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Hakka
,
Short for guest language, yes
Sino-tibetan family
Under the
Chinese
A tonal language within a family,
is
The Han nationality
Hakka people
A common language and one of the tools for identity identification
,
International language code: ISO 639-3 hak,
is
Chinese
Seven major dialects
One of them.
[1-6]
Hakka, also known informally as Hakka, can be divided into different accents
Meizhou dialect
,
Huiyang dialect
,
Huizhou dialect
,
Heyuan dialect
,
Gannan dialect
,
Tingzhou dialect
,
Shaoguan dialect
,
Anglogerman
[270]
,
Shenzhen dialect
[271]
Let's wait.
Some areas also said
Native Cantonese
,
Water source sound
,
yap
,
New people's dialect
,
baccarat
,
Huaiyuan dialect
Let's wait.
In the academic study of language,
In order to
Meizhou dialect
represent
In reality
Huiyang dialect
Great influence; In Taiwan Province
Sixian opera
Be represented.
[1]
[7]
[110-116]
[207-208]
[252-255]
[260]
[262-263]
The guest language is Chinese
Taiwan
One of the official languages of the United States
,
Republic of Suriname
One of the legal languages
. was
L 'Enfant Republic
One of the main circulating languages in the territory
;
was
Taiping Heavenly Kingdom
The "national language" is widely used in official documents.
[9-13]
[120]
Hakka language is mainly distributed in Guangdong
Meizhou
,
Huizhou
,
Shenzhen
,
headwater
,
Shaoguan
;
Jiangxi
Ganzhou
;
Fujianese
Longyan
;
And Taiwan Province's
Hsinchu
,
Miaoli
,
Peach orchard
Etc.;
The scope mainly includes
Eastern Guangdong
,
Northern Guangdong
,
Southern Jiangxi
,
Western Fujian
and
East of the Pearl River Estuary
Schedule area
,
It is widely used in more than 200 counties and cities in more than 10 provinces (municipalities and autonomous regions) in southern China and more than 80 countries and regions overseas such as Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Americas.
Hakka is spoken by about 65 million people worldwide
.
[105-109]
[118-120]
[158-160]
[207]
[248-252]
[256]
[258]
[261]
The Hakka language is called "Tang-Song Zhongyuan.
Ancient Chinese
The living fossil ", too
Hakka culture
One of the most prominent symbols. There are many written expressions of Tang and Song dynasties in Hakka dialect, and a large number of ancient Chinese phonologies of Tang and Song dynasties have also been preserved
Central plains
The pronunciation characteristics of many ancient Chinese words and common words.
[256]
[259]
Hakka plays an irreplaceable role in safeguarding the unification of the motherland and communicating with overseas Chinese.
[269]
The state has successively set up state-level cultural ecological protection experimental areas directly related to the dialect for special protection.
[272]
- Chinese name
- Hakka
- Foreign name
- Hakka Chinese
- alias
- yap , New people's dialect , Native Cantonese, etc
- Abbreviated form
- Hakka language
- Language classification
- Sino-tibetan family - Chinese
- Language representation
- Meixian dialect [268]
- Strong accent
- Huiyang dialect [263]
- Distribution area
- Kwangtung The east bank of the Pearl River Estuary and the east and north of Guangdong; Fujian (Province) The West; Jiangxi (Province) South; Taiwan Province; Guangxi Etc. [256]
- Official language
- China Taiwan (Official language) [15]
- Governing body
- Hakka committee
- Cultural carrier
- Guangdong Han opera , Hanle , Hakka nursery rhymes , Hakka folk songs , Hakka pop music , Gannan tea picking opera , Flower festival drama Etc. [16]
- Representative figure
- Lee Kuan Yew , Huang Zunxian , Qiu Fengjia , Xue Yue , Hong Xiuquan Etc.
- Language test
- Guest language proficiency certification [17]
- International language code
- ISO 639-3 hak
- Legal language
- Republic of Suriname [11]
- User population
- 65 million people [120] (2010)
- Representative singer
- Chen Shanbao , Luo Weili , He Yusen Etc. [97] [99]
catalogue
- 1definition
- ▪Stats
- ▪appellation
- ▪Special action
- 2Development history
- ▪source
- ▪develop
- ▪Documentary record
- 3distribution
- ▪summarize
- ▪Guangdong Province
- ▪Jiangxi Province
- ▪Fujian Province
- ▪Taiwan Province
- ▪Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
- ▪Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region
- ▪Hunan Province
- ▪Sichuan Province
- ▪Hainan Province
- ▪Chongqing Municipality
- ▪Zhejiang Province
- ▪Shaanxi Province
- ▪overseas
- 4Academic classification
- ▪Chinese mainland
Hakka
(English: Hakka Chinese, Hakka vernacular: Hak-ka-ngi, Hakka Pinyin: Hag
5
-ga
1
-ngi
1
)
, for short
Hakka language
(Hak-ngi), also known informally
Hakka
, and in some places there is a line (i.e
A surname
words
[18]
), elegant words,
Native Cantonese
(
Cantonese
[19]
) and so on, yes
Sino-tibetan family
Chinese is a tonal language in the Chinese family
Seven major dialects
(
mandarin
, guest language,
Cantonese
,
Gan language
,
Xiang Chinese
,
Wu language
,
Min Chinese
) one of them. This language has a long history and is generally believed to have been preliminarily established in the Southern Song Dynasty
[20]
; And it was officially named
Hakka
It's from the 20th century.
Hakka is the most widely distributed Chinese dialect in provinces and regions except northern dialects. It is widely distributed in Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi,
Hunan (Province)
, Guangxi,
Hainan (Province)
,
Sichuan
And Taiwan a total of 8 provinces and more than 200 counties (cities). Among them, the eastern and northern regions of Guangdong, the western regions of Fujian and the southern regions of Jiangxi are the most concentrated. According to a 2010 article posted on the Heshan government website, about 65 million people around the world speak the language.
[14]
[101]
Language code:
ISO 639-1 zh
ISO 639-2 chi(B) zho(T)
ISO 639-3 hak
Hakka language is widely distributed and has different names in different places, as follows:
|
appellation
|
Main distribution area
|
Appellation source
|
remark
|
|
Hakka
|
First came "Hakka" and then "Hakka". "Hakka" originated from the name Siyi people gave to the immigrants from the border areas of Fujian, Guangdong and Jiangxi in the Ming and Qing Dynasties
[21]
|
This refers to the narrow sense of "Hakka".
Hakka
The definition and classification criteria are derived from the narrow sense of "Hakka".
|
|
|
Western Guangdong, southeast Guangxi and other places
|
The name is derived from the first person's name, ngai
|
It may also come from "elegant words"
|
|
|
Guangxi
|
Relative to
The Zhuang nationality
And Cantonese, Hakka people are new immigrants, so the local people call Hakka "Xinmin"
[22]
|
Similar to the origin of the name "Hakka"
|
|
|
Such a word
(What do you say)
|
Guangxi
|
Named after the Hakka word for "what" as "moa"
[23]
|
Also write "pulse Jiehua", "Ma Jiehua"
|
|
Huaiyuan dialect
|
Jiangxi (Province)
|
Huaiyuan City got its name because of the naturalization of tourists in Qing Dynasty
[24]
|
It belongs to the Hakka language
[25]
|
|
Dialect of other nationality
|
Hunan (Province)
|
A term derived from other peoples' names for Hakka
|
The local Hakka people in Liuyang also call themselves Hakka
|
|
Eastern Cantonese
|
Taiwan
|
During the Japanese occupation of Taiwan, Taiwanese native people in Guangdong Province were recorded as "Cantonese" or "East Cantonese", and the language they spoke was called "East Cantonese", and "East Guangdong" was "Guangdong".
|
This title is rarely used in modern Taiwan
|
|
Taiwanese hakka
|
Taiwan
|
It refers to the Hakka language used by the Hakka people in Taiwan
|
stress
Taiwan
Attribute, cross-strait political separation caused
|
|
Sichuan, Chongqing, Hunan, Shaanxi, Taiwan, etc
|
Because the Hakka people who "fill Sichuan with Huguang" have many ancestral homes in Guangdong and call themselves "Cantonese", they get the name. Among them, Sichuan and Chongqing usually add the word "soil" to distinguish Cantonese
[19]
|
In Taiwan, the Hakka language referred to as "Cantonese" is generally a thing of the past
|
|
|
Tingzhou dialect, Tingzhou dialect
|
Zhejiang Lishui, Yun and so on
|
The Hakka in Zhejiang and other places are from ancient times
Ting Chau
In the past, Tingzhou as an administrative region has ceased to exist, but as a carrier of culture still exists in these Tingzhou descendants
|
|
|
Huizhou dialect
|
Guangxi, Taiwan, etc
|
The group who moved from the former Huizhou province to other areas called themselves Huizhou people, and the language they speak is called "Huizhou dialect".
|
Overseas Hakka also have many ancestral homes in Huizhou
|
The most unique point of Hakka language is that it connects the Hakka ethnic identity of the mainland provinces and even Chinese regions around the world.
