The Qing Dynasty (1616) ^[1] ^{[281
]} Or 1644 ^[280] - 1911 ^[280] ^{[281
]} ), yes Chinese history In the last feudal dynasty, there were twelve emperors ^[3] , originally called Later Jin Dynasty . ^{[269-270
]} from Nurhachi Since the founding of the country, a total of 296 years. ^[4-5] from Huang Taiji The name was changed to Qing Qi and the reign lasted 276 years. ^[6] from The soldiers entered the customs It took 268 years to establish a national regime. ^{7 [8]}

In 1616, Jianzhou Jurchen leader Nurhachi To found a state, ^[9] Jianyuan destiny, national title gold, or called Later Jin Dynasty All ministers take the title of restoring the wise emperor of the nations, ^[190] Self-esteem is the emperor of destiny. ^{[273
]} In 1636, Huang Taiji He proclaimed himself emperor and changed his title to Qing Dynasty. ^{[11] 10 -} In 1644, the Ming General Wu Sanguui The Clear, Dorgon command The soldiers entered the customs . For 20 years after entry, it was pacified Great Shun , Onishi , Nan Ming Dynasty Such a regime. ^[12] Unification in the Kangxi period Taiwan Complete national reunification. ^[13-14] The three dynasties of Kangyongqian reached their peak, and China's traditional society achieved unprecedented development achievements. Land reclamation has increased and products are abundant. Small peasant economy Social life is prosperous and stable, and the comprehensive national strength is strong. ^[15-17] Opium Wars After that, the Qing Dynasty was repeatedly invaded by foreign powers. To actively protect the country Territorial sovereignty The complete, successively carried out Westernization movement and Hundred Days' Reform The exploration and reform of modernization. ^[137-138] On February 12, 1912, A surname Abdication, enacted Imperial edict on abdication of the Qing Emperor The Qing Dynasty fell. ^{18 [19]}

During the Qing Dynasty, the unified multi-ethnic state was consolidated and developed, and the Qing Dynasty unified the Mongol departments Xinjiang and Xizang It has been incorporated into China's territory and actively safeguarded its territorial sovereignty and integrity. During the Qianlong period, China's status as a unified multi-ethnic world power was finally established. The Qing Dynasty, in its heyday, arrived west Green onion Ridge and Balkhash Lake , northwest includes Tang Nu Wu Liang Hai , north to Mobei and Siberia , east to Pacific (include Sakhalin ), Nanda Nansha Islands . Including more than 50 ethnic groups, the country is unprecedentedly unified.

During this period, the absolutism in ancient China reached its peak. ^[20] In the early Qing Dynasty, agriculture and commerce developed, and Jiangnan appeared dense Commercial city , appear nationwide Big business group . On this basis, the population exceeded 400 million, accounting for nearly half of the world's total population. ^[21]

Chinese name: Qing Dynasty
Foreign name: Qing Dynasty
alias: Qing Dynasty , Manchukuo ^{[274
]} , Imperial Qing Dynasty ^{[277
]} , Holy purity ^{[277
]} , The Qing Dynasty of China ^{[278
]}
Time frame: From 1616 to 1911 ^[2] ^[280] ^{[281
]} (From 1644 to 1911)
emperor: Nurhachi , Huang Taiji , Shunzhi Emperor , Kangxi Emperor , Yongzheng Emperor , Emperor Qianlong Etc.
metropolitan: Peking (before 1644 in Shengjing)
language: Chinese , Manchu language , Mongolian , Zang language
currency: silver , Silver dollar , Copper plate , Copper coins
inaugurator: Huang Taiji (Nurhachi actually laid the foundation stone)
National flag: Yellow Dragon Banner (1889-1912)

Central mechanism: Civil Service, Cabinet, six ministries
Military system: Eight-flag system , Green camp The late Qing Dynasty New Army
Historical contribution: Unify the multi-ethnic country, lay the foundation of China's territory, and lay the foundation of China's population
Major city: Shengjing , Chengde , Jiangning , Suzhou , Xi 'an , Chengdu , Guangzhou , Ili , Lasa, Uria Sutai Etc.
National song: " Gong Jinou "
Population number: 436 million (1851)
Major nationality: The Han nationality , Manchu , The Mongolian nationality , The Hui nationality , The Zang nationality , Uighur nationality Etc.
Territory area: 13.16 million square kilometers (1820; In the 1790s, including control of 14.7 million square kilometers)
Supervisory body: Court of censors

catalogue

1Title of a kingdom
2history
▪Start a foundation and build a career
▪Establish the Great Qing Dynasty
▪Unify the whole country
▪Come into one's prime
▪Link the past with the future
▪In full bloom
▪The way is high and the way is low
▪External troubles and internal troubles
▪Improved ZTE
▪Empire swing
▪Update the picture
▪Revolutionary wave
▪Successor dynasty
3territory
▪Territorial scope
▪Administrative division
▪Vassal state
4political
▪Central organ

Title of a kingdom

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EDITOR

In 1605 Nurhachi first called "state" and "king" for the first time; The following year, "Kundurun Khan" (Deferential Khan). ^[22] In 1616, Nurhachi The founding of the kingdom is called the wise emperor, the kingdom title Dajin, or called Later Jin Dynasty It called itself the "Northern Dynasty". ^[9] ^{[275
]} The Qing Dynasty considered itself Manchukuo. ^{[274
]} In 1636, Huang Taiji He proclaimed himself emperor and changed his title to "Qing Dynasty". ^[23]

On the meaning of "Qing Dynasty", there are various guesses: first, from the meaning of the interpretation of "Qing" to "clear" ^[24] . Second, Qing, green also. Green is believed by the north shamanism Advocated by all ethnic groups, Manchuria also believed in shaman, so it took "Qing Dynasty" as the number ^[24] . There is also the view of "five virtues", the Ming Dynasty is fire de, the Qing is water de, and the water is fire, so the name ^[25] . Northeast Ethnic Research Institute Bauming It is believed that the "Great Qing" national title originates from Manchu language Hit the mark Mongolian The word "daicing" is borrowed. The kingdom of the Qing means "Shangguo" (i.e., "supreme State") or "good at war." ^[26] Qing historian Diao Shuren It is believed that the pronunciation of "Qing" and "Jin" is actually a Chinese character with similar pronunciation based on the pronunciation of Chinese characters. ^[27] Matsumura believes that the title is in Chinese, taken from the" pipe · The second part of the Mind and the Inner Industry "mirror the Qing Dynasty, depending on the Ming", "in view of the Qing Dynasty, depending on the Ming", the Qing Dynasty is the day, the Ming is the day, the day covers the sun and the moon. Manchu daicing is just transliteration of Chinese characters. This was made with the idea of comparing with the Ming Dynasty. ^{[276
]}

Signed during the reign of Kangxi The Treaty of Nerchinsk It is the first time in Chinese history that" China International treaties as sovereign states. Especially after the middle of the Qing Dynasty, "China" or "China", as another sovereign state with the same and interchangeable meaning as "Qing State", was directly corresponding to words such as "China" and was used in the sense of a superficially equivalent sovereign treaty state with Western countries, and was habitually used and "recognized" in the Sino-foreign comparison of various international treaties. " Clear record The Qing Dynasty is also explicitly referred to as "China", which indicates that in the official context, "China" meaning the Qing Dynasty has been accepted by the vast majority of people and has become a self-conscious norm. ^{[275
]}

history

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EDITOR

Subject article: Qing Dynasty history

Start a foundation and build a career

The portrait of Nurhachi

Legend has it that Manchuria originated Changbai Mountain The northeast of Bukuri Mountain. ^{28 - [29]} In the early Ming Dynasty, Nuzhen was divided into Jianzhou Jurchen , The Jurchen of the Haixi , Savage Jurchen Three major parts. ^[30] Then it is divided by region Kien Chau Changbai, East China Sea, Hulun four major parts. ^[31] Qing Dynasty ruler for the birth Jianzhou Jurchen the Aisin Gioro . Head of Jurchen in Jianzhou Timur the Mighty It was the Ming Dynasty Jianzhou left guard Commander, ^[32] In 1433, he was killed in a tribal conflict. In the fifth year of Orthodoxy (1440), the state moved south. Orthodox seven years (1442), the Ming Court added a state right guard, collectively known as" Build state three guards ". ^[32] After moving south, Jianzhou Nuzhen and Ming Dynasty With close exchanges, the social productivity of the state Department was improved and the economy was prosperous. ^[33]

In the thirty-eighth year of Jiajing (already, 1559), Nurhachi was born in Jianzhou Zuowei (now Liaoning Province Xinbin county Southwest) A slave-owning family, father Takshi, mother Sitara, Nurhachi as the eldest son. Many of Nurhachi's fathers were awarded titles by the Ming Court, and Nurhachi himself was trusted by the Ming Court. When he was young, he picked pine nuts and dug for ginseng Fushun Horse market sale. After the Ming Liaodong garrison Li Chengliang "Every battle will be the first to ascend, repeatedly make war achievements, Chengliang treat them kindly." He has a deeper understanding of Liaodong Han region, by Han culture A certain influence. At the beginning of the eleventh year of Wanli (1583), the Ming army attacked Qulchai When Atai was stationed, grandfather Nurhachi Kyaw Chang An With father Taksian All were killed by mistake. ^[34] ^[182] Nurhachi's compensation from the court: thirty Imperial decree Thirty horses and was appointed governor of Jianzhou and commander of Jianzhou's left guard. In the same year, Nurhachi, with the 13 armor left by his ancestors and father, began the war to unify the various departments of Jianzhou Jurchen. ^[183] Under the banner of putting down the rebellion for the Ming Court, Nurhachi conquered five parts of Jianzhou Nuzhen after a five-year campaign, starting with the attack on Nikanwailan. In the eleventh year of Wanli (1583) in May, Nurhachi led the army to attack Nikanwai Orchid Take the city of Tulum. ^[184] In the first month of the twelfth year of Wanli (1584), Nurhachi to Li Dai The garrison of Zhaojia City attacked, won and captured Li Dai alive. ^[185] In February of the thirteenth year of Wanli (1585), Nurhaci was in the Department of Suksu, Dong E Bu After the victory, he also pointed his sword at the Suksu Margin Tetsuchenopu . ^[186] In the fourteenth year of Wanli (1586), Nurhaci conquered Erhun, and the Nikanweilan fled to Ming territory. Nurhachi asked the official of the Ming border to detain Nikanwaelan and put him to death. ^[187] In the fifteenth year of Wanli (1587), Nurhachi was founded Foala City She began to become the political and military center of female reality. ^[197] In the sixteenth year of Wanli (1588), Nurhachi conquered the city of Wanyan (Wang Jia) and destroyed the last tribe of Jurchen in Jianzhou Partes completa At this point, the unified state Nuzhen. In June, Nurhachi officially proclaimed the state, calling himself "Shulebele".

In the seventeenth year of Wanli (1589), Nurhachi re-established relations with Li Chengliang. In September of that year, under the recommendation of Li Chengliang, the Ming Court officially promoted Nurhachi as the left guard of Jianzhou The chief inspector is the legitimate commissioner , General Dragon Tiger And became the highest in the state Chief executive . ^[283] In the first month of the 19th year of Wanli (1591), Nurhachi began to swing his forces east to capture the Yalu River Road. In February of the twentieth year of Wanli (1592), the Japanese attacked Korea and launched" The Japanese Invasion of Japan Nurhachi asked the Ming Court to send him to Korea to attack Japan. Although he was denied permission, he gained the trust of the Ming Court. Since then, Nurhachi, on the grounds of "protecting the border and stabilizing the people", has constantly carried out a crusade and suppression of the Jurchen tribes that are not subject to his control. Nurhachi married in the same year Tong Jia Ha Ha Nazaqing Nurhachi died and returned to his original name. By the 25th year of Wanli (1597), six years after Japan invaded Korea for the second time, the Ming Court continued to transfer troops from Liaodong to Korea to fight Japan ^[284-285] Have no time to take into account the jurchen in Liaodong region. Nurhachi seized this opportunity of development and adopted a two-sided policy to attack the Haixi Jurchen in the Songhua River (Haixi River) basin.

Because the Haixi Nuzhen was too powerful to be conquered quickly, Nurhachi adopted the strategy of making friends far away and attacking near and far, disintegrating and destroying each other. Wanli twenty-one year (1593) in September, when Nurhachi led troops to the east, expedition Changbai Mountain At the time of the ministries, The Jurchen of the Haixi Yehbe Leader Buzhai united with Ulla, Huifa, Hada and Mongols Khorchin Such as nine to Jianzhou Nuzhen launched an attack. The two sides fought on Mount Gullah. Battle of Mount Gulle In the middle, Nurhachi concentrated his forces, attacked the main force, defeated the nine allied forces, cut the Buzhai in the array, and captured the leader of the Ullah Department alive Buchantai Thus laying the foundation for its unification war. ^[189] At the end of the year, he successively conquered Jusali Road and Nanyin Road, bringing the Changbai Mountains into his sphere of influence. In 1597, the Mongol Mingambele married his daughter to the 35-year-old Nurhachi, showing his submission to Nurhachi. From the first month of the 26th year of Wanli (1598) to the November of the forty-third year of Wanli (1615), Nurhachi marched continuously Donghai Jurchen Successively conquered the Huye Road, Namdulu, Suifen, Ningguta, Nimacha, Yaran, Urguchen, Mulun, Xilin and other roads of the Oji Department, and captured the city of Herculon in the east of the Oji Department. The East Sea Khurkha Department also joined.

In the first month of the thirty-first year of Wanli (1603), Nurhachi moved its capital from the city of Foala Hetuala . It was the first time he had returned home as a king since he left home at the age of 11. In the thirty-sixth year of Wanli (1608), Nurhachi stopped working Minting Pay tribute. Ming closed the trade market for two years, so that a large number of horses in Nuzhen could not be bought, and ginseng could not be bought out, and more than 300 thousand jin rotted away. In response to the blockade of the Ming Court, Nurhachi painstakingly developed the drying method, so that ginseng can be preserved and the price doubled. In the forty-first year of Wanli (1613), the state captured the city of Ula, and the city was destroyed. While expanding abroad, Nurhachi also built cities, established ministers, made laws, and settled lawsuits. ^[188] Establish the eight-flag system. Eight-flag system According to the form of military organization, the Jurchen was organized to carry out war and production activities under the control of the nobility, which was a kind of social organization integrating the soldiers and the people. The Eight Banners system promoted the development of Nuzhen society and consolidated Nurhachi's dominant position. ^[33] The forty-third year of Wanli (1615) was Nurhachi's last year of preparation for the founding of the state. He sent envoys to the capital for the last time to express their loyalty to the Ming Court and to Confucius Send for Eastern and southern parts of Liaoning Province , build Buddhist temple , Taoist temple , Confucian temple The seven temples were completed in three years.

The eight banners of Manchuria

In the first year of the Mandate of Heaven (1616), Nurhachi was in Hetuala Jianguo, Jianyuan" Kismet ", the country title "gold", history said Later Jin Dynasty , ^[9] The princes take the title of restoring the wise emperor of the nations, ^[190] Self-esteem is the emperor of destiny. Emperor industry was founded by Emperor Taizu of Qing Dynasty, so in Qing history, Nurhachi was honored as the founding emperor. ^{[273
]} The later Jin State was founded by the Manchu ancestors Bohai State , Jin State A third local self-government was later established. ^[282] In the Third year of the Mandate of Heaven (1618), Nurhachi published" Seven resentments ", sworn division Faming. ^[191] In the fourth year of the Mandate of Heaven (1619), the Ming army assembled the national elite 200,000 and the Korean army, known as 470,000 army, launched an attack to Liaodong, and the army marched in four ways. ^[192] Nurhachi is here Sarhu The Ming Army broke three roads along the belt, wiped out about 50,000 Ming troops, captured a large number of military supplies, and the Ming army moved slowly Li Rubo All the way to defeat and survive, the rest of the road was wiped out by the later Jin. ^[193] From then on, Ming rule in the northeast began to crumble. Perish again Ech At this point, Haixi Jurzhen was unified. ^[194]

At the time of Nurhachi's founding, there were still some tribes of the "wild men" in the East China Sea that had not been conquered. In the second year of the Mandate of Heaven (1617), Nurhachi sent four hundred troops to take control of the coastal and island departments. Three years of Destiny (1618), Hulha Ministry The leader brought all his hundred families and Nurhachi gave them a generous reward. All the departments have not been attached one after another. All the captive families were organized into the Eight Banners. The annexed tribes remained where they were, paying tribute to the later Jin. " Old Manchu file The fourth year of the Mandate of Heaven (1619) says: "From the east of the Ming Kingdom to the seashore, north of Korea, south of Mongolia, all the states (departments) speaking the Jurchen language were pacified in that year." (" Old Manchu file "Taizu Dynasty Volume 13) Nurhachi conquered the Jurchen and was able to attack the Ming Dynasty with all his might. ^[267]

Later Jin Jae The Battle of Sarhu Link down Open up a field , Tieling City . ^[33] In the sixth year of the Mandate of Heaven (1621), Nurhachi was captured Shenyang (in Liaoning Province) , Liaoyang , ^[195] In a few years, it swept more than 70 cities in Liaodong. ^[35] In the same year, Nurhachi moved his capital to Liaoyang to build the city of Tokyo. In the seventh year of the Mandate of Heaven (1622), he captured the major cities of western Liaoning Quang Ninh . ^[36] Immediately after the Jin dynasty fell in Yizhou, Jinzhou, Daling River and other more than 40 castles in western Liaoning. Xiong Tingbi , Wang Huazhen He led the remnants of the Ming army and hundreds of thousands of displaced people to Shanhaiguan. ^[196] In the spring of the tenth year of the Mandate of Heaven (1625), Nurhachi moved his capital to Shenyang. Shenyang became the ruling center of the later Jin Dynasty. However, Nurhachi was ordained in the eleventh year (1626) The Battle of Ningyuan Zhong was seriously wounded by Ming army artillery and died soon after. ^[37]

