300,000, male citizens at most 30,000 to 40,000. Ancient Greece was more of a small state, with a population of only 10,000 to 20,000, the size of a Chinese town.

Therefore, its main feature is a small country with few people, and the states have long been independent and self-governing. Each of its city-states is an independent sovereign state, and the states are generally equal neighbors. The right of self-government of the city-state belongs more or less to the citizens of the states. According to the size of the citizens' right to participate in the civil assembly, the city-state government can be divided into several types, among which the aristocracy and democracy are the most popular among the ancient Greek city-states. The citizens of the city-state did not mean all adult citizens, but the male members who had citizenship and were entitled to participate in the civic assembly. except aristocracy and democracy In addition, the ancient Greek city-states still exist monarchy , oligarchy and tyranny . The civic politics practiced by the ancient Greek city-states enabled the citizens of the city-states to enjoy more full political rights. In particular, the democracy of Athens provided valuable lessons for later generations.

Athens

The city prospered from convenient sea transportation and commercial trade.

Democracy in Athens: ① the Assembly of all men The Council of five hundred ③ The officers were drawn by lot ④ the jurors were drawn by lot ⑤ Pottery banishment Guarantee democracy.

The evaluation of democracy (in essence) : (1) The active participation of citizens in political affairs; (2) It is based on slavery, and the majority of the population, slaves, women and foreigners, do not have any political rights.

Education in Athens and Sparta There's a big difference. The handicraft industry and commerce of Athens are relatively developed, and the practice of slave-owning democratic republic. The aim of education in Athens was not only to train the children of slaveholders and nobles into strong warriors, but also to make them businessmen with certain cultural knowledge and articulate social activists and politicians. Therefore, in addition to attaching importance to physical education, military training and moral education, the education of Athens also paid attention to the harmonious development of intellectual education and aesthetic education. The Athenian education system consisted of both public and private education. Children receive family education before the age of seven, after the age of seven, boys enter grammar school and chords school, learning to read, write, calculate and other knowledge and music, singing and reciting. After the age of 13, she continued her studies at the Chords School and went to gymnastics school to receive physical training. Most young people finish their studies after two or three years, and a few children of the elite continue their studies at the National Gymnasium. After they turn 18 and graduate from the gymnasium, they can be promoted to the Corps of non-commissioned officers to further their studies and be trained as military leaders. By the age of 20, he was awarded the title of citizen and became an official of the state. The education of Athens and Sparta influenced the development of Western education according to their different characteristics.

Sparta

Spartan military: ① obey military needs all their lives ② boys start military training at the age of 7 ③ Girls also practice running and spear throwing.

Of the many slave city-states of ancient Greece, Sparta and Athens were the most powerful and the most famous. Therefore, when we usually talk about the education of ancient Greece, we always take their education as the representative.

Sparta was an agricultural country ruled by a small number of slave-owning aristocrats. In the 8th century BC, around 9,000 Spartans ruled over 250,000 slaves and commoners. In order to protect the stability of the regime, Spartan education has a strong military color. The purpose of its education was to cultivate and train the children of the aristocrats of slave owners to become warriors with strong physique and severe military physical exercise. The Spartans saw education as a matter for the state, entirely organized, regulated, and controlled by the state. Children belong to the State and are raised by their parents in lieu of the state until the age of seven. From the age of 7, they are sent to the state's educational institutions until the age of 18, where they are subjected to harsh military training and moral indoctrination, so that they develop a healthy body, a strong will, and the qualities of bravery, obedience, and patriotism. The main contents of the education are running, jumping, discus throwing, javelin, wrestling, five competitions, in addition to hand-to-hand combat, horse riding, swimming, music and dance. At the age of 18, young men are sent to the Corps for specialized military training until the age of 20, when they are formally granted citizenship. It is worth noting that Sparta emphasized the education of girls, and girls also received gymnastics and military training.

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