Hakka
Whether in Guangdong, Fujian, or in the mainland
Taiwan Province
,
Malaysia
,
Indonesia
As long as they can speak lobbyist language and adhere to the characteristics of Hakka people who "do not forget the words of their ancestors", they will be regarded as "mutual".
fellow-townsman
", "own family". People who do not speak Hakka language and do not have Hakka identity, even if they have Hakka ancestry, are generally considered
Hakka descendants
Instead of Hakka. This characteristic of Hakka language leads to the fact that in areas where Hakka people are the majority, other ethnic groups often learn Hakka language in order to win the identity of Hakka people. In Taiwan Province and Malaysia, it is becoming increasingly common for politicians to learn Hakka in order to gain Hakka support, especially during election campaigns.
[30]
Some experts believe that
Hakka
It began with several wars and turbulent times in ancient times
Immigration wave
, from
north
Migrate to
South China
Yes. Their ancestors are from today
Henan (Province)
,
Shanxi (Province)
As they migrated from other places, they also brought with them the characteristics of the language of the place where they were at that time. The ancestors of Hakka people were originally Han people in Central China. Many of the phonetic features of old Chinese that are still used in modern Hakic languages, including the final consonant [-p][-t][-k], also found in other southern dialects, are missing in some northern dialects.
[21]
[27-28]
Due to the migration of Hakka people, Hakka language was influenced by the dialects of the areas to which Hakka ancestors migrated. For example, many common words can be found in Hakka, Hokkien and Cantonese.
[30] 29 -
The Hakka language corresponds to ancient rhymes
Hakka dialect has preserved many ancient Chinese words, sounds and grammar, such as toothless lip sound, no warp-tongue sound, more monosyllabic words, and many phonetic sounds, so it is called the "living fossil" of ancient Chinese and Central Plains phonology by linguists. Reciting the Book of Songs in today's Hakka language
National customs
"And some Tang and Song poems, not only smooth, but also rhyme, very harmonious. The reason is precisely because Hakka dialect has preserved the Central plains rhyme. From the Book of Songs,
The Book of Rites
","
The Biography of Zuo
Etc.
The pre-Qin period
Examples of the same or similar sounds and meanings are found in the classical books, which are classified into 131 items, which effectively proves the existence of ancient phonology in Hakka before Qin and Han dynasties.
[117]
The Hakka language was initially established in the Southern Song Dynasty. On the basis of inheriting ancient Chinese, its pronunciation has changed regularly. For example, in Middle Chinese, the initials of the characters for "man" and "day" (i.e
Hinimo
(in Mandarin and most Chinese dialects, it is pronounced as (r), IPA[ʐ], and (ng), IPA[ȵ]. The Middle Chinese pronunciation of "Wu" is [mvu], and the pronunciation in Hakka is [vu].
Since the Song Dynasty at the latest, the language of Meizhou and Tingzhou, the Hakka stronghold, had attracted people's attention at that time.
30 - [31]
- 1.
The Southern Song Dynasty Kyung Won synresponsibility Ting Chau Professor Chen Yixin wrote in the Bhazhan Xutian Stele: "There are eight counties in Min and Ting is next to it The Five Ridges However, the wind and gas are quite similar Central region " contemporaneous Liu Kezhuang In chant Zhangzhou In the poem of Fengwu, there is: "Wind and smoke are not like middle state." Comparing the two, it can be seen that the dialect and cultural features of the residents of Ting and Zhangzhou, which are adjacent to each other in the eyes of Song people, are completely different. Explain the Song Dynasty Western Fujian Has formed a unique language.
- 2.
Ming dynasty works Yongle Grand Festival Citing a Song Dynasty, "Roaming collection", "Over Ting State" poem: "The terrain of the west is wide, the north is different Min". It shows that the dialect of Tingzhou area in Song Dynasty is close to the northern ancient Chinese at that time, but different from it Min Chinese .
- 3.
Ming dynasty works Yongle Grand Festival Citing the Song Dynasty "Map Jing Zhi" said: "The division of the tide domain is wide, real ancient Minyue County Ground. Its language desire is quite similar to that of the four prefectures under Fujian, and most of them cannot be translated into Cantonese, Hui, Mei and Xuncao. But Hui sea abundance and tide for close, voice is not special. To the Chaomei, its sound customs and Meiyang people are the same." At that time, Chaozhou and Meizhou had their own local pronunciation, which was different from each other. And the dialect between the plum tides is the same as the plum. Chaomei in Song Dynasty is equivalent to today's Dapu Fengshun and other places, which are all Hakka areas. This suggests that dialects were distributed much as they are today. It can be inferred that as early as the Song Dynasty, the dialect had been formed. [32]
- 4.
Ming Dynasty Jia Jing Over the years General annals of Guangdong A surname Huizhou The "voice" situation in the Jiajing period: if Fubo, Heyuan is near the house, then the voice is the same, Haifeng is near the tide, then the tidal sound, Long Xuyen , Xingning When Changle is connected with Gan, it is like Gan sound, which is also a special cloud of speech.
- 5.
Jiajing period of Ming Dynasty Annals of Huizhou Prefecture On the dialects and customs of Xingning and Wuhua areas, it was recorded: "Speech customs, and jiangxi Similar ", indicating that the dialect of the region at that time was similar to that of Jiangxi.
- 6.
Ming Dynasty Zhengde Over the years Annals of Xingning County At that time, there was a more detailed record of Xingning Fang's sound: "Its sound amplitude is Qi Yun for gray, Geng Yun for Yang, such as Li to come, sound for Shang, stone for healthy, with Jiangnan." It is nature that... Some are not so rude." There are also some vocabulary records at that time: "Say father said Abba, mother said sister, call brother sister-in-law often to Asia first, such as brother said brother, sister-in-law said Ya, call the boy said 孻, call son said Tai, play said material, ask what is called scold, ask who said scold viola, no, move close to buried, its disorderly said open, ridge said two." [33]
- 7.
The late Ming Dynasty Li Shichun The compilation of the old Chengxiang County Records "to ( Chaozhoufu A county, the county people close to Zhangzhou, Quan (Zhou), Cheng (Cheng Xiang) people close to Ting, Gan (zhou) ". It follows that until the early 17th century, Chengxiang county The pronunciation of the square is still considered to be close to the Ting and Gan regions.
- 8.
Xu Xuzeng " The Rich Lake Miscellany Cloud: The guest language, although different from the mainland provinces, and its reading voice is very positive. Therefore, at the beginning of leaving the township well, traveling through the mainland, everywhere can be communicated. But with native customs and language, still not strong and the same. [34]
- 9.
Qianlong period of Qing Dynasty Records of Guishan County "Collected more than 20 words, such as" brother said brother ", "rain said falling into the water" and so on.
- 10.
The Annals of Changning County in the Daoguang Period of the Qing Dynasty recorded some terms at that time, such as:" Phaseolus communis (peanuts), "bitter wheat" (a slightly bitter lettuce).
- 11.