Establish the Great Qing Dynasty

Subject article: Huang Taiji's New Policy , Later Jin attack Chahar Mongol battle , The Battle of the third son

Emperor Taizong of Qing Dynasty

After Nurhachi's death, the eighth son Huang Taiji Take the throne and build the yuan." Tincture At the beginning of Huangtaiji's succession, the situation faced by the later Jin dynasty was very grim. Isolated from the outside world, he was influenced by the Ming Dynasty, the Mongols, North Korea Of the siege. Internal conflicts are becoming more and more serious due to the contradiction between the powers of the nobility. Huangtaiji gradually established a state governing body to replace the state power exercised by the Eight banners system. Huang Taiji continued his offensive against the Ming Dynasty and joined forces Mongolia The ministries are growing in power. ^[33]

Internally, Huangtaiji followed the historical development trend and promoted the feudalization process of the post-Jin regime. After his accession to the throne, Huang Taiji issued the "Manchu and Han Separation Order", putting forward the proposition that "the most important thing to govern the country is to calm the people first", declaring that "Manchu and Han have no similarities and differences" and implementing the policy of "compiling households for the people". ^[198] It was ordered that the majority of Han people Zhuangding should be drawn out of the Zhuangtian field and "divided into different areas." ^[208] The Han people were restored from serfs to people households, that is, the original feudal status of free people, thus alleviating National contradiction The society gradually eased and stabilized. He reversed his father's policy of killing literati and took the exam that year. In the sixth year of Tiancong (1632), Huang Taiji abolished the old system of "sitting in the south with the three Bayers" and co-ruling the government, and changed it to "sitting alone in the south" to highlight the exclusive position of the Khan throne. Then he sought to remove the evil and eliminate the three Baylor forces that threatened the Khan throne, ^[205-207] To consolidate the khan power. Imitation system, set Three inner houses , ^[202] Six divisions "Stop King Belor to lead the affairs of the court" and govern the government alone. Set up again Court of censors and ribana A relatively complete set of state institutions has been established. ^[212-213]

Externally, Emperor Taiji launched an attack North Korea . On the eighth day of the first month of the first year of Tiancong (1627), he appointed Amin , Yue To , Jirharang equiconsextet Baylor He invaded Korea with 30,000 troops. ^[199] Jin Bing made rapid progress, even under the city, overwhelming, in less than half a month, occupied more than half of Korea, into the old capital Pyongyang , compel Kings of Korea Lee 倧 Signed an alliance under the city. ^[38] ^[200] Huang Taiji also continued his policy of attacking Ming. Tiancong three years (1629) to the following year, Huangtaiji in the Ming Dynasty Guan Ning Jin defense line When it was difficult to conquer, he led his army to break out from Mongolia into the interior and attack Beijing. I have changed ". Conspired to get rid of Ming Jisiliao overseers Yuan Chonghuan . Lin Danhan It was the unification of the later Jin Dynasty Mannan Mongolia The main obstacles, therefore, later Jin on the one hand to strive for Khorchin Wait for the ministry of Baylor and the later Jin joint, against Lin Danhan The attack of Lindan Khan divided and disintegrated his subordinates, on the other hand, actively prepared for a large-scale attack. ^[201] ^[204] In the eighth year of Tiancong (1634), Lin Dan Khan died in Qinghai. The following year (1635), the Jin army continued to attack Chahar The rest, son of Lin Dan Khan Ngachul Present to one's mother The imperial Seal Surrender to the later Jin Dynasty. ^[203] Ordos part It was also merged by the later Jin. At this point, all Monan Mongolia was unified in the later Jin Dynasty. ^[211]

Grand Administration Hall of Shenyang Imperial Palace

In the ninth year of Tiancong (1635), Huang Taiji abolished the old clan name" many (female Zhen), fixed ethnic name" Manchuria ". In May of the first year of Chongde (1636), Huangtaiji proclaimed himself emperor and changed the title of the kingdom from "Jin" to "Qing". ^[11] Change the year name to" Chongde ", ^[39] Respected as the "wide and gentle emperor". ^[210] In the same year, he sent troops to attack Korea. The second year of Chongduk (1637), King of Korea Lee 倧 He was forced to surrender, pay tribute, promise to sever ties with the Ming Dynasty, and send the prince to Shengjing (Shenyang) as a hostage, Korea officially submitted to the Qing Dynasty. ^[33] When Huang Taiji proclaimed himself emperor, Heilongjiang basin There are also some fishing and hunting tribes, Hoerha, Varkha, Sauron, Daur and other scattered between the mountains and rivers. As early as the eighth year of Tiancong (1634), Jingqi Li River lateral The Daur Bardazi led the army to the later Jin. Chongde four years (1639), Qing school Sauhai Wait for the expedition. The following year, it was defeated Bomu Bogol Soldiers, capture Jacsa . In the sixth year of Chongde (1641), he sent Sitku and other troops to pursue him, and Bomu Bogol was captured at Chilotai (near Chita). Sauron was organized into the eight Banners, called "New Manchuria". During this period, the Qing army successively conquered the provinces of Uzara, Niman, and Akuri. The tribes formerly known as the East China Sea Jurchens fell under Qing rule. After conquering Mongolia, Huangtaiji immediately sent envoys to Mobei Khalkha Mongolia The three great sweats at peace. In November of the first year of Chongde (1636), Chechen Khan He sent six people, including Wei Zheng Lama and 156 followers, to Shengjing and kowtowed to Huangtaiji. In the three years of Chongde (1638), Tusetu Khan, Chechen Khan, and Zasaktu Khan sent envoys to the Qing Dynasty to pay tribute, and stipulated that after that, eight white horses and one white camel would be paid each year, which was called "The Emperor." Nine white tribute ". Mobei Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) three Han thus became the Qing Dynasty's vassal. ^[268] Since March of the fifth year of Chongde (1640), it was launched The Battle of Pine Brocade . Ming Court sent Ji Liao governor Hong Chengchou Led 130,000 troops to help Jinzhou Zu Daju . Huangtaiji personally sit in command. On February 18, 1642, the seventh year of Chongde, Songshan City was captured, the Ming general Hong Chengchou was captured, and Zu Dashou surrendered in Jinzhou. The Battle of Songjin marked the complete collapse of the Ming defense system in Liaodong, leaving only the outside Ningyuan An isolated city. ^[209] In the eighth year of Chongde (1643), Huang Taiji died of illness. Good fortune Take the throne and change the yuan." Shunzhi "By his uncle Dorgon Act as regent. ^[40]

Unify the whole country

Shanhaiguan Pass

In 1644, Li Zicheng Led by the Great Shun army captured Peking , 崇祯帝 Hanged himself in coal Mountain, garrison Shanhaiguan Ming general Wu Sanguui The Clear, ^[41] The emissary begged Dorgon to attack Li Zicheng. Dorgon in command The Eight Flags Take Wu Sangui as the guide and enter the pass simultaneously. in Battle of Shanhaiguan Defeat the Dashun Army, ^[218] Li Zicheng quit the capital. ^[219] On May 2, the Qing army invaded and occupied the Capital. ^[220] Dorgon asked Fu Lin to move the capital. ^[221] On the first day of October, under the advice of the Kings led by Durgon and the Manchu and Han ministers, Shunzhi Emperor Fu Lin offered sacrifices to heaven at the Temple of Heaven in the southern suburbs, and then again the emperor was located at the Huangji Gate (today Gate of Supreme Harmony He declared, "I hereby settle Yanjing to appease China." ^[222] To the ancestor of heaven and earth, indicating that he has become the monarch of all China. ^[40] ^[223] This marked the transformation of the Qing Dynasty into the Central Dynasty that ruled all of China. After establishing Beijing as the capital of the Qing Dynasty, they moved south to wipe out the peasant army. At the same time, Ming Dynasty officials in the south successively promoted the Zhu family to establish political power, according to history Nan Ming Dynasty ^[42] . And then there's Li Zicheng's Taishun regime , Zhang Xianzhong the Onishi regime . ^[43] It became the new task of the Qing rulers to cut down the masses and unify China.

Dorgon

At the beginning of the second year of Shunzhi (1645), the Qing Court concentrated its military forces in two ways Shaanxi (Province) A route to the British prince Adzig Head, Wu Sanguui As a striker; One route is the prince of Henan Dodor Head, Kong Yu-deok For the striker. Li Zicheng met the Qing Army Tongguan (a county in Henan Province) After fierce fighting, the peasant army abandoned Xi 'an and went east Hubei and Guangzhou . ^[214] Li Zicheng was attacked by local landlords and died in Tongshan Jiugong Mountain . Then the Qing army immediately moved south to the South to defeat the Southern Ming Hongguang regime . On April 25, the Qing army captured Yangzhou. ^[215] Entering Nanjing on May 16th, ^[224] Captured Emperor Hongguang in Wuhu Zhu Yusong The demise of the Hongguang regime. ^[216] After the elimination of the Hongguang regime, Shunzhi three years (1646), the Qing court ordered Bolo For the southern general, led the attack Zhejiang, Fujian. ^[226] Zhu Yihai Fleeing to the sea, the regime of the king of Lu fell. control Longwu regime the Zheng Zhilong Secret clearance. Zhu Yujian, Emperor of Longwu, fled to Tingzhou, Jiangxi, where he was captured and killed by the Qing army Zhu Yujian The Longwu regime died and Fujian was pacified. ^[227]

When the Qing army captured Beijing and began to attack the Dashun Army, Zhang Xianzhong In November of that year, the Great West Regime was established in Chengdu to control Sichuan. In the third year of Shunzhi (1646), the Qing Court appointed Prince Su Haug For General Jingyuan, who defeated the Hanzhong peasant Army, ^[225] It entered the river in November. Later Zhang Xianzhong was killed. Then, the Qing army split up and attacked, broke more than 130 Great West barracks, killed tens of thousands of people, occupied Sichuan, and the Great West regime fell. ^[228] The rest, led by Sun Yi and Li Dingguo, were transferred to Yun and GUI areas to continue the resistance. At the same time, after Li Zicheng's death, the remainder of the Dashun Army and the Southern Ming Huguang governor He Tengjiao Governor of Hubei toyintin Unite Ming and resist Qing . ^[44] In 1652, Li Dingguo He led 80,000 troops to Guangxi and Guilin. He also invaded Hunan and Guangdong, and "two distinguished Kings shook the world". Liu Wenxiu Attack too Sichuan , recapture Kawanami . Southeast coastal Zhang Huangyan The anti-Qing army also launched an offensive, and the anti-Qing struggle once again came to a climax. At this moment Sun Yiyi The conflict with Li Dingguo broke out and destroyed the good situation. Sun is expected to clear After that, the clouds, the noble, the virtual and the real were known to the Qing army. On account of South China The anti-Qing forces were large, and the Qing Emperor conferred Wu Sangui, Geng Zhongming with Shangxily As a king, he guarded Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangdong and Fujian, and was historically known as" San Francisco ". In 1659, Wu Sangui led the Qing army into Kunming, Yunnan Province. ^[217] In 1662, Yongli Emperor Was killed, the southern Ming completely destroyed. ^[43]

After the Qing Dynasty was stabilized, Dorgon died in 1650, the seventh year of Shunzhi. ^[230] Shunzhi Emperor took power in advance. ^[231] In order to strengthen the imperial power, the Shunzhi Emperor abolished the old practice of managing the affairs of the various ministries of the Kings, and also adopted a stop to enclosure and relaxation of land Fugitive act And a series of measures to ease ethnic contradictions. ^[229]

Come into one's prime

Xuanye, Emperor Kangxi

In 1661, Kangxi Emperor Xuanye ascended the throne. In the early years of Kangxi, four Manchu ministers assisted the government. ^[154] In the eighth year of Kangxi (1669), Emperor Kangxi captured a powerful minister Oboi Pro-governing the government. ^[155] Because the separation of the three vassals seriously affected the national unity, in the twelfth year of Kangxi (1673), Kangxi Emperor removed the vassals, Wu Sanguui The other two vassals responded one after another, ^[45] ^[141-142] Finally, in the twentieth year of the Kangxi Dynasty (1681), the three vassals were defeated. ^[143] pacify The Rebellion of the San Francisco In, will Taiwan It's back on the agenda. In the twenty-second year of Kangxi (1683), the emperor Kangxi Shi Lang for Fu Jian water Division Governor, sent troops to attack Taiwan, and was defeated in Penghu Liu Guoxuan Led by the Zheng Navy, subsequently A surname Natu surrender. ^[140] In 1684, the Qing government set up a government in Taiwan. Taiwan province Three counties, Taiwan and the mainland are unified. ^[139]

In the twenty-fourth year of Kangxi (1685), in order to completely eliminate Tsarist Russia Invasion, Kangxi emperor ordered the capital Peng Chun to Aihui , Enhance Amur River One Belt defense. In the autumn of the 24th year of Kangxi (1685), Tsarist Russia returned and occupied again Jacsa . The Qing army defeated the Russian army at Yakusa and contained Tsarist Russia The ambition to invade. In 1689, the Qing Dynasty and Tsarist Russian representatives signed a treaty The Treaty of Nerchinsk Delimit the eastern boundary line between China and Russia. ^[47] Be specified as The Erguna River - The Gerpitzi River - The Outer Hinggan Mountains It is the eastern boundary between China and Russia, north of Heilongjiang, The Outer Hinggan Mountains South Hoa Wusuli River East, including Sakhalin They are all Chinese territory. In the 17th year of Kangxi (1678), Kardan With the encouragement and support of the Russian government Khalkha Mongolia Tushetu Khan Department . In order to ensure the stability of the frontier, Kangxi Emperor personally invaded Mobei three times. ^[148] In the 29th year of Kangxi (1690) Battle of Ulan Butun The Qing army broke the Gardan, and the Gardan was defeated Kobdo , waiting in the wings. ^[149] In the summer of the thirtieth year of Kangxi (1691), Kangxi and Khalkha Inner Mongolia The princes of the Kingdom will gather Toronol It is known as" The Doron League ". This meeting marked the submission of the three Khalkha departments to the Qing Dynasty. ^[152] In the 35th year of Kangxi (1696), Emperor Kangxi personally invaded again. ^[150] The Battle of Showmodo The Qing army defeated the main army of the Kaldan, and the Kaldan soldiers were defeated and fled. ^[151] During the Kangxi period, the Qing Dynasty incorporated Khalkha Mongolia into its territory, laying the foundation for the pacification of Junggar during the Qianlong period.

Map of Kangxi's Southern Tour (partial)

After Kangxi Emperor came to power, he began to strengthen the imperial power. On the one hand, he is devoted to government affairs The imperial gate is in charge of government ; ^[144] On the other hand, he was established in the sixteenth year of Kangxi (1679) South study "The choice of words minister quality and excellent fill." ^[145] Weakened Manchuria Council of ministers And outer court cabinet The power of the empire strengthened. And set about cleaning up the bureaucracy, restored Kinza , Major project And other assessment system. Kangxi Emperor also took a series of measures conducive to social and economic recovery and development. In 1669, Kangxi ordered its abolition Enclosure order And then stop forever enclosure And stipulated that the land seized should be returned to the farmers. ^[147] From 1671 onwards, land reclamation was gradually relaxed Cheeko The number of years, and the provision of land reclamation achievements, according to how much reclamation, to give different official positions, which promoted the enthusiasm of land reclamation. By the end of the Kangxi Dynasty, wasteland had been basically opened up all over the country. In 1685, Kangxi also stipulated that the folk newly cultivated land and acres, "never allowed circles since then", thus limiting the economic expansion of the noble flag master to a certain extent, which was conducive to owner-peasant People. Kangxi also ordered that the fields of Ming Dynasty vassals be changed to" Renaming field ". ^[46] In the fifty-first year of Kangxi (1712), the Qing Court decided to set the number of Ding tax in the fifty years of Kangxi (1711) as the quota, and no Ding tax would be levied on new people. ^[146] It is said that "prosperous times breed people, never add Fu". In this way, the number of taxes is fixed and realized Combination of land and trees .

During the Kangxi period, Emperor Kangxi attached great importance to winning over the Han people. The Kangxi Emperor made it clear that he wanted to unite the ruling system with the Taoist system in order to neo-confucianism It is the foundation of governance. Kangxi Emperor once held erudite scholar, and went to Jiangning worship Ming Taizu Xiao Mausoleum , Visit in person Qufu Pay respects to Confucian temple . ^[153] Kangxi Emperor also greatly promoted the rule of literature, organized the editing and publication of the" Kangxi dictionary "" Collection of ancient and modern books "" Pei Wen Yun House "" Mathematical essence "" Map of Kangxi Imperial geography Books, calendars and maps. After the middle period of Kangxi, the handicraft industry which was seriously damaged by the war gradually recovered and developed. During the reign of Qianlong, Jiangning , Suzhou , Hangzhou , Foshan , Guangzhou The silk and weaving industry in other places is very developed. Cotton weaving industry in Jiangnan, Jingdezhen Porcelain has reached a historic peak. By the middle of the 18th century, the Qing population had also increased greatly.