Qing Dynasty Tongzhi During the year, the Annals of Ganzhou Prefecture recorded that "Ganzhou border is connected with Fujian and Guangdong, and the language and writing are more similar Data of Words and books are absent. The water-stone phase is called 屝, see in Elephant mountain Set "In.
- 12.
Qing linguist Zhang Taiyan "Guest Dialect · Preface" said: "Guangdong called the guest, to the Jiaying counties as Zong (Qing Meizhou was called Jiaying Prefecture )." "The big Di (arrival) of Henan, its sound is also with Linghoku Similar." Zhang Taiyan has done some research on the Hakka language system, selected 63 Hakka words, using the" Shuowen "," Erya "," dialect "," The Book of Rites "," 毛诗 "," Strategy of the warring States "," A surname It is confirmed by ancient books such as "Hakka Dialect", which shows that the vocabulary of Hakka dialect has the same origin with ancient Chinese. [35]
- 13.
Huang Zunxian "Meizhou Poem Preface" says: "This guest, from He, Luo, from Fujian to Guangdong, handed down 30 years, seven hundred years, and the language has changed a lot. There is a... dialect "," Erya The word, exegetics lost its meaning, and the guest still recognize the ancient meaning; There are Shen Yo , Liu Yuan The rhyme, Ci Zhang home mistake its sound, and the guest still preserved the ancient sound; Even the sound of the street and the language of children's sex, the origin of which can not be written in the book." "Mr. Chen Lanfu said the guest's language Zhou Deqing " Central plains rhyme "All fit". [100]
- 14.
Xu Ke " Clear grass money ◆ Guest nationality: Sichuan Chengdu more Guangdong Jia Ying people, its entry into Shu also, started from the Yuekou Shi Dakai To lead the people west. When the stone was defeated and the people scattered, the stone army and many Jiaying people went to Shu and did not return, married a wife and had children, which was better than the aborigines. But its language has been used for decades, so Chengdu people call it "guest nationality". However, the language spoken by the Jiaying people in their Honshu island is called Hakka by the Cantonese, and Gai is not indigenous to Jiaying. ◆ Hakka: Nanxiongzhou, Shaozhou, Lianzhou, Huizhou, Jiaying of Guangdong, Hua County, Longmen, Qingyuan of Guangzhou, Dapu, Fengshun of Chaozhou and other counties, all speak Hakka. After the aboriginal people came, so they called them Hakka, so they took their words as guests. The degree of its language is not very far away from the mainland, and it is real Six dynasties The sound matches the rhyme. [36]
Map of Hakka language distribution
Map of Chinese dialects in Guangdong [37]
|
Prefecture-level city
|
Counties/county-level cities/municipal districts dominated by Hakka
|
The rest are Hakka counties/county-level cities/municipal districts
|
remark
|
|---|---|---|---|
|
Meijiang District
,
Meixian District
,
Xingning City
,
Jiaoling county
,
Pingyuan county
,
Dapu county
,
Wuhua county
,
Fengshun county
[125-126]
[137]
|
/
|
The main language of Meizhou is Hakka.
[157]
|
|
|
Most of Huizhou residents speak Hakka
[159]
|
|||
|
Luohu District
,
Yantian district
,
Longgang District
,
Longhua District
,
Pingshan District
,
Dapeng New District
[123]
[129-130]
|
Nanshan District
(39%)
,
Futian District
(30%),
Bao 'an District
(25%)
,
Light zone
(5%)
[129]
[131-132]
|
The main dialect of Shenzhen is Hakka
[105]
|
|
|
/
|
Heyuan is the Hakka settlement center in Dongjiang Valley, which belongs to Hakka dialect area
[158]
|
||
|
Wujiang District
[141]
|
Shaoguan dialect is mainly Hakka dialect, which is widely used in urban and rural areas
[160-161]
|
||
|
Yangshan county
(35%)
,
Fogan County
(30%)
,
Lianzhou City
(25%)
,
Qingcheng District
,
Qingxin County
,
Lianshan Zhuang Yao Autonomous County
[143]
[146-148]
|
The population of Hakka speakers in Qingyuan City accounts for 37.2% of the total population
[143]
|
||
|
Luhe county
[149]
|
/
|
||
|
Jiexi county
[152]
|
The population of Hakka dialect speakers in Jieyang City accounts for about 14.4% of the city's total population
[155]
|
||
|
(
Dongguan City
, East City, South City,
Houjie
,
Humen
,
Daelyeongsan
,
Pond building
,
Huangjiang River
,
Xie Gang
Wait town)
[142]
|
The Hakka dialect of Dongguan accounts for about 16% of the city's population
[142]
|
||
|
/
|
|||
|
/
|
Zengcheng District
(41%)
,
Huadu District
(33%)
,
Conghua District
(20%)
,
Baiyun District
(7%)
,
Tianhe District
,
Huangpu District
[162-167]
|
There are many Hakka speakers scattered in the former suburbs of Guangzhou
[168]
|
|
|
/
|
Hakka speakers account for 8% of the registered population in Zhuhai
[171]
|
||
|
/
|
Sihui City
(37%)
,
Guangning county
(30%)
,
Dinghu District
(7%)
,
Duanzhou district
,
High priority area
,
Deqing county
,
Fengkai county
,
Huaiji county
[172-177]
|
Hakka speakers in Zhaoqing are distributed in all counties (cities and districts)
[177]
|
|
|
/
|
Electrowhite region
(36%)
,
Huazhou City
(30%)
,
Xinyi City
(25%)
,
Gaozhou City
(17%)
,
Maonan District
[178-182]
|
The Hakka speakers in Maoming account for about 20% of the city's total population
[183]
|
|
|
/
|
/
|
||
|
/
|
Heshan City
(22%)
,
Taishan City
(3%)
,
Xinhui District
,
Pengjiang District
,
Kaiping City
[187-189]
|
/
|
|
|
/
|
Yun 'an District
(28%)
,
Luoding City
(13%)
,
Xinxing county
(7%)
,
Yuncheng District
,
Yunan county
[190-193]
|
Hakka speakers account for 10.27% of the population in Yunfu City
[193]
|
|
|
/
|
|||
|
/
|
About 12% of Zhanjiang's population speaks Hakka
[200]
|
||
|
/
|
/
|
||
|
/
|
/
|
Geographical distribution of Hakka
|
Prefecture-level city
|
Counties/county-level cities/municipal districts dominated by Hakka
|
The rest are Hakka counties/county-level cities/municipal districts
|
remark
|
|---|---|---|---|
|
Zhanggong District
,
Ganxian District
,
Nankang District
,
Ruijin
,
Xinfeng county
,
Shangshu county
,
Dayu county
,
Chongyi county
,
Anyuan county
,
Longnan county
,
Jeolnam County
,
Dingnan county
,
Ningdu county
,
Yudu county
,
Xingguo county
,
Huichang county
,
Xunwu county
,
Shicheng county
[204-208]
|
/
|
Hakka is the main language in Ganzhou, and the number of speakers accounts for about 98% of the city's total population.
[207]
|
|
|
Suichuan county
[209]
|
Jinggangshan City
(40%)
),
Wan 'an County
(40%)
),
Ji 'an County
,
Taihe county
,
Yongfeng County
,
Yongxin county
,
Qingyuan District
[209]
|
/
|
|
|
Tonggu County
[209]
|
/
|
||
|
/
|
/
|
||
|
/
|
Hengfeng county
[209]
|
/
|
|
|
/
|
Lianhua county
[209]
|
/
|
|
|
/
|
Guangchang county
[209]
|
/
|
Fujian Province
Hakka is spoken by 4.8 million people and is the second largest dialect spoken in Fujian Province
[234]
,
The Hakka dialect was distributed in Tingzhou of Tang Dynasty and Tingzhou Prefecture of Ming and Qing Dynasties. The southern accent is distributed in the Tingjiang River basin (Changting, Shanghang, Liancheng, Wuping, Yongding), the upper Hangzhou accent is more representative, the northern accent is in the upper Shaxi river on both sides of the Kowloon River (Ninghua, Qingliu, Mingxi), the Ninghua accent is more representative. The whole area can be represented by the Changting sound of the old Fucheng.
[210]
Taiwan Province
There are about 4.5 million Hakka speakers, and Taiwan is also one of the regions with the largest concentration of Hakka people. The Hakka language in Taiwan is mainly formed by Hakka immigrants from Guangdong and western Fujian, and the Hakka population is distributed in 19 counties and cities: Taoyuan County,
Hsinchu county
Miaosu County, Pingtung County, Changhua County, Kaohsiung City, Hualien County, Taichung County, Taichung City, Taipei County, Tainan County, Taipei City, Nantou County, Yunlin County, Chiayi County, Taitung County, Yilan County, etc. among
Hsinchu
,
Miaoli
,
Peach orchard
Therefore, Hakka has also become an important dialect in Taiwan.
[94]
[103]
[119]
Before the opening of Hong Kong in 1841, there was a general distribution of views
|
Special administrative region
|
District council with Hakka speakers as the majority of the indigenous population
|
The rest have Hakka distributed district councils
|
remark
|
|---|---|---|---|
|
Yuen long district
[104]
|
Hong Kong Hakka native resident
They are mainly concentrated in the central, eastern, northeastern and southwestern parts of the New Territories.
[104]
|
Hakka area
|
Prefecture-level city
|
Counties/county-level cities/municipal districts dominated by Hakka
|
The rest are Hakka counties/county-level cities/municipal districts
|
remark
|
|---|---|---|---|
|
The Hakka dialect is dominant in Luchuan County and Bobai County of Yulin City
[231]
|
|||
|
/
|
Liunan District
(37%)
,
Liucheng county
(22%)
,
midtown
,
Liubei District
,
Liujiang District
,
Yufeng District
,
Luzhai county
,
Rong 'an County
,
Rongshui Miao Autonomous County
,
Dong Autonomous County of Sanjiang
[211-217]
|
The population of Hakka speakers in Liuzhou is about 300,000
[230]
|
|
|
/
|
Eight-step zone
(29%),
Zhaoping county
(24%)
,
Pinggui district
,
Zhongshan county
,
Fuchuan Yao Autonomous County
[211]
[224-225]
|
Hakka is the dominant dialect in Hezhou, where 17.6% of the population speaks Hakka
[224]
|
|
|
/
|
Beihai Hakka make up about one-third of the city's population
[226]
|
||
|
/
|
/
|
||
|
/
|
/
|
||
|
/
|
One third of the population in Guigang is Hakka
[229]
|
||
|
/
|
/
|
||
|
/
|
/
|
||
|
/
|
Fangcheng District
[211]
|
/
|
|
|
/
|
/
|
||
|
/
|
/
|
||
|
Chongzuo City
|
/
|
/
|
Map of Hakka language distribution
Sichuan Province
About a million Hakka speakers,
It is the second largest Chinese dialect in Sichuan.
The Hakka dialect in Sichuan is distributed in a wide area, with large dispersion and small concentration. Large dispersion refers to the wide and dispersed distribution in numerous counties and cities in the province, and small concentration refers to the centralized distribution in the distribution of families, villages, districts and townships.
Hakka dialect points are relatively concentrated in the eastern mountainous areas of Chengdu, the second is the Tuojiang River basin, the third is Yilong in northern Sichuan, and the fourth is Xichang in southwest Sichuan.
[95]
[234]
[257]
In the villages in the Sanmian area around Fushan, the "Hakka dialect" of Fushun is scattered here in the form of "dialect island". Due to the lack of communication with the outside world, the residents of Yanshan did not integrate their language into the independent slices of Sichuan dialect (Yibin, Luzhou and Jiangjin of Chongqing) and the sound slices of Sichuan dialect (Neijiang and Zigong), and gradually formed the unique "Fushan Yanshan Dialect".
[265-266]
Hainan Province
More than 200,000 people speak Hakka
Distributed in
Danzhou, Sanya, Ledong County, Qiongzhong County
,
Lingao county
,
Lingshui Li autonomous County and other places
.
[236-239]
Chongqing Municipality
Hakka dialect in Banan District, Fuling District, Hechuan District, Jiangjin District, Nanchuan District, Bishan District, Dianjiang County and other places have sporadic distribution, but did not form a settlement area, more concentrated is Rongchang District, the local called "Guangdong dialect".
[235]
Hakka
Most of the Hakka people in Shangluo, Shaanxi Province migrated from Jiangxi, Fujian and Guangdong. They are distributed in 28 villages in 7 counties and districts of Shangluo. Most of them live together and have unique Hakka language, culture and folk customs.
[264]
Overseas, the Hakka language is mainly distributed in communities inhabited by Hakka people
Southeast Asia
The State,
India
,
Africa
, south
Indian Ocean island countries
,
Europe and America
Regions, etc.
[37]
Hakka dialects in Southeast Asia
Indonesia
,
Malaysia
Austrohippian
Sabah
,
Sarawak
, America
Panama
Panama City, Africa
Mauritius
French
Reunion
Are very popular in Europe such as
Britain
There are also Chinese who speak the Hakka dialect.
Singapore
,
Thailand
,
Vietnam
,
The Philippines
and
America
Many of the overseas Chinese and Chinese Americans speak Hakka dialects.
[1]
[246]
Mainland, according to 2012
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
The Institute of Linguistics, the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and the Research Centre for Language and Information Sciences of the City University of Hong Kong jointly compiled the
Language Atlas of China
: The second edition of the "classification, in which Taiwanese Hakka is generally classified as Guangdong and Taiwan films.
1987 edition of the Hakka language distribution map [37]
The southern section mainly includes Guangdong, Guangxi, southeast Fujian, and the Hakka language of Taiwan Province, as well as the Hakka language of Hong Kong, Macao and overseas. There is a great difference in vocabulary from the northern film, and the local language has more words and higher internal consistency, and the sound retention is relatively complete. In general, the south is older than the north.
[37]
(1) Guangdong and Taiwan films
A total of 40 counties and regions. The main phonological features of Yuetai films are as follows: they are all six tone classes, the flat voice into the voice is separated from Yin and Yang, and the upper voice into the upper voice is separated from Yin and Yang. From the point of view of the tone value, the vast majority of Yin and flat are high and flat, and a few are rising or middle rising; There are two kinds of positive tone, one is low flat or low falling tone, the other is rising tone; Up is low falling tone, out is high falling tone; The incoming sound is low in tone value and high in tone value. The film is divided into two small pieces according to the modulation of the current sun level.
① Meihui small slice, a total of 21 counties and regions. The feature of this piece is that the positive flat tone is a low flat tone or low flat tone. The dialect of Huizhou today has 7 tones, only the upper voice does not distinguish Yin and Yang, obviously, the Hakka dialect of Huizhou is more influenced by Cantonese, the second edition of 2012 classified the Hakka dialect of Huizhou as Yuetai Meihui small piece.
Guangdong Province:
Meizhou City
Meijiang District
,
Meixian District
,
Xingning City
,
Jiaoling county
,
Dapu county
,
Pingyuan county
,
Huizhou City
Huicheng District
,
Huiyang District
,
Huidong county
,
The city of Dongguan
,
Longmen County
,
Boluo County
,
Qingyuan City
Qingcheng District
,
Fogan County
,
Shenzhen
Bao 'an District
,
Longgang District
,
Guangzhou City
Zengcheng District
Taiwan Province:
Miaoli county
,
Hsinchu county
,
Taoyuan county
,
Pingtung county
Part of the village
,
Kaohsiung City
Some towns
[25]
② Longhua small slice, a total of 19 counties and cities. The feature of this piece is that the flat is a rising tone. The Hakka dialect in Heyuan City has 7 tones, only the upper voice does not distinguish Yin and Yang, and the Hakka dialect around it generally has 6 tones. There is no Yin and Yang between rising and going. Moreover, the tone type and tone value are obviously different from the surrounding dialects.