Link the past with the future

Subject article: Qing Sejong reform

Yongzheng Emperor of Qing Dynasty

When Emperor Kangxi died in 1722, Yongzheng Emperor Ascend the throne. In Kangxi's later years, official governance was relaxed and corruption had become a common practice. ^[48] For this reason, Emperor Yongzheng instructed civil and military officials at all levels to be severely punished if they did not change their ways. ^[172] The Yongzheng Dynasty carried out a series of policies to strengthen the power of absolutist monarchs. To perfect the secret folding system, only officials authorized by the emperor were qualified to be on the secret folding. Yongzheng Seventh year (1729), due to the military northwest, Yongzheng Emperor began Lungjong Gate The military engine room was set up in the cabinet, and those who were carefully selected were inscribed into the value for dealing with urgent military affairs and assisting the emperor in dealing with government affairs. They took orders directly from the emperor, kneeling down to write transcripts. ^[179] Privy council The establishment of the Qing Dynasty is a major reform of the central organization, marking the Qing Dynasty monarchy centralized development to the apex. ^[180]

Emperor Yongzheng continued the expansionist policies of the Qing Dynasty. Nephew of Gardan Zephyalabutan He supported Qinghai in the first year of Yongzheng (1723) The Pegatron Department leader Lobo Zandanzin Gather 200,000 men for the attack Sining Against the Qing, ^[173-174] Yongzheng Emperor orders Nian Gengyao , Yue Zhongqi Led a crusade, won a great victory, Qinghai (Province) Completely under the Qing Dynasty territory. ^[175] For this Qing Dynasty collar part Xikang District, again in Sining with Lhasa Separate office minister and Minister resident in Tibet In charge of Qinghai-tibet region . will Khalkha Mongolia Merged into the Qing Dynasty; In 1727 with Tsarist Russia The Treaty of Kyakhta was signed, establishing the mid-section border between China and Russia. ^[176] In 1729, Emperor Yongzheng ordered Foldin with Yue Zhongqi The soldiers were divided in two ways Kobdo Against the Junggar Khan The Kardan Sage zero , ^[177] Last in The Battle of Tumbo Defeat. ^[178] In 1732, Kaldanzai Zero invaded the Kalkha Mongols and arrived Hangai Mountain By the Prince of Khalka Ceiling County Defeat. In 1734, the Qing Dynasty allowed peace talks to Altai Mountain The northwest is generally peaceful. ^[49]

"Diligent administration pro sage" hall

In order to ease class contradictions and promote agricultural production, in the first year of Yongzheng (1723), Emperor Yongzheng was governor from Zhili Li Weijun At the request of the government, we should implement the principle of collecting the silver from the land together, change the past standard of double collection according to the number of people and acres, and reduce the burden of farmers who have no land and less land. By the time of Qianlong, this policy had been extended to the whole country. ^[181] Since then, the population has increased dramatically. Emperor Yongzheng abolished it A humble abode The first was sent in April 1723." Open and clear is good "Of the edict. Emperor Yongzheng, while ordering the removal of untouchable people, also ordered the provinces to inspect, and if they found that there were similar untouchable people in the local area, they were also allowed to turn their untouchable people into good people.

In the minority areas of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangdong, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei and other provinces, Yongzheng Emperor fully implemented the" Return to the land "The system, the revolution Chieftain system To establish governments, offices, states and counties in the above-mentioned areas, and appoint non-hereditary," A surname "To manage. This management system is broadly the same as in the mainland. The return of Yongzheng Emperor attacked the hereditary privileges and interests of the chieftain, alleviated the burden and disaster of the ethnic minorities in Southwest China, and promoted the social, economic and cultural progress of the region. A series of policies implemented in the thirteen years of Yongzheng Emperor's reign played a connecting role in the three generations of "Kangyongqian".

In full bloom

In August 1735, Emperor Yongzheng died and his fourth son Hongli succeeded him as Emperor Qianlong. Emperor Qianlong During his administration, Cultural governance and martial arts He made important contributions to consolidating China as a unified multi-ethnic country and developing the heyday of the Qing Dynasty, but it was also during his rule that the world underwent tremendous changes and China gradually fell behind the tide of the world.

Emperor Qianlong

In the twelfth year of Qianlong (1747), Emperor Qianlong mobilized 30,000 troops to attack in two ways Dajincheon . ^[156-157] Fourteen years (1749), the Qing army advanced Sarobon At the siege of Leu, Sharon was forced to beg. From the thirty-first year of Qianlong (1766), the Dajinchuan Chieftain revolted again, constantly invaded and invaded the neighboring chieftain, and the Qing government finally put down Great Jinchuan . In 1757, Emperor Qianlong smashed it Dzungaria Nobleman Abursana The forces of separation, unity Tianshan North Road . In 1759, the South Tianshan Road was pacified Size and Zhuo rebellion . ^[161-163] In 1762, the Qing Dynasty established General Ili , control includes Balkhash Lake The whole Xinjiang region. ^[164-165] From 1762 onwards, the Qing Dynasty sent in large numbers of troops Xinjiang . The officers and soldiers of the permanent garrison brought their families, mainly from northeast , Hebei (Province) Et al The Daur nationality , Manchu Let's wait. These garrisons have contributed to consolidating China's northwest frontier defense and developing its border areas. He moved west in 1771 Volga downstream Mosimongolia Tuloute Ministry, in the leader uvubasid Led under, to get rid of Tsarist Russia The rule of China, embarked on the journey of returning to the motherland. ^[166-167] They crushed the Tsarist Russian army encirclement and intercept, after arduous, thousands of miles, and finally returned to their homeland. The return of the Squire It has contributed to the consolidation of a unified multi-ethnic state.

In the middle period of Qianlong, agriculture, handicraft industry and commerce all over the country had a considerable development, the arable land expanded, the population surged, the Treasury was enriched, and the entire social economy got unprecedented development. In order to Cultivated area In the thirty-first year of Qianlong (1766), the country had reclaimed land of 780 million mu; The country's population also increased from more than 140 million in the early years of Qianlong to nearly 300 million in the sixtieth year of Qianlong (1795). China's silver inventory has long remained between 60 million and 70 million, almost equivalent to twice the country's total annual tax revenue. During the Qianlong period, Agricultural production The development is also reflected in the general increase in food production and the widespread cultivation of high-yielding crops. Due to the construction Farmland water conservancy And took it Intensive cultivation The output per unit area has been significantly improved. The whole social economy has presented a new situation of unprecedented prosperity. ^[168] Emperor Qianlong attached great importance to culture, collated all existing documents in society, extensively collected books, and constantly issued decrees for books. Completed the "Kangxi ordered to begin writing." The Qing Dynasty is unified ", ^[170] He also ordered the compilation of the Continued literature general examination "" General examination of imperial literature "" Great Qing Convention ", etc. ^[171] Beginning in 1772, the Qing government began to compile the book Siku complete Book After ten years of compilation, it systematically collates and protects China's historical and cultural heritage. However, in order to maintain his rule, Emperor Qianlong strictly controlled his thoughts, and used the opportunity to cut and burn a large number of books that did not conform to his thoughts. ^[50] From 30 to 60 years of Qianlong, the Qing government's Treasury was kept at more than 60 million taels for a long time, and cultural undertakings were also very developed. With both cultural, political and military skills, unprecedented territory, social prosperity and cultural development," Kangqian prosperous age "Into the heyday. ^[169]

Chief Ushi's surrender of the city

In the late Qianlong Dynasty, Annam Nguyen pair Suzerainty system Launched a challenge, ^[158] War broke out between the Qing Dynasty and Annam, eventually Nguyen Huy The Qianlong Emperor agreed to make peace and recognized Ruan Hui as the monarch of Annam. ^[159-160] The Qing Dynasty was defeated in 1792 Gurkha right Xizang The attack of... In 1793, the Qing Central government formulated and issued the" The imperial constitution for the rehabilitation of Tibet Article 29 clearly stipulates the personnel, administration, finance, military affairs, foreign relations and other aspects of the Tibet area, and has been confirmed in legal form. The main contents include the Qing government to determine the major Tibetan Living Buddha include Dalai Lama , Panchen Erdeni Posthumous recognition The reincarnated spirit child He has the power to approve the succession, and all foreign-related matters in Tibet are handled by the minister in Tibet. The constitution is China Important historical documents prove the exercise of sovereignty over Tibet. ^[51]

Western missionaries introduced Chinese culture to Europeans, triggering the 18th century Chinese style The upsurge. ^{[53] 52 -} The Europeans followed Chinese culture , ideas and art, ^[54] By the end of the 18th century, as the Qing Dynasty's heyday came to an end, Europeans had negative comments. The British envoy who broke up with Emperor Qianlong Macartney That the Qing Dynasty had declined. ^{[56] 55 -}

The way is high and the way is low

The Qing Dynasty began to decline from the end of Qianlong. After the reign of Qianlong Emperor in the middle, gradually great achievements, Qianlong Emperor six south of the Yangtze River, and imitation of the south of the garden extensive garden, labor and money, ^[57] Increasingly corrupt politics ^[58] . Emperor Qianlong favored him in his later years Heshen It led to Ho-Shen's arbitrary power, venal and corrupt, and seriously damaged the official administration. After the middle period of Qianlong, the high concentration of land and the cruel feudal exploitation drove the vast number of peasants to a desperate situation. In stark contrast to the vast number of peasants who were starving and had no way to make a living, the feudal rulers lived a decadent life of extreme luxury and drunkenness. The corruption and decline of the feudal rule predicted the fate of the declining imperial dynasty. The corruption and decline of the feudal rule intensified the domestic class contradictions and national contradictions. After the end of the Qianlong Dynasty, the fire of the peasant uprising quickly burned all over the country. ^[240] Taiwan Heaven and Earth Society Leaders Lin Shuangwen It was launched in 1787 Lin Shuang Wen uprising . ^[239] Qianlong sixty years (1795) January, Hunan and Guizhou Miao uprising Eruption, ^[238] By the end of the first year of Jiaqing (1796). ^[236] In the first year of Jiaqing (1796), the first month broke out with great fanaticism White Lotus Uprising , ^[235] From the first year of Jiaqing (1796) to the ninth year of Jiaqing (1804), it lasted nine years, ^[237] It was the largest peasant war in the middle of Qing Dynasty.

Daoguang Emperor

In the first month of the first year of Jiaqing (1796), Qianlong Emperor Zen was located in the fifteenth son 颙琰 Emperor Jiaqing. ^[234] Emperor Jiaqing ruled until his death in 1799. ^[57] Facing the dangerous political situation in the late years of Qianlong, Emperor Jiaqing wrote" Salty and Restorative "Under the banner of" order internal affairs and consolidate discipline. ^[232] Kill the powerful officials Heshen He deposed and imprisoned Ho-Shen's cronies. ^[241] An edict to speak plainly, to speak widely, to dispel evil and to promote righteousness, and to reward the officials who had been convicted by speaking. Make a contribution and depose extravagance and frugality. Local officials are required to "carefully understand the people's hidden feelings", report the facts, and refrain from cheating, whitewashing, and laziness. However, his limited rectification of internal affairs failed to fundamentally reverse the decadence of the Qing political situation. At the end of Jiaqing, the corruption problem not only did not solve, but became more serious. Jiaqing 18th year (1813), the north broke out Tenrikyo Uprising , part Tenriko The disciples, greeted by the eunuchs, rushed into the palace, ^[242] "It led to the Han, Tang, Song and Ming dynasties," Emperor Jiaqing was forced to issue an edict. ^[243] In foreign negotiations, Emperor Jiaqing strongly prohibited opium It maintained a high degree of vigilance against the harassing activities of the British aggressors along the coast. He also rejected Britain's offer to establish diplomatic relations Treaty port The demand for ceding islands off the coast of Zhejiang. while Shut the country off The traditional concept of "foreign Affairs" also makes it adopt a blind rejection attitude toward foreign things. Emperor Jiaqing tried his best to maintain the stability and consolidation of the Qing Dynasty in the midst of frequent internal unrest and increasing foreign aggression. However, the irreversible historical development trend made the downfall of the Qing Dynasty completely apparent at the end of Jiaqing, and from then on, it gradually declined. ^[232]

Daoguang Emperor After taking the throne, he also lost the enterprising spirit of the early monarchs, and his ruling style became increasingly conservative and rigid ^[59] . At the beginning of Emperor Daoguang's accession to the throne, he also thought hard to cure and eliminate evils. Reform was carried out on the salt transport administration. Replacing river transport by sea not only solves the difficulties of water transport, but also saves expenses. Line ticket salt system, so that the salt policy of the two Huaihe "clean wind". Lifting the ban on the mining of some mineral deposits, advocating that the benefits of nature should be returned to the world. Rectify official institutions and curb extravagance. ^[233] In particular, in the seventh year of Daoguang (1827), the Qing Dynasty pacified Xinjiang Changel rebellion It has maintained the unity of the country and the unity of the ethnic groups, and since then Xinjiang has maintained peace for a long time. At the same time, the Qing Dynasty launched a campaign to prohibit the drug opium. However, the wanton confrontation of the foreign powers and the corrupt politics of the Qing Dynasty made the ban just a literal one, and the rampant opium still caused serious harm to China. ^[233] At the same time, in official circles, clipping parties for personal gain, fighting each other, selling official titles and bribing became common. ^[60] In the army, equipment is obsolete, drills are infrequent, camp work is weak, and discipline is broken. Fiscally, the state Treasury is running out of money. Class contradictions have intensified, popular uprisings have spread, Western forces have gradually deepened, and foreign aggression has become more and more imminent.

External troubles and internal troubles

Hong Xiuquan

Due to the corruption of officials, customs smuggling is serious, Opium trade Rampant, ^[61] In 1839, in order to solve the problem of opium, the Daoguang Emperor sent Lin Zexu To the trade center Guangzhou Declare a smoking ban. In order to open up the Chinese market, Britain launched in 1840 Opium Wars The Qing Dynasty was defeated and forced to Sue for peace. In 1842, he was forced to sign an unequal treaty with the British invaders. Treaty of Nanking ", opened Modern Chinese history . ^[62] The western countries forced the Qing government to open Hong Kong trade, and the local officials and landlords annexed land, which destroyed the traditional rural economy. Various places have taken the opportunity to rise up, of which North China to twist chaos, central and south China to Hong Xiuquan the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Yunnan Du Wenxiu , Ma Rulong the Yunnan reversal Main. ^[59]

Daoguang thirty years (1850) January, Daoguang Emperor died, the fourth son Yi 詝 Succession, reign name Xianfeng. In 1851, Hong Xiuquan was in Guangxi Jintian Uprising Build the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, called the king of Heaven. Joint harmonization Heaven and Earth Society , Triad society The Northern Expedition. Two years later, the capital was captured Jiangning It was renamed "Tianjing". The aim of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was to oppose the Qing Dynasty's feudal rule and foreign aggression. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom established an official system, conferred titles, issued calendars, formulated economic systems, produced coins, and printed books. ^[246] And launched two westward expeditions. On May 8, 1853, Lin Fengxiang , Li Kaifang He was ordered to lead more than 20,000 divisions to the north. Although the Northern Expeditionary army once advanced Tianjin Nearby, because the lone army deep, was besieged by the Qing army. afterwards Zeng Guofan , Zuo Zongtang with Li Hongzhang Organize in succession Hunan Army with Huai Army Resist the Taiping Kingdom.

In order to save the ruling crisis, Xianfeng Emperor Po thought of eliminating disadvantages and seeking treatment. He dismissed the virtuous and tried to revive discipline. He used Han bureaucrat Zeng Guofan and relied on his training and command of Han landlords to suppress the Taiping Heavenly State and the Nian Army uprising. Promote those who dare to act Su Thuan We will support the eradication of corrupt policies. ^[244] After Su Shun came to power, he assisted Xianfeng Emperor to "declare the Law of the State" in order to cure the accumulated evils and punish the punishment. ^[247] To face the official corruption since the end of Qianlong with an iron fist, to crack down on corruption, severely punish dereliction of duty, and purge the official style of government. His decisive handling of the "Wuwu Field case" greatly changed the official atmosphere of the Qing Dynasty in the following decades, especially the increasingly corrupt atmosphere since the late Qianlong period. ^[245] It is suggested to cast big money to solve the financial difficulties, reduce the salaries of the eight banners, and reduce the financial burden of the state. ^[247] At the same time, Xianfeng Emperor rejected Daoguang as the military aircraft minister for more than 20 years, corruption and honor, harm the health of the country Muchanga The notorious capitulator who presided over the peace during the First Opium War was executed Qi Ying . ^[244]

Ruins of the Old Summer Palace

In 1856, the British excuse" The Yarrow incident ", the French excuse" The Ma Shenfu incident co-launch The Second Opium War . In the eighth year of Xianfeng (1858), the British and French fleets captured Dagu Fort and pressed into Tianjin. Xianfeng sent Guiliang and Huasana to Tianjin to negotiate peace, and signed treaties with Britain, the United States, France and Russia. Sino-British Treaty of Tianjin "" Sino-us Treaty of Tianjin "" Sino-french Treaty of Tianjin "And" Sino-russian Treaty of Tianjin ". The Great powers, not satisfied with their rights under the Treaty of Tianjin, deliberately renewed the war. In the 9th year of Xianfeng (1859), in the Dagu Port conflict deliberately provoked by Britain, the British and French invading forces were defeated. In the tenth year of Xianfeng (1860), Britain and France once again formed the Allied forces to invade China and invaded on a large scale. Anglo-french army British and French forces captured Tientsin and then attacked Beijing. Carrier wall The Army Shangshu Mu Yin As imperial minister, he went to Tongzhou to negotiate peace with Britain and France. Under the cover of peace talks, the allied forces of Britain and France continued to organize the attack on Beijing. After defeating the Qing army at the Eight-Mile Bridge in Tongzhou, they attacked Beijing and burned the Old Summer Palace and Qingyi Garden. Yi Xin Stay in Beijing and negotiate peace. Yi Xin, on behalf of the Qing Government, signed the Sino-British Beijing Treaty, the Sino-French Beijing Treaty, and the Sino-Russian Beijing Treaty with Britain, France and Russia, and ratified the Sino-British and Sino-French Tianjin Treaty. ^[244]

From the 1850s to the 1880s, Russia seized more than 1.5 million square kilometers of northern China. According to a series Unequal treaty China has lost a lot of territory, sovereignty and wealth, Semi-colonial and semi-feudal society The degree has greatly deepened. ^[62]

Improved ZTE

Prince Gong yi

1861年，咸丰帝在 Rehe Died of illness, the six-year-old son Zai Chun succeeded, that is Tongzhi Emperor . 咸丰帝 Original appointment Su Thuan Following the approval of the eight ministers, the Queen Mother of the two palaces and Prince Gong Yi Xin launched the campaign Coup d 'etat , Yangomiya Govern from behind a curtain Last by one of the two houses Empress Dowager Cixi Gain real power. The Westernization movement brought about a relatively stable situation in Chinese society. In the first month of 1864, the Qing army led by Zeng Guofan captured Zhongshan and besieged Tianjing. In July, the Xiang Army captured Tianjing. ^[279] The Eastern twister army was destroyed on January 5, 1868, at Wayaopu, northeast of Yangzhou, and the Western twister Army was destroyed by Li Hongzhang's Huai army on August 16, 1868, at the Duyi River in Chiping, Shandong Province. Yuan Dakui, the last remnant of the Nian army that left the name of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, was destroyed by Zuo Zongtang in Northern Shaanxi in 1869. From 1862 to 1878, Zuo Zongtang put down the Shaan-Gansu Rebellion, put down the Xinjiang rebellion, and recovered Yili. Be known as Westernization group Yi Xin and Zeng Guofan , Li Hongzhang , Zuo Zongtang , Zhang Zhidong In destroying the Taiping Army, some of the Han ministers realized the western ships and guns, and in view of the failure of the two opium Wars, they carried out the policy of "division and development of skills to control Yi" and the use of Chinese and western bodies Self-strengthening movement (also known as Westernization movement ) ^[63] .