Guangdong Province:
Wuhua county
,
Fengshun county
,
Heyuan City
Yuancheng district
,
Zijin County
,
Longchuan county
,
Heping County
,
Lianping county
,
Dongyuan county
,
Shaoguan City
Qujiang District
,
Yao Autonomous County of Ruyuan
,
Xinfeng County
,
Ingde
,
Qingyuan City
Freshen zone
,
Lianzhou City
,
Lianshan Zhuang Yao Autonomous County
,
Liannan Yao Autonomous County
,
Guangzhou City
Huadu District
,
Conghua District
Jiexi County
[25]
(2) Sea and land pieces
There are 3 counties and cities. In addition, some townships in Hsinchu, Taoyuan, Hualien, Miaoli and other counties in Taiwan Province also have Hakka dialect with "sea and land dialect", which is not included. The main feature of Hakka dialect is that there are 7 tones, which are divided into Yin and Yang. The Haifeng and Lufeng Hakka phonetic system of Taiwan Province is very close to that of Guangdong Province, with little difference.
(3) Northern Guangdong film
There are 6 counties and cities, mainly distributed in parts of Shaoguan and Qingyuan. The Hakka dialect of the northern Guangdong film borders the Hakka dialect of southern Jiangxi Province, the local dialect of northern Guangdong Province and the local dialect of southern Hunan Province, and the dialects interact with each other, so the Hakka dialect of the film is different from the tone system of the Yuetai film, the western Guangdong film, and the Hailu film dialects. Lack of internal consistency.
[37]
Guangdong Province:
Lechang City
,
Renhua county
,
Wengyuan county
,
Shixing county
,
Nanxiong City
,
Yangshan county
[25]
(4) Western Guangdong film
There are 7 counties and cities. The main phonetic characteristics of the western Guangdong film are: there are 6 tones, the flat voice into the voice is separated from Yin and Yang, and the upper voice into the upper voice is separated from Yin and Yang. The tone type and 淜 values are close to those of Longhua Xiaopian Hakka dialect. This is related to the history of Hakka dialect formation in western Guangdong. It can also be considered that the Hakka dialect in the western part of Guangdong is classified into the Longhua small part of Guangdong and Taiwan. The geographical distance between the two dialects is relatively far, and the second edition of the Atlas in 2012 still distinguishes the Hakka dialect in western Guangdong as a separate piece.
Guangdong Province:
Yangxi county
Tangkou, Xinxu and other parts of the town
,
Yangchun City
Bajia, Sanjia, Yongning and other towns, as well as Shuangjiao, Mashui, Tanshui, Guigang parts
,
Huazhou City
Lanshan, Zhongdong Xin 'an and other towns and Wenlou, Pingding, Guanqiao parts
,
Xinyi City
Chashan, Hongguan, Pingtang, Qianpai, Heshui, Xinbao and other towns, as well as Guizi, Cinnabar, Wangsha, Huaixiang, Baishi, Sihe, Dacheng and other places
,
Gaozhou City
Most of the towns of Yuntan, Mafei, Genzi, Sishui, and some of the towns of Xindong, Xieji, Fenjie, and Shenzhen
,
Electrowhite region
Sha Lang, Wangfu Huangling, Luokeng, Nahuo and other towns and Guanzhu, Daya, Matta, Lintou, Yangjiao and other towns
,
Lianjiang City
In the north, the towns of Changshan, Heliao, Tangpong, Shek Neck, Shek Ling, Shek Kok and most of the towns of Gaoqiao, Tsing Ping, Yatang, Jishui and Helip
[25]
Northern slice
The northern section mainly includes the guest language of Jiangxi, Minxi and other places. Some of the vocabulary in the northern region is influenced by Gan, Mandarin and Fujian Beijing Language and Culture University, and there are some differences between the vocabulary in the southern region. The degree of retention of rhyme endings varies from place to place. According to the characteristics of northern tablets, it is subdivided into Ninglong tablets, Yuxin tablets, Tonggui tablets and Tingzhou tablets.
(5) Tingzhou tablet
There are 8 counties. All of them are in the western part of Fujian, and the seven counties of western Fujian are connected with Hakka, as well as most of Mingxi County (mainly in the west and south), Xiuzhuan, Guanpi, Taiping in Zhao 'an County, Jiufeng and Changle in Pinghe County, Qujiang in Nanjing County, Dachi and Wan 'an in Longyan City and other townships. In addition, there are a number of Hakka dialect islands of different sizes in central, northern and eastern Fujian. All are excluded except Mingxi County.
[25]
The main phonological characteristics of Tingzhou film are as follows: there is no [-m-n] tail in the ancient Xianshan Zhen four Yang sound rhyme, which is read as [--o] tail or nasal rhyme or open end rhyme. It can be roughly divided into three small pieces: south, north and middle. There are some differences in the phonetic characteristics between the southern and northern dialects, and the phonetic characteristics of the middle dialects are between the southern and northern dialects, with transitional characteristics. Among them, Liancheng dialect has great internal differences.
Fujian Province:
(6) Ninglong tablet
There are 7 counties. The main phonetic features of this film are: the ancient hekou second class word today vowel without [u], "stem.
stems
There is no [u] in the vowel. The film mainly has Ningshi accent and Sannan accent.
Jiangxi Province:
Ningdu county
,
Shicheng county
,
Jeolnam County
,
Longnan county
,
Dingnan county
,
Xunwu county
,
Yongfeng County
[25]
(7) In the letter
There are 11 counties and cities. The main features of this film are: ancient dawn, box mother's mouth a second class word (except for the shot) and stop shot mouth three, crab shot mouth four generally read [h] do not read [f]. The effect of three or four of these vowels is usually named [i]. This dialect is mainly concentrated in the central area of southern Jiangxi, which is the local Hakka dialect in southern Jiangxi, not the Hakka dialect that has migrated from Guangdong and Fujian since Ming and Qing Dynasties. In the outer fringe of this dialect, there are some Hakka dialects that have migrated from Guangdong and Fujian since Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Jiangxi Province:
Ganzhou City
Ganxian District
,
Nankang District
,
Yudu county
,
Dayu county
,
Chongyi county
,
Shangshu county
,
Xingguo county
,
Ruijin
,
Anyuan county
,
Huichang county
,
Xinfeng county
Jiading Town, the county seat, and most of Taojiang Township, a small part of Longgu Township belong to southwest Mandarin except
[25]
(8) Copper laurel tablet
A total of 28 counties. The main phonetic characteristics of this film are: the tones are 6, the flat sound into the sound of Yin and Yang, the sound of the sound is not Yin and Yang. The tone type and value are very close. Yin flat is medium (high) rising or medium (high) flat, Yang flat is low rising or low flat, upper voice is low falling, outgoing voice is high falling or high flat, Yin is low and short, Yang is high and short. From these two points, we can see that there is a close relationship between this piece of Hakka dialect, which is related to the historical background of the formation of Hakka dialect in this film. The Hakka dialect in this area mainly migrated from Guangdong and Fujian since Ming and Qing Dynasties, and some Hakka dialect in Hunan also migrated from central and northwest Jiangxi. The tone system of Tonggui tablet is very close to that of Yuetai tablet represented by Meixian in Guangdong Province. Both Rucheng and Xintian have only one in-tone, which does not distinguish Yin and Yang, and some in-tone characters are classified into other tones, indicating that the human voice is changing. Yizhang does not enter the sound, the ancient Qing initial into the sound of the word now return to Yin Ping, Yang Ping, Shang Sheng, sound are all, the ancient turbid initial into the sound of the word mostly return to Yang Ping, the situation is more complicated.
Jiangxi Province:
Jinggangshan City
Yongxin County, Ji 'an County,
Suichuan county
,
Wan 'an County
Taihe County, Yifeng County, Wanzai County, Jing 'an County,
Tonggu County
Gao 'an City, Fengxin County,
Xiushui county
Wuning County
[25]
Hunan Province: Rucheng County, Guidong County, Anren County, Zixing City, Yizhang County, Jianghua Yao Autonomous County, Xintian County, Jiangyong County,
Yanling county
Chaling County, Youxian, Liling City, Pingjiang County, Liuyang City
[25]
[39]
unfragmented
(1) Hakka speakers in Hainan Province are mainly distributed in Danzhou City
Namfeng Town
and
Lanyang Town
And part of that big town. Hakka is also spoken in Danzhou farms such as Dongfeng, Fanjia and Qiaozhi, as well as in some villages in Linggao, Ding 'an, Lingshui and Sanya. The town of Songtao in Qiongzhong also has Hakka dialect island. Hainan uses Hakka dialect for about 30,000 entrances.
(2) The Hakka people in Sichuan Province are scattered in more than 60 counties and cities in Sichuan, and the distribution is very wide. Up to now, about 1 million people can speak Hakka. Hakka dialect points are concentrated in the eastern mountainous areas of suburban Chengdu, the Tuojiang River basin, Yilong in northern Sichuan, and Xichang in southwest Sichuan.
(3) The Hakka dialect is distributed in 79 counties and cities in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The Hakka dialect is concentrated in Yulin, Guigang and Qinzhou in southeast Guangxi, Hezhou in northeast Guangxi and Liuzhou in central Guangxi. Guangxi has an estimated population of 4.2 million Hakka speakers.
(4) In addition, there are some Hakka dialect islands formed by small groups of immigrants, such as some townships in Songyang, Suichang, Quxian, Longyou, Jiangshan, Longquan, and Yunhe in Zhejiang, some villages in Zhongxin Township and Shuibei Township in Pucheng, Fujian, and some villages in Xianxia Township in Ningguo, Anhui, all have Hakka dialect immigrants from western Fujian (Shanghang, Liancheng, and Changting). The Yu nationality townships in Guixi and Leadshan counties in the northeast of Jiangxi are also Hakka dialect islands. There are some other Hakka dialect islands in Shangrao City in the northeast of Jiangxi Province.
For various reasons, the classification of guest language in Taiwan is limited to Taiwan region. Below is a list of categories (by
Qing Dynasty
Language and origin of Hakka emigrants to Taiwan) :
|
name
|
Region of origin
|
Distribution areas of Taiwan
|
|
Sixian opera
|
From Meizhou, Guangdong Province
Mei County
And nearby Wuhua,
Xingning
,
Zhenping county
,
Pingyuan County
Waqsi County
|
Taoyuan county
Zhongli City, Pingzhen City, Yangmei City,
Miaoli county
And the south
A surname
Be located at
Kaohsiung
,
Pingtung
), Hsinchu County Kansai Town and other places
|
|
neptuneocele
|
Taoyuan County Yangmei City Fugang, new house township, Guanyin township and
Hsinchu county
and
Hualien county
Fenglin town, Ji 'an Township, Shoufeng Township, new urban and rural areas, Yuli town, Mizui Township parts
|
|
|
From Meizhou, Guangdong Province
Dapu county
|
Taichung County, Dongshi town, Shigang Township, Xinshe Township
|
|
|
Raoping cavity
|
Chaozhou, Guangdong Province
Raoping
,
Huilai
,
Puning
,
Jieyang county
,
Haiyang county
,
Chaoyang county
|
Zhuolan Town in Miaoli County, Yuanlin Town in Changhua County, Yongjing Township, Tianwei Township and Hsinchu County
|
|
Zhaoan County, Nanjing County, Pinghe County, Yunxiao County, Zhangzhou Prefecture, Fujian Province
|
Yunlin County Lunbei Township, Erlun Township, Xiluo Township, Taichung City, part of Xitun District, Beitun District, Nantou County, part of Zhongliao Township, Yilan County, Taoyuan County Bade City, Daxi Township, Longtan Township area
|
|
|
Tingzhou dialect
|
Tingzhou, Fujian Province
Changting county
Secondly, there are also Liancheng, Qingliu and Ninghua around Changting County
|
Yunlin county
Lunbei Township, West snail town and Taoyuan eight De city, Daxi town mainly
|
|
Yongding dialect
|
Taipei County Sanzhi, Shimen Township
|
There are strong local characteristics of the guest language, and almost every city has its own characteristics. For example:
Xingning dialect
There are no words ending in the [-m] or [-p] sounds, but they are dissolved into the [-n] and [-t] sounds. For example, far from the Hong Kong accent in Mei County, the middle vowel [-u-] has disappeared. Therefore, taking "light" as an example, Umeishi is pronounced as [ku upheaval
44
In Hong Kong, the Hakka people pronounce it as "k"
33
], similar to the accent of the neighboring Hakka people in Shenzhen.
Tones are also different in different dialects of Hakka. The vast majority of hakka languages have an entrant sound, with a total of 6 to 7 tones. Jaeting
The gate just outside a city gate
In the words, the sound disappeared;
Water source sound
The dialects of the same dialect retain the tonal characteristics of the early Hakka language, and there are seven tones in total. In Taiwan Province, the Haifeng and Lufeng families migrated from Haifeng and Lufeng. The Hailu dialect has a hard to find after gingival sound in Chinese gingival sound ([G], [g], [t]). The other mainstream dialect of Taiwan Province, Sixian Dialect, is from
Jiaying Prefecture
Jiaoling, Pingyuan, Xingning and Meixian four counties of the cavity mouth.
[40]
The representative accent of Hakka dialect Meixian dialect has 18 initial consonants and 75 vowels. Meixian dialect has six tones, namely Yin Ping, Yang ping, Shang Sheng, Shang Sheng, Yin Yin, Yang in.
[1]
[8]
-
Initial consonant of a Chinese syllable
I.
The original consonants of the ancient turbidized stop and affricate (and, ding, qun, cong, cheng, chong), regardless of the level, are mostly changed into aspirated clear consonants.
Such as "don't," the initials are p [p ʰ], "the enemy", the initials are t/t ʰ, "old," the initials are k ʰ [k], "yesterday, Czech, turbidity, live," the initials is c [ʦ ʰ].
Two.
Guxiao, box mother of the closing consonant, variable pronounced f[f].
For example, the initials of "gray, hui, huai, lie, flower, tiger, marriage, hui, Hu" are f[f].
Three.
Some of the ancient fei, Fu, Fengmu characters, oral pronunciation of heavy lip initial b[p], p[p?], retain the characteristics of "ancient no light lips" this ancient pronunciation.
For example, "Fly, axe, fat, bark, float, charm".
Fourth, the initial consonant of the Gusee group is mostly kept in the base of the tongue g[k], k[k line], h[h].
For example, the initial consonant of "Ji, Ji and Jiu" is [k], the initial consonant of "deception, modesty and beg" is [k?], and the initial consonant of "Xi and xi" is [h].
Five, most of them have turbid fricative initials v[v]. It comes from the ancient micro, shadow, mica and a few box mother of the rhyme.
For example: "Things, affairs, bowls, frogs, Wei, house, bay, nest, king, way, words, Yellow, Emperor, and return". In addition, the Minxike language also has a [v] initial, such as "cloud, domain, epidemic".
6. The differentiation of initial consonants of Guzhi and Zhaojing groups in Hakka language is complicated. For example:
- 1.
In most areas of Guangdong, these three groups of consonants are combined, saying z[ʦ], c[ʦ?], s[s]; Some areas know, according to (chapter) group initials d[t], z[ʦ], c[ʦ?]. According to (Zhuang) group, fine group initials [ʦ], [ʦ?], [s]. For example: Guxiao, box three four characters and individual Xi mu characters, in Xingning dialect [h] initials. For example: Xiao [hiau], Xi [hi], Xu [hi], hu [hu], Qi [hi], Qi [hi], Qi [hi], shun [hi]; Pronounce the y ([j] or [i]) initial with the initial and multiple shadows or mica characters, such as: Sample sheep [I ɔ ŋ], [I ɔ ŋ], salt (iam), d (ji), clothing (ji), the sound [Jim], the [jin], and [I k ɔ], [Ian] part, round [Ian], [Ian], [Ian] yuan, hatred [Ian], far [Ian], [Ian].