Modern enterprises in the Westernization movement

In the early 1860s, Westernization group Under the banner of "self-improvement", the military industry began to be established by introducing Western machinery and technology. The military industries founded by the Westernization school mainly include: Zeng Guofan Ankynei Ordnance Institute It was the first weapons factory run by the Westernizers. Li Hongzhang founded in Shanghai Jiangnan General Manufacturing Bureau The manufacture of guns, explosives and ships. Zuo Zongtang founded in Mawei, Fuzhou Fuzhou shipyard Production of ships, allocation of naval and provincial patrol for anti-smuggling purposes. The Westernization group has run a total of more than 20 military factories, the largest of which was founded by Zhang Zhidong in Hanyang in 1890 Hubei gun Factory . The ownership of the military industry and the right of production management of the Westernization group were completely subordinate to the feudal government, so they had a strong feudal character. But it is widely adopted by the military industry Wage labor system It is therefore also capitalist. After the 1970s, under the banner of "seeking wealth", while continuing to set up military industries, the Westernizers established some industries related to civilian use. Westernization sent to run civilian industries mainly adopted" The government supervises the business Form, that is, investment and shares, the official sent people to operate and manage. There are also "government-run" and "government-run" Joint venture between government and business "The industry. One of the more important ones was organized by Li Hongzhang China Merchants Steamship , Shanghai machine weaving layout , Kaiping Mining Bureau , as well as Zhangzhidong Hanyang Iron Works . In the 1980s, Kaiping Mining Bureau also built a railway to transport coal, which started China's railway transportation industry. The capital of civil industry mainly comes from the input of society. The factory adopts the wage-labor system and the purpose of production is to pursue profit, so its nature is capitalist. However, because feudal bureaucrats manage enterprises, they bring the style of official corruption to enterprises, so enterprises have a certain feudalism.

Yamen of the prime minister

then Prime Minister Yamen on foreign affairs With subsequent Minister of Trade of the North Ocean Responsible for the planning and implementation of foreign relations and the self-strengthening movement, introduced foreign science and technology, established a modern banking system, a modern postal system, laid railways, and set up telegraph networks. In the mid-1870s, the Westernizers began to build a navy. By 1885, the three navies of Beiyang, Nanyang and Fujian had begun to take shape. In the future, the Westernization faction focused on building a navy Beiyang Navy Up. In 1888, the Beiyang Navy was formally organized Beiyang Fleet There are more than 20 warships in total, most of which were purchased from foreign countries. The Westernization faction also built Lushun and Weihai Garrison ports as bases for the Beiyang Fleet. Because of the need of westernization, the Westernization group founded some new schools, such as The Beijing Academy of Literature , Fuzhou ship Administration School , Tianjin Telegraph School From which a group of translators, military and technical personnel were trained. At the same time, nearly 200 students were sent abroad in batches to study the military and science and technology of Western countries.

The Westernization movement restored and strengthened the national strength of the Qing Dynasty to a certain extent, and in the Tongzhi period when Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong jointly ruled, the Qing Dynasty once appeared a relatively stable situation. Tongzhi rejuvenation " ^[64] . During this period, with the help of Westerners, the Qing Dynasty succeeded in eradicating the popular revolt in the interior and recovering it Xinjiang Its status and image in the world have improved considerably as a result. By the 1880s, the equipment of the Qing army had improved significantly compared with that before the Westernization movement.

Empire swing

Thirteen years of Tongzhi (1874), Tongzhi Emperor He died in the East Warm Pavilion of the Yangxin Hall at the age of 19. ^[251] Prince of Alcohol's son is only four years old Zaitian Chosen by Empress Dowager Cixi to inherit the throne, the next year changed the year title to "Guangxu". ^[252] Two palaces Queen Mother again Govern from behind a curtain . In the seventh year of Guangxu (1881), Empress Tzu An A violent death. Empress Dowager Cixi Monopolize power. Sino-french War Following the outbreak, Cixi took the opportunity to follow Prince Yi Xin to all his orders, and at the same time dismissed the five ministers of military aircraft and appointed her own aides to the Military Aircraft Office and the Cabinet. From then on, the Qing court became the exclusive dominion of Empress Dowager Cixi. ^[253]

Li Hongzhang

After Tongzhi, the major capitalist countries in the world successively transitioned to the stage of imperialism. The foreign powers all penetrated the vast border areas of China with their black hands of aggression, which caused a serious crisis in the border areas of China. The United States has long had the ambition to occupy Taiwan. In the third year of Xianfeng (1853), the American naval fleet moved to Taiwan, The Gaoshan nationality, living in Yunnan Province The people gave the invading American army a head-on defeat and drove it away. In the thirteenth year of Tongzhi (1874), Japan sent Lieutenant-General West township follow the road Invade Taiwan. The Qing Court sent a minister of shipping Shen Baozhen Led troops to Taiwan to deploy defense. A Special Article on Taiwan Affairs was concluded with Japan to compensate 500,000 taels of silver as a condition for the withdrawal of Japanese troops. During the Tongzhi period, the British continued to send reconnaissance into Yunnan and Tibet of China. In the second year of Guangxu (1876), under the coercion of the British, the Qing Court sent Li Hongzhang and the British representative Vitoma Signed in Yantai, Shandong Treaty of Yantai "And" Guide to Tibet ". In the 16th year of Guangxu (1890), the Qing Court negotiated with the British to demarcate China and Zhe Mengxiong. Sikkim ) of the border. In the nineteenth year of Guangxu (1893), the Qing Court and the British signed the "Tibetan-India Renewal", from then on, the British forces invaded Tibet. Northwest side, Four years of Tongzhi (1865), Central Asia The Khanate of Hohan Yakub Taking advantage of the chaos in China's Xinjiang region, he led an army to invade Kashgar. Faced with the two crises that occurred simultaneously in the northwest and southeast, the Qing Court had a "crisis". The dispute between coastal defense and fortress defense ". Li Hongzhang stressed the importance of coastal defense and believed that coastal defense should be vigorously strengthened, but he advocated abandoning Xinjiang on the grounds that "coastal defense and the Western expedition are difficult to take into account". Governors of Shaanxi and Gansu Zuo Zongtang In the first year of Guangxu (1875), the Qing Court accepted the idea of recovering Xinjiang and appointed Zuo Zongtang as imperial minister to supervise the military affairs in Xinjiang. The following year, the Qing army entered Xinjiang and recovered most of the territory of northern Xinjiang. In January of the fourth year of Guangxu (1878), the Qing army finally recovered Hotan. At this point, only the Ili region remained in the hands of the Tsarist Russian aggressors. ^[258]

In 1883, the Qing Dynasty and France were Vietnam ( Annam Outbreak of sovereignty Sino-french War . From January to April 1884, France sent eight heavily armed warships to the coast of Fujian and Taiwan to cruise and demonstrate at the ports of Fuzhou, Xiamen and Keelung. In 1885, faced with a severe situation, he served as a veteran commander of Guangxi Feng Zicai Ordered to go to Zhenan Pass in the name of helping Guangxi military affairs, Battle of Zhennan Pass With victory, the French fled in panic. Subsequently, Feng Zicai took advantage of the victory in pursuit, the French occupied Lang Son and other areas were recaptured one after another, and more than 1,000 French troops were wiped out. News of the failure returned to France, causing internal disputes within the bourgeois ruling clique and provoking a war of aggression against China Jouferi The cabinet fell. ^[254] The Qing government decided to "seize the victory and immediately withdraw". China and France will sign a Vietnam treaty Officially signed in Tianjin, China recognized France's right of protection over Vietnam, opened Mengzi and Longzhou to trade with France, withdrew French troops from Keelung and Penghu, and lifted the blockade of the Chinese sea. Under the heroic resistance of the Chinese army and people, the French war of occupation of Taiwan ended in defeat. ^[255] Qing dynasty lost Vassal state Vietnam, Vietnam becomes France The colony, Taiwan A province was also declared. He was appointed by the Qing Court in the 11th year of Guangxu (1885) Liu Mingchuan He was the first governor of Taiwan Province. During his tenure in Taiwan, Liu Mingchuan built railways, opened coal mines, established telecommunications, reformed postal services, developed shipping, promoted Taiwan's trade, developed education, promoted the development of Taiwan's modern industry and commerce, and Taiwan's defense was increasingly consolidated. ^[255] After the war, the Qing Dynasty was established Navy yamen . In 1885, Britain intrude Burma Minister of the Qing Dynasty to the UK Zeng Jize Protests to the British failed, and the following year they were forced to sign the Sino-British Burma Treaty, which recognized Burma as British possession. ^[256-257]

The Sino-Japanese War

At this point, Japan in Meiji Restoration After the national strength increased, in 1872, Japan forced the Qing Dynasty vassal Ryukyu Changed to Japan, the Qing Dynasty refused to recognize, Sino-Japanese relations. On July 25, 1894, Japanese ships attacked Chinese ships, and the Sino-Japanese War broke out. On August 1, 1894, China and Japan declared war. The Sino-Japanese War Full blown. The First Sino-Japanese War lasted nine months and was divided into two battlefields: land and sea, and the Japanese army captured Pyongyang in Korea Yellow Sea battle The Chinese defeated the Beiyang naval forces, and then captured Lushun and Weihai in China. On January 20, 1895, the Japanese army landed on Rongcheng Longshu Island and occupied Rongcheng. Immediately divided into two ways to Weihai south Bang fortress copying. On the 30th, the southern fortress fell. On February 1, the Japanese army occupied Weihai. Since then, the Japanese army cooperated with land and water, and attacked Liugong Island and the Beiyang Fleet in the port. Lieutenant of the North Ocean Fleet Ding Ruchang He committed suicide and died in his country. On the 17th, Weihaiwei Naval Base fell and the Beiyang Fleet was destroyed. In the end, the Qing army was defeated ^[65] .

In 1895, the Qing government signed a treaty with Japan Treaty of Shimonoseki ", cession Taiwan and Penghu Islands And its dependent islands, lost their vassal states North Korea . It was founded by the Westernization faction Li Hongzhang Beiyang Fleet The defeat of the entire army also declared the final failure of the self-strengthening movement. ^[65]

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Guangxu Emperor

With the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, China once again suffered the misfortune of ceding territory, reparations, and the further loss of a large amount of sovereignty. The disastrous Sino-Japanese War accelerated the semi-colonial process of Chinese society. The critical situation of subservience forced some advanced Chinese to start looking for a new way to save the country and the people. Guangxu Emperor felt the pain, he strongly support Reformers Reform methods to gain strength. ^[248]

In 1898, Guangxu Emperor with Liang Qichao , Kang Youwei Etc. Bourgeois reformists Leading the movement for political reform Hundred Days' Reform . promulgate Ming Dingguo is An edict was issued to announce the reform. ^[248] In terms of politics, the New Deal: open the way of speech, allowing newspapers to "point out pros and cons", "current affairs at home and abroad, are allowed to speak according to the facts, do not have to be taboo"; He also issued an edict that any member of the court or department wishing to make a statement may submit it to the court through the" A surname "Generation, ordinary people can come Court of censors Submit; Reduce the structure, cancel jamjifu , Department of general Administration (in charge of internal and external regulations) and other six government offices, provinces should also do the corresponding reduction; With new people, reformers Yang Rui , Liu Guangdi , Tan Sitong All were appointed by Guangxu as "military aircraft Yamen Zhangjing walk" and participated in the New Deal; Follow the old system of Kangxi and Qianlong and open in the Forbidden City." Maoqin Hall This made it a de facto institution for the emperor to discuss institutional reform with the reformers (which was not implemented). On the military side: switch to western military training; The demobilization of the old and weak and the reduction of military salaries must be implemented Local militia , cut down Green camp To organize a militia; To issue special award regulations for newly built guns; The establishment of Wubei College; Vuko stopped trying arrows and swords and changed to guns. Economy: set up the General Administration of Agriculture and Industry; Reclaim wasteland, encourage private enterprises and reward invention and creation; Set up railway and mining administration, build roads and mining; Set up post offices throughout the country to provide postal services; Reform the finance and staffing State budget . Culture and education: Reform Imperial examination system The establishment of new schools, translation bureau, newspaper and so on. ^[250] However, the Hundred Days' Reform was led by Empress Dowager Cixi post-tuning Hated and opposed, they prepared to take the Empress Dowager Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor to Tianjin military parade to stage a coup d 'etat to depose Guangxu Emperor. Emperor's Party After learning that, he tried to win over the new army leader Yuan Shikai Rescue Guangxu emperor, only to be betrayed by Yuan Shikai. On the 6th of early August, Empress Dowager Cixi imprisoned Emperor Guangxu Yingtai, Zhongnanhai Immediately killed Tan Sitong, the "Six gentlemen" who planned the reform, Lin Xu , Yang Rui, Yang Shenxiu , Liu Guangdi, Kang Guangren Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao were wanted, the reform officials were dismissed, and the Hundred Days' Reform completely failed. ^[249] It only lasted 103 days before and after the reform, so it is also called" The Hundred Days of Reform " ^[65] .

Empress Dowager Cixi

In 1896, the Qing Court signed the "Union Russia Day". Sino-russian secret treaty ". The Great powers raised it after China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War The China frenzy . At this time, an outbreak broke out in North China, Hebei and Shandong. Help the Qing to destroy the ocean "For the slogan The Boxer Movement . The Empress Dowager Cixi wanted to take advantage of the xenophobia, tacitly acquiescing in the Boxers, and declared war on the eleven States. In order to protect South China and southeast China, the governors and governors of various provinces disobeyed the imperial decree of the Qing Court declaring war on foreign countries and launched southeast self-preservation. The Boxer Rebellion triggered the retaliation of Western powers.

In 1900, Eight-nation allied forces Invade Beijing. In late June, after the Qing Court declared war on the eight-power allied forces, the Qing army was repeatedly defeated. Peking Occupied, looted and pillaged by the allied forces. The Empress Dowager Cixi led the Guangxu Emperor to flee to Xi 'an, which Cixi considered a disaster Boxer As a result, an order was issued to destroy the Boxers. In the end, the Boxer Movement was defeated by the Qing army and the eight-power allied forces. In 1901, the Qing Dynasty signed a treaty with eleven countries. Treaty of sin-ugly ". In 1904, the conflict of interests between Japan and Russia in the Northeast broke out Russo-japanese War And further deepen China's semi-colonization.

Revolutionary wave

Liang Qichao

After the Qing Dynasty fell in power after the invasion of the eight-nation allied forces, intellectuals proposed various ways to save China, mainly divided into constitutionalist with revolutionaries Two lines of reform. In 1901, the constitutionalist Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao promote Constitutional movement , Liang Qichao publish Constitutional amendment ", hoping to let the light Xu emperor become Constitutional monarch . The Empress Dowager Cixi, in order to pull the Qing Dynasty out of the crisis, intended to emulate the reform of Europe and Japan New policy in the late Qing Dynasty . The New Deal mainly promoted constitutional monarchy, the establishment of a new Qing army, and abolition Imperial examinations , rectify finance And a series of reforms. The revolutionaries were disappointed with the reform of the Qing Court, and they advocated overthrowing the Qing Dynasty and establishing a republican system.

Sun Wen In 1894 Hawaii Honolulu Set up Reviving China Society ^[66] ; In 1904, Huang Xing in Changsha tenable Hua Xing Society ; That same year, CAI Yuanpei in Shanghai Set up Rehabilitation society . In 1905, Sun Wenzai Japan United Xingzhong Society, Hua Xingxing Society and Guanghui Society, established China Tongmeng Association And put forward the program of "expelling the Manchus, restoring China, establishing a Republic of China, and equalizing land rights". The revolutionaries allied with the old anti-Qing forces such as Triad society , A surname He launched ten revolts in South China and infiltrated the new Qing army in central and South China ^[66] .

Three-year-old Xuantong Emperor Pu Yi

At that time, there was a dispute between the constitutionalists and the revolutionaries over the way of reform, and at first the constitutionalists prevailed, and the Qing Court also promised to implement the constitution. In 1907, it was established by the Qing Court Imperial Council To prepare a constitution and to establish consultative councils in the provinces. In July 1908, the Constitution of the Provincial Consultative Councils and the Constitution of the Election of Members of Parliament were promulgated, ordering the provinces to set up consultative councils within one year. In the same year, the" Outline of the King James Constitution "To establish Constitutional monarchy A government, a representative parliament. At the petition of the constitutionalists, the Qing Court announced that the Parliament would be convened in 1913. In November 1908, after the death of Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi, Puyi succeeded to the throne Emperor Xuan Tong , my father Zaifeng Custodial power Prince regent .

In May 1911, the Qing Court was formed by Prince Qing Yikuang He led a "responsible cabinet", which was the first constitutional monarchy in Chinese history. However, many of the members of the Cabinet were royal, so they were called "royal family". Royal cabinet This led to the discontent and disappointment of the constitutionalists, and many turned to revolutionary cooperation.

In May of the same year, Sichuan and other places broke out Road protection movement The Qing Court rushed to send a new army into Sichuan to suppress. In October, the Revolutionaries launched in Hubei Wuchang Uprising The southern provinces subsequently declared independence. The Qing Court appointed the commander of the new army in Beiyang Yuan Shikai for Prime minister Set up a cabinet and command the Qing army. Yuan Shikai on the one hand Yangxia War China put pressure on the revolutionary army, but secretly negotiated with the revolutionary party, formed Peace talks between the north and the south The situation.

On January 1, 1912, Republic of China Founded in Nanjing, Sun Yat-sen took office in Nanjing Provisional President of the Republic of China . On February 12, Yuan Shikai forced Xuantong Emperor Puyi to issue an edict on abdication, handing power to Yuan Shikai's government, and the Qing Dynasty ended.

Successor dynasty

Emperor Puyi of Xuantong during the restoration of Ding Si

After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, according to the Cleaning preferential conditions The members of the Qing family were able to continue to live in the Forbidden City, the titles, treatment, and titles of the palace remained unchanged, and the eunuchs, guards, and palace ladies were retained Imperial Household Department , Jongrenfu , Department of punishment for punishment Other institutions, still called lonely road oligarchs, awarded posthumous titles, maintain imperial style, and the Republic of China government, like a country in the country, known in history. Xiao Qing Court ". ^[67]

In June 1917, a Qing general stationed in Xuzhou Zhang Xun Make use of Li Yuanhong with Duan Qirui The contradiction, with a rate of 5,000 "braid soldiers", entered Beijing on June 14 in the name of "mediation". Urgent telegram around the Qing Dynasty old people to the capital, "Xiangzan restoration cause", support has abdicated the last Qing emperor Pu Yi restoration, history said Ding has been restored But it only lasts 12 days. ^[68] On November 5, 1924, Puyi was arrested Feng Yuxiang Expelled from the Forbidden City, but still revered by some of the Qing Dynasty's old ministers as emperor, in Peiping Shichahai , Tianjin Zhangyuan, Jingyuan and other residential areas still continue to maintain a micro small court, history said" The minor court of the late Qing Dynasty ". ^[69]

territory

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EDITOR

Subject article: Qing dynasty territory , Administrative divisions of Qing Dynasty , Eighteen inland provinces , Tributary system

Territorial scope

In 1760, it was pacified Dzungaria The Qing empire reached its peak in the northeast with Russian Empire demarcation The Erguna River , The Gerpitzi River with The Outer Hinggan Mountains This border line until The Sea of Okhotsk with Sakhalin ; Due north and Tsarist Russia Sayan Range , Sabinay Ridge, Chaktu With the Erguna River; Northwest and The Kazakh Khanate The northwestern vassal states demarcated Sayan Mountain, Jaisanpur , Ala Vatn , Lake Issyk , Balkhash Lake to Pamir Plateau ; Southwest and India The Mughal Empire Nepal, Bhutan and other countries Himalayas To the wild mountain; Due south roughly with present day People's Republic of China The boundary with Southeast Asian countries is similar, including Namhkam , Jiangxin slope And other places in northern Myanmar ^[70-72] ; Higashiro Japan , Ryukyu demarcation Sea of Japan with The East China Sea , and Joseon dynasty Along the Tumen River , The Yalu River Demarcation; The Qing Dynasty also possessed Taiwan , Penghu , Hainan (Province) and The South China Sea the South China Sea islands when Qianli Stone Pond , Changsha , Zeng Mother sand ). ^[59]

Map of the heyday of the Qing Dynasty.

Administrative division

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Qing inland administrative divisions
Qing inland administrative divisions
Zhili Province , Jiangsu, Anhui, Shanxi, Shandong, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, Guizhou, in 1884 (Guangxu decade) Xinjiang Province , It was placed in Fujian and Taiwan Province in 1887 (13th year of Guangxu Reign) and in 1905 (31st year of Guangxu Reign Reign Reign) Jianghuai province It was removed immediately.

A surname

Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei, Gansu and other provinces A surname , be divided into Department of Propaganda , Secretary of propaganda and Pacification , Recruitment and recruitment department , Pacification department and Long legal battle (The chief is a military post), and the Tufu, Tuzhou, and Tuxian (the chief is a civilian). The chief of the chieftain shall be the head of the local ethnic group, and may be hereditary, issued by the court or the local government to the seal, and returned to the local governor, Garrison minister Govern. The chief of the Comfort division belongs to The Ministry of War in feudal China The prefectures, prefectures, prefectures and other officials are subordinate to The Ministry of Personnel Affairs in feudal China . During the reign of Yongzheng, the chieftain of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi and other provinces began to change to the official system, according to history Return to the land . At the time of Guangxu and Xuantong, Zhao Erfeng As the Sichuan-Yunnan border minister, the Tibetan chieftains in western Sichuan and the Tibetans in eastern Tibet also began to return to their native lands ^[73] .

northeast

The northeast is the Qing Dynasty. Land of dragon prosperity . After entering the customs, stay in Shengjing with the garrison eight flags Shenyang (in Liaoning Province) And prohibited mainland Han people from farming. From Kangxi to Qianlong, three general districts equivalent to provinces were gradually formed: Shengjing , Ji Lin , Amur River . Under the general, a special city deputy was located in each city and administered the areas adjacent to each city. It's under the vice president header Command the flags. Where the Han people live in compact communities, they set up governments, prefectures, counties and offices, just like the mainland. Barhu, which lives in the middle and upper reaches of the Heilongjiang and Nenjiang Rivers, Daur , Solon (Ewenki), Oroqen The Xibe and other tribes were organized into the Eight banners under the jurisdiction of the Buha and Hulun Buir governors. Amur, lower Rijiang and Sakhalin Island Hezhe , Feyacke The fishing and hunting tribes, such as Kupage and Qileng, are divided into the surname and the township head Three surname vice president Have jurisdiction over ^[74] . Changed in 1907 Mukden The three general districts of Jilin and Heilongjiang are provinces.

Vassal state

There were as many as 19 vassal states in the Qing Dynasty. As early as Huangtaiji, Kangxi period North Korea with Ryukyu Kingdom . It expanded to Southeast Asia during the Qianlong period Annam ( Vietnam ), South palm (now Laos ), Burma , Siam (now Thailand ), Cambodia , L 'Enfant Republic (now The island of Kalimantan Western) and Luzon , Sulu (disappeared after Spanish rule of the Philippine Islands); South Asia has Gurkha ( Nepal ), Zhe Mengxiong ( Sikkim ), Bhutan with Ladakh (under the jurisdiction of the Minister resident in Tibet) and other countries; Central Asia has The Kazakh Khanate , the Khanate of Brutus, The Khanate of Hohan , Bukhara Khanate , Aihouhan (now Afghanistan ), Badakshan With dry India and other countries. ^[75]

In the middle of the 18th century, the political situation in western Central Asia was restructured in a period of intense unrest, which extended to the Pamir Plateau. In the 24th year of Qianlong (1759), after the Qing Dynasty unified Xinjiang, it once again extended the territory of the Central Plains Dynasty to Pamir Plateau . When the Qing Dynasty intervened in the Pamir region, the policy orientation in dealing with the Central Asian affairs directly affected the future fate of the Central Asian countries and the political situation of the region. At that time, it was clear that the strength of the Central Asian states could not compete with the Qing Dynasty, and the Qing Dynasty had to face the powerful neighbor Russia in the northwest frontier and strengthen the status of the Mongol vassal. How to deal with the problem of the descendants of harmony, eliminate internal hidden dangers, isolate Kazakh and Brut departments, and build a security barrier became the primary goal of the Central Asia policy of the Qing Dynasty. During and after the Peace War, Kazakh, Brut, Hohan Khanate, Tashkent, Badakshan and other regimes and tribes all submitted to the Qing Dynasty, hoping that the Central Asian policy of the Qing Dynasty could benefit them. After the collapse of the ruling ideas such as the establishment of prefectures and enfefements to the west of Pamir, the Qing Dynasty finally decided to incorporate Central Asia into the vassal system, and did not interfere with the tribes of Central Asia, "forever guard the border", and maintain good-neighborly friendship.

political

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EDITOR

Central organ

Council of ministers

Council of ministers , yes" King of Deliberative affairs "And" Minister of state In the early Qing Dynasty, for a long time, it was the highest authority of the military administration under the command of the emperor. Be... with... Eight-flag system xanthi Pegatron Baylor The communist system of governance is closely linked. In the early Qing Dynasty, the emperor had great power, and even the emperor could not change the affairs once he decided, so the imperial power was gradually weakened with the concentration of imperial power. On October 24, 1791, Emperor Qianlong issued an order to revoke it. ^[76]

Substitute for the good

cabinet

In 1631, Huang Taiji The imitation system begins Three inner houses . On the third day of May 1644, Dorgon After entering Beijing, the decree "ordered the officials of the Cabinet, the Sixth Ministry, the Capital Procuratorate and other yamen in Beijing to work with the original official and the full official." In this way, at the beginning of the Qing Court's ruling of Yanjing, all the central organs such as the Ming Cabinet were inherited, and the original Ming officials also retained their posts, working with the full government, and the central government organs quickly ran. After the establishment of the Civil Service, the position of the Cabinet began to decline.

South study

It was established by Emperor Kangxi in 1677 South study It was originally intended to be with Imperial Academy The Ci ministers discussed knowledge, recited poems and painted pictures. Because the south study "non-worship class noble purlin, on the cronies are not allowed to enter" ^[77] Therefore, it is completely a core secret institution tightly controlled by the emperor, and it promises to issue decrees at any time, which makes the South study "powerful day." ^[78] . The elevation of the South Study, yes Kangxi Emperor Reducing the power of the Council of Ministers, while transferring some functions of the foreign cabinet to the inner court, an important step to implement a high degree of centralization.

Privy council

In 1729, Yongzheng Emperor began to set up a military machine room in order to deal with the Northwest military newspaper in time, and it was renamed in 1732 Privy council ^[79] . After Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne, he arranged for several "Premier Affairs ministers" to enter the Military Aircraft Department, so it was renamed the Prime Minister's Office. In 1737, Qianlong served the Manchu government, the Prime minister's affairs and other ministers were dismissed from their posts, and the name of the military machinery Department was restored. Since then, the military Machinery Department has become the core authority directly responsible for the emperor, and the status of the Manchurian Council of Ministers was weakened to almost negligible, and all political power was in the hands of the emperor, becoming the Qing Dynasty Centralized system The pinnacle of... It was not until April 10, 1911 that the Qing Court announced its establishment. Responsible cabinet The Civil Aviation Department was abolished.

The interior of the Civil Aviation Department

Responsible cabinet of Qing Dynasty

On May 18, 1911, the Qing government announced the abolition of the military Bureau and the implementation of the cabinet system and appointment Prime minister And the ministers formed cabinet . It is composed of Prince Kyung Aisin Gioro Yikuang Chinese history The first cabinet in the modern sense. However, since more than half of the members of the Cabinet were royal or Manchu, they were also called "Manchu". Royal cabinet ". The cabinet in Xinhai Revolution It was later replaced by a new cabinet formed by Yuan Shikai.

Executive organ

Six divisions (officials, households, rites, soldiers, punishment, work) is the highest executive organs of the Qing Dynasty, the ministers A surname "The deputy chief said A surname Before entering the customs, the Shang Shu were held by the Manchu people. In 1644, it was stipulated that the Shangshu and the Manchu and the Han were each one.

The central administrative bodies outside and parallel to the Six Departments are: Dali Temple , Taichang Temple , Gwanglok Sa , Taipu Temple , Honglu Temple (Five temples), The Imperial College , The imperial Board of Astronomy , Imperial Academy , Imperial Hospital , ribana , Jongrenfu , jamjifu , Imperial Household Department , Court of censors .

Supervisory organ

The highest national supervisory organ of the Qing Dynasty was named Court of censors . The court was responsible for verifying the corruption and misdeeds of all levels of government officials and officials, documenting the gains and losses of politics and people's livelihood, participating in the ninth Council of Ministers, submitting major cases and court and autumn trials together with the Ministry of Criminal Law and the Dali Temple Review Office, checking the cancellation of documents and files and the sealing and lapses, and inspecting the local public security of the capital. ^[80] Its subordinate supervisory organs are: fifteen, six departments, the Imperial history Department, the Imperial History Department of the Internal Affairs Office, and the five-city Investigation Court. Six of them are the imitation Ming system in the early Qing Dynasty, set officials, households, rites, soldiers, punishment, work six, the survey of official business. It was an independent institution until 1723, when it was attached to the Imperial Court. ^[81]

Official selection system

Subject article: Imperial examination system , The Imperial College , The system of selecting officials in Ming and Qing dynasties , Erudite Hongci branch

Grade system

Ranking of officials in Qing Dynasty" Grade 18, Grade 9 Every level has the right from the difference, not within the eighteenth level is called not into the flow, in the level attached to the nine products.

Criminal law system

In 1647," Statutes of the Qing Dynasty Editing completed. The Great Qing Law basically inherits the Great Qing Law Clear law The content of ". Posterior channel Kangxi , Emperor Yongzheng The two dynasties added and deleted several times, and published in 1727. But it was the examples, not the rules, that most often worked in the Qing Dynasty. The Qing Court also had various special laws for ethnic minority areas, such as The Mongolian nationality There is" Mongolian law ", Uighur nationality There is a "return law", The Zang nationality There are "laws" and so on to strengthen the rule over the people of various ethnic minorities ^[82] .

In 1907, the revised Law Museum formulated the draft of the Great Fresh Criminal Law for the purpose of "focusing on model powers". The draft is divided into two parts: general provisions and specific provisions. There are two types of punishment: principal punishment and accessory punishment. It also made provisions on crimes related to national relations, elections, transportation, communications, etc., and established a probation and parole system. Before the promulgation of the new Criminal law, the Law Library was amended to delete and revise the Qing Dynasty statutes to" Current criminal law of Qing Dynasty As a transitional act, it was enacted in 1910.

Local system

Subject article: Governors and governors in feudal China ( Governor-general system in Qing Dynasty , Grand governors ), commander-in-chief , Political envoy , monitor-envoy , Eighteen inland provinces , Baojia system , Governor of the canal ," Flushing is difficult "

Flag and anthem

At first, the Qing Dynasty had no legal flag or national anthem. After modern times, with the communication with Western countries, some concepts of Western countries were gradually introduced, including the national flag and national anthem. In 1888, the Qing government recognized the "Blue dragon playing red beads on a yellow background" (commonly known as the Qing Dynasty). Yellow Dragon Banner ") for the Qing national flag.

From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the Qing Dynasty successively used the" Putenle "" Li Zhongtang Le "" Singing Dragon Banner As a semi-official or substitute national anthem ^[83] . Until 1911, the Qing government decided to" Gong Jinou "Is the official national anthem, due to the outbreak of the Revolution of 1911," Gong Jin Ou "later did not become popular.

Triangle Yellow Dragon flag and Yellow Dragon flag
Triangle Yellow Dragon flag	Yellow Dragon Banner
Triangle Yellow Dragon flag	Yellow Dragon Banner

Military affairs

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EDITOR

The eight Banners

In the early Qing Dynasty, the Qing army was mainly divided into The eight Banners and Green camp Two kinds. The Eight banners system is a system of integration of soldiers and people established by Nurhachi on the basis of the recording of Nuzhen cattle. The eight flags are divided into The Eight Banners of Manchuria , Mongolian eight Banners , The Eight Banners of the Han Army . The flag is set up by the capital (Gushan forehead true), by the center The eight banners all control the yamen Grasp, place Governors and governors in feudal China Have no right to recruit. ^[84] In 1650, Emperor Shunzhi reformed the eight-flag system, and the three flags, yellow, inlaid with yellow, and white, were personally controlled by himself, forming a "national flag". Upper Three Flags The "Lower Five Banners" and "Lower Five Banners" changed the situation that the previous eight banners were controlled by different princes, while strengthening the strength of the upper three banners, and the power of the Manchurian Council of Ministers was weakened. ^[84]

From the positive yellow, positive white, inlaid with yellow on the three flags of Manchu, Mongolian selected composition pro-camp Responsible for guarding the emperor and the court, return Lead the chambermaid Govern. Soldier guard is responsible for defending the capital, and the main force has primus, forwards, guards Battalions, such as marching troops, and well-equipped soldiers selected from each battalion Jianrui Camp , Firearm battalion , Tiger Spear Battalion , Camp of Divine Machinery Let's wait.