- 2.
The initial consonant z[ʦ], c[ʦ?], s[s] of Zhao (Zhuang) group, and d[t], z[ʦ], c[ʦ?] of Zhi and zhao (Zhang) group are generally ancient in Luchuan (except southern Wushi Dialect), He County and GUI County of Guangxi. For example, jin [ʦin], Zhen [ʦin], Ji [ʦim], shen [ʦ? Uh], sun [sun], rope [sun].
- 3.
Ancient known part of the word set of initials minxi (north) statins read [ʦ], [ʦ ʰ], for example: [I] ʦ, pig [ʦ u], bamboo [ʦ ʰ u], Jane [ʦ ʰ en], a [ʦ a ŋ], the [ʦ ɔ ŋ], pool [ʦ ʰ I], [ʦ ʰ au], [ʦ ʰ iu]. The initial consonants of some characters in the ancient chapter are Minxinian [ʦ], [ʦ?], [s]. For example: paper [ʦ I], the [ʦ u], [ʦ en], spring [ʦ ʰ UN], [ʦ ʰ ɔ ŋ], snake (sa), book (su).
- 4.
Taiwan Meinong Hakka language knowledge, light, fine combination flow. For example, the initial consonant of disaster, Zhai, pig and zhang is [ʦ]; The initial consonant of Chai, Chai, Chou and Chang is [ʦ?]; The initial of sand and book is [s]. Taoyuan Ke Gujing group and Zhao (Zhuang) formation initials [ʦ?], [ʦ?], [s]. For example: Jing, Zhuang, Cong, Chu, Xin, Sheng; Know group and according to (chapter) group character initials [ʦ], [ʦ?], [s]. Such as pig, Zhang, Chou, Chang, boat, book.
- 5.
Sichuan Huayang Liangshuijing Guzhi, Zhao, Jing group of characters initial initial mostly read [ʦ], [ʦ?], [s]; But there are some precise initials [ʨ?], such as: relatives, qi, sacrifice, gun, do, thorn.
Seven, nasal initial is rich. In many areas, except [m], [n] and [[N], there are [ȵ] initials. [ȵ] Initial consonants appear in ancient doubt, mud (niangmu) three and four fine characters, and some Japanese characters.
For example: language, Yi, man, ox, Nian, Ying, sun, eye, Niang.
Most of the ancient mother characters read [l] initials, but the initials of a small part of the ancient mother's mouth call are Minxi Changting guest language white reading [t], which is very special.
For example: li (ti), six [tiu system], dai li (ti), scale [te ŋ], egg [t ɔ ŋ], deaf [t ɔ ŋ], force (ti), two [ti ɔ ŋ], [te ŋ] Lin, liu (tiu system).
[38]
-
A compound vowel used in a Chinese syllable
- 1.
There is no vowel in most of the Hakka dialects, and the vowel is mixed with the simultaneous vowel. For example: fish, language.
- 2.
There are many vowels with au[au] or o[O] as the main vowel. For example: good, tall, old, brain.
- 3.
The ancient flow Kaiyihou, Hou Yun and Kaisanyu rhyme characters are read eu [Qi u] rhyme in most areas, iu[iu] rhyme in some areas, and ou[u] rhyme in some areas. For example: thick, Hugh, etc.
- 4.
[-m], [-n], [-k], [-M] and [-p], [-t], [-K] in different degrees of Keyu dialect, in which Guangdong, Guangxi, Taiwan and other places are relatively intact. For example: Xingning dialect Only keep [-n], [m], [t], [-] k terminal, such as: group [t ʰ ɔ n], f (notes), pigeon [kak], [t ʰ ɔ t]; Huayang water Wells in sichuan only keep [-n], [- ŋ], [-] k terminal, such as: rice (fan), put [f ɔ ŋ], [kiak], pen [piks], [muk]; Minxi changting dialect, etc (north) statins only keep [- ŋ] terminal, such as: gump [ka ŋ], [t ʰ ɔ ŋ], and [pa ŋ], [va ŋ], pigeon [k oo, don't be [p ʰ ie], white [p ʰ a]. [38]
-
Tone of voice
Most areas have six tones, while a few have five or seven tones.
Minxi Changting dialect, even the city, the clear flow did not enter the sound, the remaining flat sound division Yin and Yang, the sound division Yin and Yang, the sound itself into a total of 5 tones. East Guangdong guest language flat sound into Yin Yin, up no Yin Yin, a total of 6 tones; Yongding dialect of Minxike,
Shanghangzhou dialect
Keep the Yin into Yang into two tones, also 6 tones. Water source sound and sea and land tone (including mainland and Taiwan) are separated from Yin and Yang, a total of 7 tones.
[38]
- 1.
The use of ancient words. The ancient words commonly used in daily spoken English are suo (rope), he (rice), Wu (black), face (face), food (eating), neck (neck), hunger (hungry), chao (morning), day (noon), xing (walking), boiling (boiling) and so on. Some of them are ancient words preserved by Hakka language alone. For example: See [ʦiau] (chewing), 挼[n] quality (two hands touch each other), [puk] (a white layer of mold on the surface of moldable food), [s] (stale), serval [t] (nest), he [kai] (shoulder), wan [pu] (afternoon or evening), [au] (fold), [tsi] (thin), nau (hate; hate) Don't like), "circle" [k? ian] (ox nose ring) and so on.
- 2.
The innovation of dialect words. Due to the unique natural environment, historical conditions, customs, local specialties and different word making habits in the dialect area, a large number of dialect words have been formed, such as Xuezhi (ice lolling), ban (a kind of cake made of rice flour), pak jian (a kind of meatball), Jiao (a superstitious activity), Lei cha (a kind of drink) and so on.
- 3.
Borrow words from other dialects or foreign languages. Some are borrowed from Cantonese, such as: most (just, clicked), bright (pretty, good), smart, capable), etc.; Some are borrowed from English, such as: shirt shirt, ball in ball, mark; Some are borrowings from Malay. For example, a kiss is a needle [ʦim] (zim); To add "Pan", "foreign", "red hair", "Holland", etc., to the names of imported articles, such as: Pan (foreign), pan (foreign), pan (soap), Yang (umbrella), red hair mud (cement), Dutch bean (a flat and thin bean eaten with the pod), etc.
- 4.
Differences in the meaning of words. Some words are synonymous with Mandarin, such as: calling (crying), face (face), hot head (sun), fire snake (lightning), heart uncle (daughter-in-law), etc.; Some words are homonyms with Mandarin, such as classical (story), shooting (shooting); Some words have the same form as Mandarin, but have a different range of meanings. For example, "lip" in Mandarin refers to the muscles around the mouth of a person or some animals, while Hakka also refers to the mouth and edge of an object, such as the lip of a pot or table; "Rice", Mandarin generally refers to rice and the seeds after the shell or skin is removed, such as: glutinous rice, peanuts, kaoliang rice, Hakka only refers to rice, etc.; Some words have the same form as Mandarin but their meanings cross each other. For example, "light", "bright" and "Ming" are synonyms in both Hakka and Mandarin and have the same usage, such as: Firelight, light, glitter, appearance, bright, clear, but where the guest language uses "light", Mandarin often uses "bright" or "bright", such as moonlight (moon), lamp too light (lamp too bright), and words such as "fine" and "small", "night" and "evening", "day" and "day", "broken" and "rotten" have different meanings and usages.
- 5.
Differences in grammatical meaning (i.e. the grammatical function of words). Some words in Hakka language are different from those in Mandarin in grammatical meaning. For example, "nose" is used as the verb "smell" and "smell" besides the noun "snot"; "Love", in addition to the verb to love, also used as the auxiliary verb "to"; "To burn", in addition to the verb to burn, can also be used as the adjective "warm" and the noun "firewood".
- 6.