Green camp and group training

Green Battalion It is mainly the Ming Dynasty army and the provincial teams adapted after the Qing soldiers entered the customs, with green military flags, so it is called green flag soldiers or green battalion soldiers. There are horse, infantry, and naval forces. In the provinces, by viceroy , Grand governors , commander-in-chief , Commander in chief Under the jurisdiction of... ^[85]

After the middle of the Qing Dynasty, there were also Han landlords who recruited themselves to practice the village warriors. Consequent cause Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement The rise of landlords and armed groups around the rapid development of Zeng Guofan Hunan Army It came into being. And Li Hongzhang organized it Huai Army Zuo Zongtang's Chu Army, etc., these landlords were reorganized after the armed training Military training With the defense. ^[86]

navy

In 1651, the Shunzhi Emperor ordered the coastal provinces along the Yangtze River to follow the Ming system and set up their own naval forces, which was the beginning of the Qing Dynasty's naval forces. Inland river defense Yangtse River As the main body, there are watermen along the coast. ^[87] During the Westernization Movement, the Qing Dynasty began to build a new navy. In order to establish the ability of ship self-production, in 1866, the Qing Court in Fuzhou (capital of Fujian Province) horsetail The establishment of the Prime Minister's Office of Shipping Affairs to Shen Baozhen For the Minister of shipping. In the same year, Li Hongzhang asked him Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau Build gunboats. In August 1868, the first Chinese-made steam warship, Tian Ji, was launched. subsequent Sino-french War with The Sino-Japanese War The destruction of the South Ocean Fleet and the North Ocean Fleet, respectively, is also a sign Self-strengthening movement The failure. ^[88]

New Army

New policy in the late Qing Dynasty When Yuan Shikai was founded in North China Newly built army (i.e., Beiyang Army), Zhang Zhidong South organized Self-improvement Army . ^[89] By the end of the Qing Dynasty, its army could boast a million men, but only about 600,000 combatants, of whom only 175,000 were modern regulars. Not all the new troops were loyal to the Qing court, and some secretly supported the revolutionary army. ^[90]

Foreign war

Foreign war
By stages	time	warfare	Belligerent power	result
Early Qing Dynasty	The year 1627	The Battle of Ding MAO	North Korea ( Li Dynasty )	Korea defeats, sues for peace, becomes a brotherly nation
	The year 1636	The Battle of the third son	North Korea ( Li Dynasty )	Korea was defeated and became a vassal state of the Qing Dynasty
	1685-1686	The Battle of Yakusa	Tsarist Russia	Defeat of Tsarist Russia, Treaty of Nerchinsk
	1765-1770	Qing Burmese War	Myanmar (Myanmar) Gong Bang Dynasty )	Sign a peace treaty
	1788-1789	The purge of Anan Nguyen Hui	Annam Western Shan Dynasty )	Annam peace
	1788-1792	The Battle of Gurkha	Gurkha	China won and defended Tibetan territory
Late Qing Dynasty	From 1840 to 1842	The First Opium War	Britain	The British won the Treaty of Nanking.
	1856-1860	The Second Opium War	Britain, France	Britain and France won, Russia gained, the Treaty of Tianjin and the Treaty of Peking
	From 1875 to 1878	The Battle of the Qing Army to recover Xinjiang	Haohanguo	China wins and retakes Xinjiang
	From 1883 to 1885	Sino-french War	France	China defeated without defeat, the New Testament between China and France, etc
	1894-1895	Sino-japanese War of 1894-1895	Japan	Japan wins, Treaty of Shimonoseki
	The year 1900	The eight-nation Allied War against China	Britain, France, Germany, Russia, United States, Japan, Italy, Austria	Eight nations won, the Treaty of Sin-Chou.
	The year 1900	The war of the army and people in Northeast China against the invasion of Tsarist Russia	Tsarist Russia	Tsarist Russia won, but failed to achieve its" Yellow Russia project Treaty of Handover of the Three Eastern Provinces between China and Russia

economy

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EDITOR

Subject article: Qing dynasty economy

The strong national strength of the early Qing Dynasty was mainly reflected in the significant development of agriculture, handicraft industry and commerce, especially the expansion of cultivated land, the increase of population and the abundance of money and grain in the national Treasury. ^[91] It became the peak of China's feudal economic development. ^[92]

agriculture

The Qing Dynasty increased production by reclaiming wasteland, emigrating border areas, and promoting new crops. Due to the increase in domestic and foreign trade, the economy and agriculture are also more developed. In order to alleviate class contradictions in the early Qing Dynasty, the policies of rewarding land reclamation and reducing taxes and taxes were implemented. Divide into acres The policy of the early Qing Dynasty also exempted the world money and grain many times. Social and economic development took place both in the interior and on the border. By the middle of the 18th century, the feudal economy of the Qing Dynasty had reached a new peak ^[20] . As a result, the centralized authoritarian system is more strict, the national power is strong, and the order is stable.

Handicraft industry

In the handicraft industry, the corvee system for artisans was changed to a tax service system. The industry focuses on the textile and porcelain industry, the cotton weaving industry surpasses the silk weaving industry, and the porcelain is painted on the porcelain body with enamel, Jiangxi Jingdezhen For porcelain center.

commerce

Commerce was developed in the Qing Dynasty, and market trade was the most common form of trade. Towns and cities are the centers of commodity distribution, the starting and ending points of transshipment trade and the connecting points of local markets. Towns and cities are closely related to commodity economy, and they are mutually complementary and interdependent with commerce. There are two kinds of town markets in Qing Dynasty: one is town market, which is set in town market; The other is the town shop, which is the town's regular and main market for goods. During this period, the prosperity of the town market was firstly manifested in the remarkable development of the town market. The difference between town fairs and rural fairs is that, in addition to the farmers around the town, the traders who trade in town fairs are mainly small traders, and the buyers of their goods are mainly town residents. Town markets and rural markets also developed rapidly during this period. Secondly, the prosperity of the urban market during this period was also reflected in the increase of the number of shops and shops. The shop industry owned by each town is not the same, some as many as sixty or seventy industries, some only a dozen, generally more than twenty. But in general, the number of industries and the increasing number of stores is its development trend. For example, in the Ming Dynasty, Linqing City in Shandong Province, there are five hundred and six hundred shops, and in the Qing Dynasty, there are more than one thousand. During this period, in some of the larger commercial prosperous towns, there were also some professional streets, even one street line, one lane line. The emergence of new commercial towns and the expansion of the business district of the original towns are an important aspect of the prosperity of the urban market. During this period, the urban market was generally the commodity market center at the county level, and was the link point and trade center of the county's various fairs, with the function of adjusting the surplus and shortage of the county's products. Some urban markets, because of their larger scale or more developed commodity production, or located in the traffic arteries, are not only the center of the commodity market in the county, but also the center of the commodity market in a region. Others become regional markets, that is, commodity market centers in a province or an economic zone. ^[262] With the development of commerce, the city became more prosperous and regional commercial centers were formed in several major cities. ^[93]

At this time, the regional market gradually formed. Such as the northern Qilu market Central Plains (Yuzhang) market, Yanbei (Beijing and Tianjin) market, Luze market, Guanzhong market, Liaodong market south of the Lingnan market, Jiangnan market, Huguang market, Zhangquan market, Jiangxi market, etc. Each regional market has formed one or more regional market centers. For example, the central cities of Qilu market are Jinan, Linqing, Qingdao; The central cities of Guanzhong market are Xi 'an, Xianyang and Nanzheng; The central cities of the Central Plains market are Kaifeng Luoyang, Nanyang and so on. The commodity market in Linqing, one of the central cities of Qilu market, serves not only local residents and farmers in nearby prefectures and counties, but also some prefectures and counties in the east of Luxi and Zhili. It is a commodity market mainly for transit. Linqing grain, the annual sales of 5 million to 10 million stone, is the largest grain trading center in the north. Linqing is also the southern cotton goods, silk goods in the north of the transit station, the west, Shaanxi, Liaodong cloth merchants buy from here to sell north, Shandong, Henan counties cloth merchants also buy from here, back to the local sale, is the largest textile market in the north. ^[262]

A national market was also formed during the Qing Dynasty. The country is unified and the society is basically stable, which provides the necessary environmental conditions for the emergence of the national market. It also provides reliable conditions for the implementation of unified commercial policy, unified tax system, unified currency system and unified system of weights and measures. The national market has been formed, and its symbol is also shown in the Qing Dynasty, some products not only formed the central origin, but also the market of these central origin products has been throughout the country, or some commodities have a national market. For example, in the Ming Dynasty, Suzhou and Hangzhou have become the production centers of silk and silk fabrics, and in the Qing Dynasty, there are two new silk industry centers, namely Nanjing and Guangzhou, whose products are distributed throughout the country. When known as "the name of Jiang silk sateen in the world", its products "north of the Huai Si, Da Juruo, toward the capital; Northwest walk Jinjiang, over the river, Qinlong; Southwest road Bashu, arrived in Yunnan Guizhou; The south pan Huxiang, over the five mountains, boats and vehicles reach all around, and the place where the trade moves reaches the ears." The silk fabrics of Guangzhou, "Jinling, Suzhou and Hangzhou are not as good", known as "wide silk nails in the world". Others, such as Suzhou, Songjiang cloth, Foshan ironware, Jingdezhen porcelain, Taiwan sugar, Anhui, Fujian tea, etc., have a national market. Third, due to the development of the regional market, the regional market has further linked up, has formed several national central markets, instant people so-called "four major clusters" : "The world has four clusters, the north is Beijing, the south is Foshan, the east is Suzhou, the west is Hankou." In addition to the "four major clusters", there are cities such as Guangzhou, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Yangzhou and Tianjin, which are "the world's merchants and Jia clusters". During the three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Gan, commodity production developed, commerce prospered, and trade routes were extensive. A commercial network composed of rural markets, urban markets, regional markets and national markets had been formed. ^[262]

At the same time, commercial capital entered production. ^[94] With the development of commerce, ten business groups have been formed. among Shanxi merchants , Huizhou merchants sinophobic Banking industry , Fujian merchants , Chaoshang Company Master overseas trade ^[95] .

Prosperous Times Breeding Map of Qing Dynasty

finance

The development of usury pawn industry: Kang, Yong, Gan three dynasties, with the development of monetary economy, usury industry is very active. The method of calculating interest may be calculated on an annual basis, on a monthly basis, on a daily basis and on a monthly basis. The interest rate is mostly three cents or five cents per month, that is, to borrow one or two pieces of silver, three cents or five cents per month. Although there are less than three points, but very few, some as high as nine points, and plus one (10%) plus two (20%) plus three (30%). According to incomplete statistics, in the 24th year of Kangxi (1685), there were 7,355 pawnshops nationwide, which soared to 18,308 in the 18th year of Qianlong (1753), an increase of nearly one-and-a-half times. ^[263] Its growth rate is very fast, reflecting the rapid development of usury pawn industry in this period. There is also a special usury, that is, the interest bearing silver of the Qing Court, which is allocated a certain amount of silver by the Treasury to the internal government or the towns and provinces to operate, in order to obtain interest to solve the economic difficulties of low-level officials. This kind of interest-generating silver began in the Kangxi Dynasty, gradually contracted in the Qianlong Dynasty, became active again in the Jiaqing period, and still existed after the Opium War. In the forty-second year of Kangxi, Shengzu personally approved the loan of 1 million silver to two Huai salt merchants at a two-year interest rate of 10%. ^[264] In the first year of Yongzheng (1723), 900,000 silver taels were allocated for interest, and the monthly interest rate was "one cent interest". ^[265] This kind of interest-bearing silver is not fundamentally different from the folk usury, but the interest rate is slightly lower. Its monthly interest rate ranges from one point to three points, with one point and two points divided into the majority. The Qing Court put the interest-bearing silver into the market, expanded the usury fund and usury market, and promoted the development of usury industry.

Tickets issued by Risheng Chang Ticket number

Bureau of Printing , Money house and Account bureau With the development of usury industry, a kind of credit organization specializing in usury - the Printing Bureau appeared. About the beginning of the year tomorrow, Beijing has a record of the Indian Bureau. In the twentieth year of Kangxi (1681), the printing bureau specialized in usury had appeared in Liangjiang area. After the middle of Qing Dynasty, the printing bureau appeared in every major commercial city. Its interest rate is higher than the general usury, mostly in the monthly interest rate of three cents to six cents. In the late Ming Dynasty, silver and copper money were used, so there was a credit organization operating the exchange business, which began to set up stalls, calling money tables or money stalls, and later appeared in front of the business, called banks and money shops. In the Qing Dynasty, the functions of the banks gradually expanded, in addition to the exchange business, but also the operation of money lending and deposit banks prevailed in the south of the river, Hankou, Shanghai as the center, the strongest force of the Shaoxing Gang. Credit organizations similar to banks are called "account bureaus" in the North. The first account bureau is Shanxi businessman Wang Tingrong out of the capital of ten million in Zhangjiakou opened "Xiangfa Yong". Shanxi merchants in Beijing, Zhangjiakou operating the most account bureaus, only before the Opium War in Beijing there were more than 100 account bureaus, the original silver in 10 million taels. The loan objects of the account bureau were the industrial and commercial shops, the printing Bureau, the code shop and the money shop, and the officials and the Mongolian nobles. It is conducive to the development of industry and commerce by financing capital. ^[266]

The appearance of ticket numbers: Although the Ming Dynasty has a folk "will ticket" that is, a class of bills of exchange circulation, but the exchange business of credit organization ticket numbers appeared in the Qing Dynasty. Because the ticket number is in the hands of Shanxi businessmen, it is also called" Shanxi ticket number ". The semicolon of Shanxi Ticket number, distributed in more than 90 cities and towns across the country, has more than 400 villages, and was known as "Huitong World" at that time. Before the advent of banks, "it was all about exchange." The interest rate is generally 3 to 4 per cent per month for deposits and 7 to 8 per cent per month for loans, the lower is 5 per cent and the higher is 1 cent. It served banks, pawnshops and general industrial and commercial people, and provided credit to the Qing Court, alleviating the national financial crisis. From the perspective of the source of capital, the target of service and its functions, it is still basically feudal interest-bearing capital, but it is conducive to the development of commodity economy, promotes long-distance trafficking and economic exchanges between large regions, promotes the emergence of national markets, and also provides conditions for the emergence of modern banks in terms of talent, management system and experience accumulation. ^[266]

currency

Money was generally adopted in the Qing Dynasty tael with Copper coins With the double standard system of silver and copper, large numbers use silver, small money, but the status of silver is more important. Due to the development of overseas trade, silver was imported in large quantities from abroad, Kangyong and Qiansheng times Foreign circulation Silver dollar In addition to the Spanish silver dollar, there are Portuguese silver dollars, Venetian silver dollars, Dutch silver dollars, French silver dollars and so on. Opium Wars Before and after, the need for a fixed form of silver coins appeared, and the formal use of machines to mint silver coins was after the Opium War. Before the Opium War, Britain sold a large amount of opium into China, resulting in a large outflow of silver from China, and more copper money was needed to exchange for silver. Since silver was a fixed currency for people to pay taxes, this led to inflation And seriously worsen the economy. It was made in 1651 Shunzhi Emperor Paper money was issued until 1853 咸丰帝 reissue Qing Dynasty treasure notes with The official ticket of the ministry of Household Affairs Such paper money to stabilize the Qing economy. ^[96]

Taxes and corvee

Subject article: Butyl silver , Fixed butyl silver , Divide into acres , abrogation , Virtuous silver , The envy goes to the public , As one man, we feed as one man , Out of the flag for the people

Before the 50th year of Kangxi (1711), although the system of the Qing Dynasty was adjusted repeatedly, it was still very complicated and confused because of its long history. In the fifty-first year of Kangxi (1712), he decided "prosperous Shizding, never add Fu". ^[97] In other words, the number of people in the country in the 50 years of Kangxi is more than 24.62 million Ding and more than 3.35 million Ding silver as a quota, and the Ding that is increased later will no longer be added to the Ding silver. In the first year of Yongzheng (1723), Li Weijun, Governor of Zhili, requested that Ding silver be spread into the grain and collected, which was allowed by the court. Gradually implement "Yongzheng first year" Divide into acres The policy, to a certain extent, has changed the long-standing situation of uneven taxation, is conducive to mobilizing the enthusiasm of working people for production, and promotes social and economic development.

Emperor Qianlong also exempted land taxes, grain deliveries, and provincial debts on a large scale for many times, and ordered five times in the 10th year of Qianlong, the 35th year (1770), the 45th year, the 55th year, and the first year of Jiaqing (1777) to exempt provincial taxes, money and grain for one year in three annual rounds. Kangxi , Emperor Yongzheng , Qianlong Although the policy of exempting taxes in the period was a measure to alleviate contradictions taken to maintain feudal rule, compared with excessive taxation and plunder, it alleviated some burdens of peasants to a certain extent, so that they could rest at ease in production and avoid the suffering of displacement.

finance

After the defeat of San Francisco, the annual income of Diding silver was 26 million to 28 million taels, and about 8.3 million taels were retained for local expenses, plus other income, and the annual fiscal revenue was nearly 30 million taels. Due to the establishment of the fiscal revenue tax system and the improvement of various tax laws, the fiscal revenue of the Qing Dynasty was greater than the expenditure, and the inventory of the ministry was increasingly abundant Kangxi In 61 years, the inventory of the department was more than 8 million, Emperor Yongzheng Gradually accumulated to more than 60 million. Up to Qianlong Forty-six years (1781) increased to 78 million taels, the Qing Dynasty financial revenue to enter the best peak period. ^[98] (It is also said that in 1777, it was close to 82 million taels, which was the highest record for the Qing generation.) The outbreak of the White Lotus Uprising in the early years of Jiaqing became a turning point for the Qing Dynasty's finances. After the suppression of the White Lotus Religion in 1804, the Qing Dynasty ushered in a period of peace. For the next 16 years, there was no major fighting in the interior or on the frontier. Surprisingly, the surplus has not rebounded, remaining in the $20-30 million range for most of this cycle.

However, once the imperial court used troops on the border or put down civil unrest, the military expenditure increased sharply, and its cash reserves would fall sharply. However, the Qing government did not raise the land tax rate or set up new taxes to increase the national Treasury revenue.

ground

Subject article: Renaming field , Two masters of the same field

culture

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EDITOR

Subject article: Qing dynasty culture

novel

Subject article: Qing dynasty novels ," A Dream in Red Mansions "

The image of Lin Daiyu in A Dream of Red Mansions

Qing Dynasty novels are the peak of creation and dissemination in ancient China. Cao Xueqin's" A Dream in Red Mansions ", Wu Jingzi 's The outer history of Confucian scholars ", Li Lvyuan 's Crossing light And Shi Yukun's The Three chivalrous and the five righteous "Is one of the outstanding representatives. ^[99]

Wu Jingzi (1701-1754) is a novelist and thinker in the Qing Dynasty. His representative work, The Foreign History of the Confucian Scholars, is a famous classical novel in China. The book takes the whole feudal society as the object of criticism, takes different types of intellectuals as the center, through the description and analysis of their life and soul, Outlines the various "Confucian". ^[259]

There is also Pu Songling's" The stories of Liaozhai ", "Bang Yue" The Night Chronicles ", Ji Yun's" Read micro cottage notes "And other strange ghost novels. ^[100] Their appearance marked ancient China Vernacular novel and Classical Chinese novel The highest achievement of art.

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the appearance of denunciation novels added luster to the novels of this period. Represent as The official scene "" What I've seen for 20 years "" Lao Can's travels "" Bastard sea flower ", etc. The novel was condemned for further expanding the scope of the subject matter, describing mainly officialdom, and covering all aspects of social life. ^[101]

Some typical characters were created in the novels of Qing Dynasty, which showed the myriad of social life. For example, in A Dream of Red Mansions Jia Baoyu , Lin Daiyu , Xue Baochai , Wang Xifeng Wait, ^[102] In the External History of Confucian Scholars Fan Jin , Kuang Superman , Mr. Ma Er Let's wait. and Ming dynasty novels In contrast, these successful characters are closer to life and shorten the distance from the reader.

poetry

Subject article: Poetry of Qing dynasty , Ci of Qing Dynasty

Li E, master of poetry in Qing Dynasty^[272]

Qing poetry is another important period after Tang and Song dynasties, with various schools and poetics, which has its artistic value that cannot be ignored. The mainstream of poetry in the early Qing Dynasty was" Poetry of the adherents "Is rich in the spirit of resistance. ^[103] The most famous is Qian Qianyi , Wu Weiye , Gong Dingzhi , said" Jiang left three people ". Famous poets who lived in the late Qianlong period and Jiaqing period were Zhang Wentao His seven-word law is perfect, and there are many good sentences. Zhang Wentao Or talk about "spirit", in favor of Yuan Mei's argument on poetry, can be regarded as a "spirit school" poet, Zhang asked Tao and Yuan Mei , Zhao Yi "Qianjia" The spirit of three people ". ^[104]

Be called Poetic revolution The poetry reform movement was produced before and after the Hundred Days' Reform, and its representatives are Huang Zunxian Of poems, the rest such as Tan Sitong , Tang Caichang , Kang Youwei , Huang Zunxian , Jiang Zhiyou , Qiu Fengjia , Xia Zengyou All have works. ^[105]

The Ci of Qing Dynasty is known as "revival". In Shunkang Dynasty alone, there were more than 2,500 ci writers and more than 60,000 Ci poems, far more than any previous dynasty, especially compared with the declining ci of the Yuan and Ming dynasties. In the Kangxi period, Qing Ci for the first time showed its impressive creation achievements, formed its own style characteristics, and set up an altar outside the Tang and five Dynasties and two Song Ci. ^[260] appear Wang Shizhen , Chen Weisong , Zhu Yizun , Gu Zhenguan , Stern eagle , Nalan Xingde And other important poets. Zhu Yizun, Chen Weisong and Naran Xingde, although their status in the whole history of Ci is different, praise and criticism are different, but their status in the Kang Xi Ci circle ", especially the leader of the western Zhejiang Ci school Zhu Yizun, whose theory of "learning the Southern Song Dynasty, still elegant" leads the Qing generation of Ci creation. ^[260] Qing Ci entered its heyday. Poets of the late Qing Dynasty Wang Pengyun , Zheng Wenzhuo , Zhu Xiaozang , Shi Zhouyi He was also called "four poets of late Qing Dynasty". Make a comprehensive survey Ci of Qing Dynasty The remarkable achievements can be summarized as three points: first, there are many authors; Second, high opinion; Third, kung fu is meticulous.

drama

Subject article: Hall of Eternal Life , The Peach Blossom Fan

Huizhou class came to Beijing

The development of Chinese opera until the Qianlong period of Qing Dynasty, local operas appeared and flourished one after another. Passage of kunqu opera Wei Liangfu , Li Yu Such as the improvement of the playwright, the performance of the bull ear has been obviously attributed to Kunqu. Pass" The struggle of flower elegance "Yabe Kunqu eventually declined.

The name Peking Opera first appeared in the 1876 opera declare There has been in history Yellowish yellow , Erhuang , Huang Qiang, Beijing Tune, Beijing Opera , Flat drama Chinese opera and other titles, the department of 1790 four Huizhou class came to Beijing After the Kunqu opera with the Beijing Opera circle, Han opera After fifty or sixty years of integration, Yiyang and random plays have evolved. The richness of its repertoire, the number of performing artists, the number of troupes, the number of audiences, and the depth of influence are all the first in the country. ^[106]

prose

Subject article: Tongcheng School

painting

The painting world of Qing Dynasty was dominated by literati painting, landscape painting and freehand ink painting were prevalent, more painters pursued the interest of ink and brush, and renovated the art form surprisingly, and many different styles of schools emerged. Early Qing Dynasty Zhu big , Shi Tao The landscape flower and bird painting, the middle" The Eight Strange men of Yangzhou "Late Qing Dynasty Ren Bonian , Wu Changshuo The flower-and-bird paintings of beautiful women and the New Year paintings of Yangliuqing, Taohuawu and folk have had great influence on later generations.

Lang Shining's "A Hundred Jun Map" (partial)

Seal cutting

Subject article: Seal cutting in Ming and Qing dynasties

Qing Dynasty epigraphy As a result of the popularity and the large number of stone relics unearthed in the past dynasties, many scholars have devoted themselves to the collection, research, writing and dissemination of these relics and ancient characters, thus expanding the vision of seal carving. The number of seal cutting schools in the Qing Dynasty is unprecedented, and the representative figures are: Zhao Zhiqian , Wu Changshuo , Li Liangyu , Qi Baishi Let's wait. ^[271]

science

Subject article: textology , Qianjia school

Academically, textual studies flourished most during the Qing Dynasty. The representatives of the heyday of textual science are Huidong , Dai Zhen , Duan Yuzai , Wang Yinzhi , Wang Niansun Wait, the method of verification is much the same. ^[107] Here we are Zhang Xuecheng And put forward" The six classics are all history The argument goes one step further. ^[108]

philosophy

Subject article: Wang Fuzhi , Gu Yanwu , Huang Zongxi , Dai Zhen , Yan Yuan , Zeng Guofan

New learning

Subject article: Western learning is spreading east , Atlas of the Sea , New chapter of senior administration

history

Subject article: Zhang Xuecheng , Continuing tee , Clear tee , History of Ming Dynasty

Under the influence of the style of textual study, the examination and compilation of ancient history and the collection of historical materials have become the trend, and various historical works have appeared. Huidong has 24 volumes of "Later Han Book Supplement Notes"; Qian Daxin has 40 volumes of "Two Han Books", 3 volumes of "Three Kingdoms", 8 volumes of "Later Han Book Supplement", 2 volumes of "Supplement Han Book Art and Literature", 4 volumes of "Jiading Jinshi Script"; Liang Yusheng has 36 volumes of Shi Ji Zhi Qi; Cui Shuyou "Kaoxinlu" book; Hang Shijun's works include "Historical Records Research", "Supplementary Notes on the Annals of The Three Kingdoms", "Supplementary Book of Jin", "Northern Qi Shu Shuzheng", "The History of the Classics questioned" and so on. Xie Qikun has "Western Wei Shu" 24 volumes; Shen Qinhan has 12 volumes of Zuozhuan Supplement Notes, 12 volumes of Zuoshi Geography Supplement Notes, 74 volumes of Lianghan Shu Shuzheng, etc. Lei Xueqi has 14 volumes of "Kaoding Bamboo Book Ji Nian"; Hong Liangji published 12 volumes of Four Shih Fafu, 2 volumes of Three Kingdoms Territory, 4 volumes of Eastern Jin Territory, 16 volumes of Sixteen Kingdoms Territory, 16 volumes of Western Xia State History, etc. Bi Yuan organized the compilation of "continuation of the capital" and so on. The examination and compilation of historiography is a comprehensive clean-up and summary of the history books of the past dynasties of China, which opens up the way for the later history of the rule of man, and the most successful ones should be promoted Wang Mingsheng , Qian Daxin , Zhao Yi Three people. In addition to the Seventeen History Discussion, Wang Mingsheng also has a book called "Moshu Compilation", which is an academic work mainly based on textual research, mainly on classics, historical places and primary schools, and includes systems, famous objects, characters, characters, poems and inscriptions, etc., which is very rich in content, among which 38 volumes in four categories, "Shuodi", "Shuoji", "Shuoren" and "Shuowu" are particularly incisable. Qian Daxin in addition to the "22 Shi Kaoxi" also participated in the "Continuing literature General Examination" Continuing general annals The compilation and revision of official books such as the Unified Annals. Another contribution to historiography is in the Yuan history, there are "Yuan history Clan Table" 3 volumes, "Yuan history art and literature" 4 volumes, he was interested in rebuilding a Yuan history, has become "Yuan history Draft" 100 volumes, unfortunately lost; Zhao Yi in addition to the "22 history of Zhan Ji Ji" there are four volumes of "Imperial Martial arts Jisheng", "Xiyu Cong Kao" 43 volumes, "Zhan Bao Miscellaneous records" 6 volumes. ^[261]

Under the influence of the official revision of the history of the Dynasty and the settlement of the frontier, there appeared a group of scholars who studied and wrote the history of the Dynasty and the history of the frontier, and their academic achievements had an important influence on the academic atmosphere of the late Qing Dynasty. Zhao Yi's Wugong Jisheng in the Imperial Dynasty, in the genre of the end of the chronicle, recorded the two dynasties of Shengzu and Gaozong in the pacification of SAN Han, the pacification of the desert, the pacification of Junggar, the pacification of Burma, Liangjinchuan, Taiwan, Gurkha and other important historical events, which are of great historical value. Jiang Liangqi compiled 32 volumes of Donghualu to record the historical events of the five emperors and six dynasties in the early Qing Dynasty, mainly based on actual records and titles. Because the book was compiled before the Qing Court modified the records, many important original materials were preserved. Lu Yao compiled 18 volumes of "Introduction to the Imperial Department", 1 volume of "Interpretation of the Western Regions", 4 volumes of "Introduction to the Western Regions" and "Introduction to Xinjiang". Xu Song wrote a book of the extreme group, because of the garrison in Yili, "Since the customs, on the north and south roads, almost all the tour." Every suitable, with the opening of the small book, set the compass, remember the twists and turns of its mountains and rivers, the horse record. It was written in 5 volumes of The Waterways of the Western Regions. The above is not only the current history of the Qing Dynasty, but also related to the consolidation and development of the frontier, thus forming the characteristics of historical research focusing on the current history and frontier history. ^[261]

Zhang Xuecheng

In the historical theory, Zhang Xuecheng's historical theory contribution. Zhang Xuecheng, word real zhai, number Shaoyan. The main points of his theory are as follows: First, the historical records are divided into two parts: "writing" and "comparing". He said: "The ancients must have learned from several schools, and written and compared two schools, which are of great importance." The so-called writing refers to its own dogmatic learning; The so-called comparison class refers to the recording, sorting and compiling of data. Based on this view, he is in favor of writing books to become a family, advocating the writing of general history, the second is to mark "historical meaning" and advocate "historical virtue". The so-called historical meaning refers to the intention and purpose of the historian's writing, and the so-called historical virtue means in Liu Zhiji On the basis of the theory of "three long" (ability, learning and knowledge) in history, the theory of "History and virtue" is advocated. The third is the overall concept of history. He said, "There is the history of the world, the history of a country, the history of a family, and the history of one person." The history of a person also; Family by genealogy, family history also; Ministry of the county, the history of a country; In summary, the history of the world; Compared with people, then there is a home, compared with home, then there is a country, compared with country, then there is the world, but the division is extremely detailed, and then the united can choose the good without regret." This is to treat different historical records as interrelated totality, collectively referred to as "history". It is under the guidance of this overall view that he paid special attention to the compilation of local records in Zhou and county, so he guided the establishment of a section of annals in Zhou and county to accumulate materials for the cultivation of national history. The second is the practice of cultivation. Zhang Xuecheng He did not enter the national history Museum, his history practice in his life is mainly in the compilation and revision of local records, by his compilation and revision of Tianmen County Records, He Zhou Records, Yongqing County records, Bozhou Records, Hubei Tongzhi and so on. Zhang Xuecheng put forward some important views in the activities of the compilation of records, such as the history of the history, should be drawn from the national history, pay attention to the role of history table, history books should have a map, local records should be set up "three books" style (that is, records, stories, textual evidence into a book) to solve the contradiction between academic and information, and so on. This is the theory that he summed up in his practice, which has important guiding significance. In addition, he also praised the "six classics are all history", did not follow the style of study, dare to put forward their own independent opinions. ^[261]

Literary inquisition

Subject article: Literary inquisition in Qing Dynasty

In the early and middle of Qing Dynasty, rulers prospered Literary inquisition . Liu Yizheng He said: "The former literati suffered from the disaster, almost no more than the Qing Dynasty. Since Yongqian, the people of the festival have disappeared. ... One careless move may bring disaster." ^[109] . Examples of writing prison in the Qing Dynasty, the famous Kangxi period The Nanshan case Yongzheng Period Zha Si Ting Question sum Lu Liuliang case Let's wait. ^[110]

Science and technology

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EDITOR

Medical science

The ninety volumes of Medical King Jin Jian, which was edited by the Qianlong government, collected a lot of new secrets and experience prescriptions, and analyzed the results of the book. Synopsis of Golden Chamber "," Treatise on Febrile diseases It is an important work to introduce the clinical experience of traditional Chinese medicine. Famous doctors of Qing Dynasty Wang Qingren He has made outstanding achievements in medicine and is the author of the book Medical forest correct mistakes "The book. He stressed the importance of anatomical knowledge for the treatment of diseases and questioned the ancient records of zang-fu organs. Through the anatomical study of cadaver internal organs, he drew 25 kinds of "Viscera Correction Map", corrected some mistakes of predecessors, and made a beneficial contribution to the development of Chinese anatomy. ^[111]

Geography

Kangxi When, had organized manpower to carry out geodetic survey of the country, after more than 30 years of planning, mapping work, made a" Imperial map full view ". This map was "not only the best of all the maps of Asia available at the time, but also better and more accurate than all the maps of Europe available at the time." ^[112] . Finally, on the basis of the "Emperor's Map" and according to the new data of surveying and mapping, the "Emperor's Map inside the Qianlong Palace" was made. In this map, the Xinjiang region of China is charted in detail for the first time. ^[113]

agronomy

There are about one hundred agricultural books in Qing Dynasty, especially Kangxi , Emperor Yongzheng The two dynasties prospered. There is a... A general examination is given by imperial order "" A wide spectrum of aromas "" Books on supplementing agriculture "And other books. ^[113] Among them, the large-scale comprehensive agricultural book "Imperial Examination" was compiled by a group of scholars gathered by Emperor Qianlong Hongli in 1737. The size of the book is larger than that of Encyclopedia of agricultural affairs A little smaller. Because it was an imperial imperial letter, it was copied in most provinces and spread widely.

Maths

Subject article: Wang Xishun , Mei Wenting , minantagram ," Circular densification method "

Water conservancy

Subject article: Jin Fu , Yu Chenglong , Chen Huang

unit

Subject article: Changchun Garden , Old Summer Palace , Chengde Summer Resort , Outer eight temples , The Summer Palace , Potala Palace , Yonghe Lama Temple , Eastern tombs of the Qing Dynasty , Western Qing Tombs , Pattern mine

The Summer Palace

Qing emperors loved to build gardens, number Three mountains and five gardens The most famous. In the western suburbs of Beijing Old Summer Palace Also very luxurious, Yuanmingyuan has more than 150 exquisite palaces, pavilions, pagodas and other buildings. After 150 years of experience, it cost about 200 million taels of silver. In addition to the renovation, new construction was built in the immediate east Changchun Garden In the southeast neighborhood merged Wan Chunyuan . The pattern of the three Yuan and Ming gardens has basically taken shape. Jiaqing Qichun Garden was repaired and developed to make it one of the main garden places. In 1860, Anglo-french army The Old Summer Palace was ransacked and cultural relics were looted.

railway

In the late Qing Dynasty, the transportation industry developed. Zhan Tianyou officiating Beijing-zhangjiatsu Railway The arduousness of the project was rare in the world railway history at that time. Jeme overcame every difficulty, creatively designed the "human" shaped track, slowed down the slope, reduced the cost, and completed it two years ahead of schedule. Beijing-zhangjiatsu Railway It was built by the Chinese using their own technical strength.

nation

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EDITOR

The differentiation of Huayi

By" Great sense of mystery record "And" Imperial edict on abdication of Emperor Qing We can see the hardships and efforts made by the Qing Dynasty to realize the integration of political identity and cultural identity. This process not only allowed the Manchu people to complete the identity transformation from "Yi" to "Xia", but also further evolved the "Great Chinese justice" with "Huayi family" as the core Mongolia , Xinjiang , Xizang And other ethnic groups in the southwest and other "non-Han world" identity Greater China The common basis of values has contributed to maximizing "China" in the sense of culture and territory. China in the modern West" nation-state "The impact of the concept is not only not dismembered, but triggered the" Chinese nation The facts such as the unified response of the Qing Dynasty both highlight the strength of internal cohesion. These two historical documents, which echo from beginning to end, constitute the main legal basis for the Chinese government to express its national sovereignty and territorial claims later on. ^[114]

First worship Manchuria

As the dominant ethnic group and the main component of the eight-banner army, the Manchu were especially regarded as the foundation of the state and the pillar of the imperial court. Manchurian soldiers made great contributions to the Qing Dynasty in the Central Plains, and later in the battle of leveling SAN Han and destroying the Hui Department. So the end Qing generation," First worship Manchuria (also known as "Manchurian root") ^[115] It was an established state policy of the Qing Dynasty. ^[20] ^[82] During the Qing Dynasty, the children of Manchuria enjoyed the following privileges in the field of politics or life:

privilege
aspect	content
education	The Qing Court set up a special school for the children of the imperial family; The children of Jeluo have Jeluo learning; Ordinary children of the eight banners have the Xian 'an Palace official school and other eight banners official school; The children of the house have Jingshan official school and so on ^[115-116] ;
Torah	Qing Dynasty Manchu Han (banner people) different punishment. For example, those who have committed crimes of military imprisonment or exile have the privilege of being exempted from dispatch by using the pillory number instead. In addition, the judicial power of the flag bearer is independent of the people. If the garrisoned flag bearer violates the law, he is not under the control of the local governor, but is responsible for the garrisoned general and the capital of the area. The children of the Beijing Banner were handled by the Bujun capital yamen, and the imperial family was ruled by the Zong Ren government.
treatment	The Qing Court allocated the children of Manchuria as banner land and exempted them from taxation. Flag land shall be protected by the State and may not be bought or sold without permission ^[117] . In addition to the flag land, the Qing Court was also responsible for allocating houses for habitation. In addition, Manchurian children and minors had a policy of raising soldiers and were paid a certain monthly salary ^[118] .
reside	The Qing Court set up "Mancheng" for soldiers to live in the eight flag gargarrison areas throughout the country, and Han people were not allowed to enter and leave Mancheng at will.

First worship Manchurian policy and give Banner man The privilege of foster care made the custom of Manchu people change from the industrious and thrifty simplicity of the riding and shooting nation into luxury and waste ^[119-120] . In 1911, the Revolution of 1911 broke out, the Qing emperor abdicated, the Republic of China was established, and the national policy of "first worship Manchuria" also came to an end.

Han policy

Preferential treatment for imperial examinations

The Qing government respected Confucianism By the ages Han dynasty Traditionally, imperial examinations were held to select scholars to win the support of Han intellectuals. In addition, the imperial examination also formulated Not even a few dollars , A banner bearer does not have a tripod Such as to prevent the flag to participate in the imperial examination and Han competition preferential policy, under this policy, the final Qing Dynasty, in addition to the Manchu Han division period there are two Manchu number one, the highest honor all to the Han.

Put a senior official in high positions

In order to seize and consolidate the rule of the whole of China, the Qing Dynasty began to use Fan Wencheng In addition to others, in the process of customs has recruited former Ming Han important officials and Hong Chengchou , general Wu Sanguui , Li Chengdong , Shangxily , Geng Zhongming And the Han army under its command. After their rebellion, Kangxi cut off three of the main vassals, known as Ping San Francisco . Led the army to recover Taiwan Shi Lang He is also a Han former Ming officer.

Late Qing Dynasty the Zeng Guofan , Li Hongzhang , Zuo Zongtang , Zhang Zhidong The Han important ministers played a key role in the rebellion against the Taiping Heavenly State and the Westernization movement. After the Sino-Japanese War, the Qing Court carried out a new style of military training, which was also dominated by Han soldiers. Such as Yuan Shikai He studied military in Prussia Duan Qirui , feng A surname , study in Japan Wang Shizhen , and Li Yuanhong Both played a key role in the Xinhai Revolution that overthrew the Qing Dynasty and became a later one Republic of China A key figure in the Beiyang government.

A shaved head is easy to wear

A haircut from a foreigner's perspective

The Manchus have already implemented" A shaved head is easy to wear "The policy. To the conquered The Han Chinese They were forced to change their hair and clothing, and surrendered Ming soldiers had to shave their hair and change their clothes as a sign of submission.

When the soldiers entered the customs, they were issued" Shaving order Due to the dissatisfaction and resistance of the Han people, this order was publicly abolished. In 1645, Purge troops Regent after marching into Jiangnan Dorgon Proposed to reissue the "shaving order". Most of the living Han people shaved their hair and tied braids, and wore Manchu clothes instead. Those who insist that they do not want to change their clothes either flee overseas or retreat into an empty door and practice with their hair ^[121-122] . It was not until 1912, after the fall of the Qing Dynasty, that the plaits were cut.

Mongolian policy

The Qing Dynasty exercised special administration over Inner Mongolia. On the one hand, the Mongol chieftains were bribed by marriage, and the chieftains and their sons and nephews were married off by matriarchs. On the other hand, the "Zasak system" of divide and rule is practiced in politics, that is Alliance flag system .

In accordance with this system, the original Mongolian ministries were called leagues Inner Mongolia The most basic administrative unit of the district, the flag set the flag length, that is," Zasak It is a hereditary position. Subordinate, what, under the control of the flag commander. Several adjacent flags are a union, and the union has Commander of an alliance He was directly appointed by the central government of the Qing Court. The League is a supervisory area, not an administrative unit. At that time, there were mainly Jerimu, Zhaowuda, Xilin Gol Equal alliance. The banners were directly responsible to the central government of the Qing Dynasty ribana The management of... In addition, it is set in Inner Mongolia Jehodu Series , Chahar He was the vice general of Suiyuan and led the army to garrison important places to strengthen military control.

After the Qing Dynasty unified the Mongol departments, the rule strategy of Mongolia was not only to make it no longer a border force, but also to win over its slave owners to rule the Mongol people, so that Mongolia became an important military force for the Qing court to rule the country and the northern territory of the empire. Including extensive outreach in Mongolia lamaism Effectively won people's hearts and maintained the stability of the Mongolian region.

Tibet policy

The measures taken by the Qing Dynasty to administer Tibet were the conferring system, the resident minister system and the golden urn system.

The fifth Dalai Lama met with Shunzhi Emperor

At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, The Fifth Dalai Lama Come to Beijing to celebrate, Shunzhi Emperor To receive him ceremoniously and formally canonize him as "Dalai Lama"; Later on, Kangxi Emperor Also named the Fifth Panchen Lama" Panchen Erdeni And sealed it with a book; Since then, the titles of "Dalai Lama" and "Panchen Erdeni" have been officially fixed, and all subsequent Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama have to be canonized by the central government.

In 1727, Yongzheng Emperor To appoint ministers resident in Tibet to handle Tibetan affairs; The Minister of State in Tibet, on behalf of the central government, administered Tibet together with the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama. The establishment of ministers in Tibet marks the strengthening of the central government's jurisdiction over Tibet. Qianlong During the years. The Qing Court successively promulgated the" Statutes for the Rehabilitation of Tibet "And the" Constitution for the Rehabilitation of the Aftermath in Tibet ", which established the equal status of ministers in Tibet and the Dalai Lama in handling government affairs together, and consolidated the rule of the central government over Tibet. The Qing Court reformed the Wula, rent, money law and trade system in Tibet; Active ethnic trade; Establish newspapers, develop schools, develop agriculture, animal husbandry, mining, and strengthen the development of communications, posts and telecommunications.

Qing Dynasty also set up Draw a golden urn The system. The central government has strengthened its ability to supervise and authorize the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama. This was an important content of the Qing Dynasty's reform of Tibet's administrative system and the establishment of laws and regulations governing Tibet systematically. This system continues to this day.

Gold Pemba bottle

Southwest toast

Chieftain system Developed on the basis of the county system for Jimi prefecture in the Tang and Song dynasties, its essence was "ruling the people by the officials of the land", recognizing the hereditary leadership status of the ethnic minorities, giving them official titles and bearing the duties of service for indirect rule. In fact, the imperial edits of the central court could not be really implemented. However, some land officials abused and killed the people arbitrarily and invaded the border, "the Han people were destroyed by it and the Yi people were poisoned by it." ^[123] .

During the Kangyongqian period, the national power was strong and the central government had enough power to strengthen the rule over the minority areas. Emperor Yongzheng Four years (1726), Ortai Vigorously promote Return to the land The policy, that is, the central government should select cadres with a certain term of office to directly manage the government affairs in the minority areas, "to change the law of cadres, the best policy is to plan and capture, the worst policy is to suppress troops, and the best policy is to make their devotion, and the worst policy is to issue decrees." "The method of making seedlings should be combined with benevolence and virtue."

Hui policy

Qing Dynasty is in history The Hui nationality One of the most frequent dynasties to rebel against its rulers, the Hui uprising "continued from the early years of the Qing Dynasty to the day of its collapse and stopped." ^[124] . There were many reasons for the Hui people's resistance to the Qing Dynasty, but the Qing Dynasty implemented laws and regulations that discriminated against the Hui people, which was an important reason for the Hui people's resistance. "The Qing government oppressed Muslims by discrimination, and there were several provisions in the Qing law, which especially aggravated the crime of the Muslim perpetrators." ^[125] "From 1762, the Qing Emperor issued severe laws that discriminated against them (the Hui), so that the Hui were in some cases punished much more severely than the Han in similar cases." ^[126] .

On the one hand, the Qing Court "returned to the people for a long time, that is, different from the people." ^[127] "I am not like the people." ^[128] All the laws aimed at ordinary people can be applied to the Hui people. On the other hand, they falsely claim that "Hui people 犷悍 become habits, forming parties are bandits, and only handling as usual is not enough to punish". ^[129] . In actual life, it is not uncommon for the government to oppress the Hui people, and some Han scholars are also quite sad that local officials have always been partial to the Han people, as long as it is a fight, no matter how straight, it is to suppress the Hui people ^[130] .

diplomacy

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EDITOR

Diplomatic agency

Subject article: ribana , Prime Minister Yamen on foreign affairs , Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Sino-western communication

Subject article: Western learning is spreading east , Learn from the east to the west , Chinese etiquette debate , Opium trade

Sino-russian relations

Subject article: The Battle of Yakusa ," The Treaty of Nerchinsk "," Treaty of Kyakhta ", The war of the army and people in Northeast China against the invasion of Tsarist Russia , Outer northeast

Peripheral relationship

Subject article: Joseon dynasty , Edo period , Gong Bang Dynasty , Seclusion order

Sign a treaty

Equality treaty signed between the Qing government and foreign countries
Treaty name	time	nation	content
The Treaty of Nerchinsk	The year 1689	China and Russia	Delimit the eastern boundary between China and Russia
Treaty of Brenski	The year 1727	China and Russia	Delimit the mid-section border between China and Russia
Treaty of Kyakhta	1728	China and Russia	Delimit the mid-section border between China and Russia
Tumen River South Korea boundary affairs clause	The year 1909	China and Japan, Japan and Korea	Define China's relationship with Hashima China and South Korea are bounded by the Tumen River

Summary of the unequal treaties signed between the Qing government and Western countries
Treaty name	The Chinese signatory	Lost territory	indemnity	time
Sino-British Treaty of Guangzhou	Yu Baochun	-	Six million seven million taels	May 27, 1841
Sino-British Treaty of Nanking (formerly known as Jiangning Treaty)	Qi Ying , Irib	Hong Kong Island	Twenty-one million yuan	August 29, 1842
Articles of trade between China and Britain	Qi Ying	-	Six million seven million taels	July 22, 1843
Articles of Trade between China and America	Qi Ying	-	-	July 3, 1844
A surname Humen Treaty	Qi Ying	-	-	October 24, 1844
Sino-french Treaty of Whampoa	Qi Ying	-	-	October 24, 1844
Shanghai Anglo-French American concession Charter	Kirin Kwai	Shanghai concession	-	July 5th, 1854
Treaty of Aihui between China and Russia	Yi Son	600,000 square kilometers (North of Heilongjiang)	-	May 28, 1858
Sino-russian Treaty of Tianjin	GUI Liang , Huasana	-	-	June 13, 1858
Sino-us Treaty of Tianjin	GUI Liang, Hua Shana	-	-	June 18, 1858
Sino-British Treaty of Tianjin	GUI Liang, Hua Shana	-	Four million taels	June 26, 1858
Sino-french Treaty of Tianjin	GUI Liang, Hua Shana	-	Two million tael	June 27, 1858
Treaty on the Rehabilitation of the Articles of Trade between Britain and China	GUI Liang	-	-	November 8, 1858
Sino-British Treaty of Beijing	Yi Xin	South of Boundary Street, Kowloon Peninsula	Thirteen million taels	October 24, 1860
Sino-french Treaty of Beijing	Yi Xin	-	Eight million taels	October 25th, 1860
Sino-russian Treaty of Beijing	Yi Xin	400,000 square kilometers (East of Ussuri River, including Sakhalin Island)	-	November 4th, 1860
Sino-russian exploration of the northwest boundary Covenant	Friendly friends	440,000 square kilometers (South to east of Balkhash Lake)	-	October 7, 1864
Sino-us Tianjin Treaty Renewal Treaty	Anson Burlingame	-	-	July 28, 1868
Sino-japanese reconciliation rules	Li Hongzhang	-	-	August 13, 1871
China, Japan and Beijing special article	Yi Xin	-	Five hundred thousand taels	October 31, 1874
Sino-British Treaty of Yantai	Li Hongzhang	-	200,000 tael	September 13, 1876
Sino-russian Ili Treaty	Zeng Jize	70,000 square kilometers	Nine million rubles	February 24, 1881
Concise articles of the Sino-French Conference	Li Hongzhang	-	-	November 5th, 1884
Sino-japanese Treaty of Tianjin	Li Hongzhang	-	-	April 18, 1885
China and France will sign a Vietnam treaty	Li Hongzhang	-	-	June 9, 1885
Sino-British Treaty of Yantai renewal Treaty	GUI Liang	-	-	June 9, 1885
Sino-portuguese Treaty of Beijing	Yikuang	-	-	December 1st, 1887
Sino-British Conference Tibetan-India Treaty	Shengtai	-	-	March 17, 1890
Sino-american Chinese Workers Treaty	Yang Ru	-	-	March 7, 1894
Treaty of Shimonoseki between China and Japan	Li Hongzhang	36,000 square kilometers (Taiwan and Penghu Islands)	Two hundred million taels	April 7, 1895
Sino-japanese Treaty of Liaonan	Li Hongzhang	Redeem Liaodong Peninsula	Thirty million taels	November 8, 1895
Sino-russian secret treaty	Li Hongzhang	-	-	June 3rd, 1896
China and Germany Lend-lease treaty	Li Hongzhang	-	-	June 3rd, 1896
A surname Expansion of Hong Kong site section	Li Hongzhang	The New Territories (Lease for 99 years)	-	June 9, 1898
Treaty of sin-ugly	Li Hongzhang	-	One billion taels, the actual payment is about 60%	September 7th, 1901
China and Britain renew the Tibetan-India Treaty	Tang Shaoyi	-	-	July 9, 1904
Sino-japanese Treaty on the Rehabilitation of Manchuria Also known as the Convention on the Eastern Three Provinces	Yikuang Qu Hong 禨 Yuan Shikai	-	-	December 22, 1905
China and Russia The Manzhouli Boundary Covenant	Song Xiaolian	1400 square kilometers ( The Erguna River The north)	-	December 20, 1911

society

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EDITOR

festival

There were many festival customs in Qing Dynasty, which reflected the important aspects of social life of Qing people. First up is the New Year's Day The custom of... The first lunar month is New Year's Day, also known as Yuan Day, New Year. The celebration of New Year's Day generally lasts for a few days, and the records of the Qing people are mostly "congratulation for three days", "three days is the end", "since the Yuan day no empty day" and such language. Roughly speaking, the first five days of the New Year is the climax of the New Year's Day. New Year's Day customs are rich and varied, is a large comprehensive festival. The Lantern Festival It usually lasts for several days, in the north, from the 14th to the 16th, the celebration is three days, in the south, it is longer, usually four or five days, or even longer. Of course, there are some barren areas, just a day or two. Qingming and Dragon Boat Festival Qing Dynasty Qingming Festival It is a big festival and is widely held throughout the country. ^[131] In addition, in the Qing Dynasty, there are important festivals such as warehouse filling, dragon head, Spring society, Wenchang Meeting, Flower Dynasty, "Shangsi" in March, bathing Buddha, Tian Kuang, and Double Ninth. ^[132]

clansman

Clan laws maintained social order and were welcomed by the court. In order to better exercise their power and manage their people, the clan often asked the government for support, while the court approved the rules of the ancestral hall and recognized the judicial power of the ancestral hall patriarch and the legitimacy and validity of the clan law. However, the Qing Dynasty did not fully support clan laws, and when it came to the issue of executing clan members according to family laws, Emperor Qianlong Thought it was "the burden of hometown music", ^[133] Take an opposing attitude. In the Qing Dynasty, there were genealogies, which were also called genealogies, genealogies and genealogies. After Yongzheng Dynasty, the Qing Dynasty carried out the ethnic system on a large scale in Fujian, Guangdong, Jiangxi and other provinces where ethnic groups lived. ^[134]

school

Schools and imperial examinations in the Qing Dynasty generally followed the system of the Ming Dynasty, with some gains and losses in content and more thorough measures. In the Qing Dynasty, there were two levels of schools under the jurisdiction of the government, namely the central government school and the Central Government School Local government school . Central government school It mainly refers to the Imperial supervision of the capital, including the mathematics and the Eight Banners official school attached to the Imperial Supervision. In addition, the central government set up Buddhist schools for the royal family, Buddhist schools, and so on. Local government schools mainly refer to government, state and county schools, which are only differentiated by size, but not by degree. In addition, there are academies, social schools and private schools, which are not included in the formal school system, but also play a very important role in cultivating talents and disseminating culture. ^[135]

costume

In the Qing Dynasty, the costumes were dominated by the Manchu flag suit. The outline of the flag suit grew square, and the clothes were supplemented with clothes, such as a vest or jacket. The shape was complete and rigorous, and the image was solemn and solemn.

population

The population of the Qing Dynasty was also the highest in all dynasties. By the end of the 18th century, the population of the Qing Dynasty had reached more than 300 million, and the Daoguang period exceeded 400 million. ^[136]

Imperial lineage

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EDITOR

Subject article: Emperors of Qing Dynasty

Portraits of Qing emperors
Emperor Taizu of Qing Dynasty appointed Khan Nurhachi	清太宗崇德帝皇太极	Emperor Shizu Shunzhi Fu Lin of Qing Dynasty
Qing Emperor Kangxi Xuanye	Emperor Yinzhen of Emperor Shizong of Qing Dynasty	Emperor Qianlong of Emperor Gaozong of Qing Dynasty
Emperor Renzong Jiaqing 颙琰	Emperor Xuanzong Daoguang Minning of Qing Dynasty	Xianfeng Di Yi of Emperor Wenzong of Qing Dynasty 詝
Qing Mu Zong Tongzhi emperor Zai chun	Zaitian of Emperor Guangxu of Emperor Dezong of Qing Dynasty	Xuantong Emperor Pu Yi