Differences in word formation. It is mainly manifested in morpheme order, reduplication, addition and monosyllabic words. The morpheme order of some juxtapotic and semi-formal compound words is different from that of Mandarin, such as: urgent (important), noisy (lively), niugong (bull), Renke (guest), and so on. In terms of the overlap of words, the scope of the overlap of monophonous nouns and quantifiers is larger than that of Mandarin, and the meaning of "each" after the overlap, such as: bowl bowl (each bowl), Qiangqiang (each shot), Zhaocao (each shovel). In Hakka, monophonic verbs and adjectives generally do not overlap separately; if they do, they must be followed by the suffix -e, IPA[-giri], as in "thin e" (small), with an e for a weakening effect. However, the monophonic adjectives in Taiwanese Hakka can overlap and reinforce them, for example: messy (disheveled), Heihan (very silly); Taiwanese Hakka has adjectives that can even be used in triplets to express superlatives, such as: Guang Guang Guang (very bright), bitter bitter (very bitter), hot hot (very hot). There is a special "XAA" overlap in the language, its word-formation ability is very strong, the overlap after each central word is different, and must add the suffix -e, indicating the degree of deepening, such as: red Zou zou e (red), fat fat e (fat). In terms of additive, hakka commonly used prefix has "and" or "o", "old", the suffix have "e [ɛ] (child)", "head", "public" and "her", "brighter", "elder brother", "" (etc.), infix" mostly ", such as: Father (father), sister (sister), sister (sister), husband (husband), cover e (umbrella), sun morning head, sun day head, stone, rooster, duck, finger, foot finger, shrimp, Ya Chen, Yadi, Ya SAN, Lao Zhang, ox ox, goat ox, snake brother, grackle, Yadou (we), you (you), he (they), This afternoon (today), this afternoon (yesterday), this evening (evening), etc. In terms of the proportion of monophonic and polyphonic words: Hakka has more monophonic words than Mandarin. Some polyphonic words in Mandarin are monophonic words in Hakka, such as xing (happy), shi (understanding), PI (skin), table (table), etc. [38]
Take Meixian dialect as an example:
I.
The possessive case of a personal pronoun can be expressed by changing the tone and adding "'s "; for example, "your" is expressed as ([ȵa
13
]) or "your (a)".
Two.
There are special interrogative pronouns, such as: pulse (what), pulse person (who).
Three.
There are special matching relations between nouns and quantifiers, verbs and quantifiers. For example: What a big fish.
The position of the double object is more flexible: the indirect object can be placed before the direct object or after the direct object. Predicates can be repeated and are added before direct and indirect objects respectively. For example:
-
He has a shirt for the rest of his life. (I give him a dress.)
-
Divide his life into a shirt. (I give him a dress.)
-
A shirt will be divided into her. (I give him a dress.)
(Note: Read bun in the example above
1
[pun
44
])
Five, the format of the comparative sentence is a - than - b - over - adjective. The cow is bigger than the pig.
6. Expressions of various forms of verbs:
-
[tsa] eg 53 ", indicating that the action has just begun, such as Ya is eating rice (I have just eaten).
-
Do the verb "wait [t] do n 31 ", indicating that the action is ongoing or continuous, such as: wait for a meal (I am eating), your hand is holding a pulse (what are you holding in your hand).
-
In addition to a verb, you are doing so by adding "e [I] o" or "doing so" to indicate that the action is done, as in: I am done.
-
Do the verb "t" without doing so 1 ] "or" finished ", indicating that it has been completed in the past, such as: he ate 40 jin meters in a month (he ate 40 jin meters in a month).
-
A verb preceded by "吂" indicates that an action has not begun, e.g. My career is 吂 (I have not eaten yet).
-
The verb is followed by "to turn", indicating the action to return, for example: you are turning your padded jacket (you are putting your padded jacket back on).
-
After the verb "now" means to have a try, such as: to see (see), listen (listen).
7. Indicate near and far fingers by changing tones. For example:
-
['k do I do] (here) [k do I do 'do I do] (there) (here,' indicates stress, the same below)
-
['k 'side (this way) [k]' side (that way)
Use the preposition "will" instead of "will", for example: you move the table around (you move the table back), you break the bowl (I broke the bowl).
For example, the range adverb "Tian" in Meixian dialect is equivalent to "zai" in Mandarin, but the two are in different positions in the sentence, the former is placed behind the predicate or at the end of the sentence, and the latter is placed before the predicate. For example, listen to a play of music (listen to the music again), take a picture (take another photo). The adverbs "more" and "less" are placed after the verb, as in: take more and lose e (take more), use less and lose e (use less). The "pour" of Meixian dialect is equivalent to the "to" of Mandarin "to do", but the positions of the two are different in the sentence, such as: learn e much knowledge pour (learn a lot of knowledge). In Meixian dialect, the words "go" and "come" are placed before the object. For example: Ya Am went to Guilin (my mother went to Guilin), sister did not come to the factory (sister did not come to the factory). Sometimes this kind of sentence "go to... "Come" is used in conjunction with, e.g. : Where are you going (where have you been)?
Ten, the expression of the degree of depth is different. For example, an adjective used singly to indicate a moderate degree, with the adjective overlapping and followed by "e [giri]" (pronounced in the same place due to the influence of the preceding syllable) to indicate a weakening. For example: acid ne (sour), before the adjective "[kuat
5
] ", indicating the degree of intensification, equivalent to "very". For example: [kuat
5
Acid (very sour); When the adjective is preceded by "not known" and followed by "e", it indicates the highest degree, equivalent to "very", as in: without knowing ne (very sour); The addition of "te" before an adjective indicates excessive degree, equivalent to "too", as in: theic acid (too sour).
[38]
-
Problems with the archaic sound system
Some scholars believe that the new rhyme of Hakke has certain similarities and corresponding laws with ancient Chinese. For example, Hakke has no full voiced consonants [b], [d], [g], [z], [dz], but only affricates [ʦ], [ʦ?], and [s]; In the thirty-six letters it is giri, clear, and sincere, and there is no lingual [ʈ], [ʈ?], [ɖ], [ɳ], so the gekic saying "I am doing so" means "low" (IPA[ti], gep (di)), and that "I know" is "I did" [ti t giri], etc., are archaic. Master of pronunciation in Qing Dynasty
Qian Daxin
"
Ten driving Zhai to raise new records
"There is no distinction between the tongue and the tongue in ancient times" and "seeking the ancient sounds is no different from Duan, transparent and Ding", which means that the upper tongue sounds of the same rhyme 36 letters "know, clear and clear" in the ancient sounds are all characters that read "Duan, transparent and ding", that is, the initials of the tongue sounds after today's people pronounce "zh", "ch" and "sh". In ancient times, there was a part of the sound that was pronounced as "d" or "t" at the tip of the tongue. Qian also said that "there was no light lip sound in ancient times", that "where the sound of light lips was read as heavy lips in ancient times" "All the so-called light lips today, before the Han and Wei Dynasties, all read heavy lips"
[41]
This means that all the characters with light lip [f][v] consonants in later generations are pronounced as heavy lip or [p] or [m] in the ancient pronunciation, which is evidenced in the Keyu language, such as saying "fei" as "humble", saying "negative" as "generation", saying "fen" as "Ben", saying "dung" as "stupid", saying "axe" as "bu", saying "no" as "grinding", and so on. This is the ancient voice of modern Hakka still preserved.
Mr. Zhang Taiyan wrote in the
National traditions weigh
"Said:" The ancient sound has the tongue tip mud, after the other branch, there is a mother on the tongue, half the tongue and half the teeth have a day, in the ancient all mud new also." This means that the pronunciation of the "r" pronoun today is attributable to Hakka, in which the guest said "ru" as "ngi IPA[ȵi]," "ru" as "nen IPA[n]," 挼 (ruo) as "no," etc., all indicating that Hakka does not do so, In the ancient phonetic system, the Japanese newu should belong to the thirty-six letters of "mud newu".
The vowels of Hakka have preserved some ancient vowels, such as
Luo Yun
"Guest dialect · Self-preface" said, "Today, the examination of guest music cultivates the words of Qingyun baby sound, and the true rhyme is indistinguishable from the words; Qing Yun feeling, Zhen, Cheng, Ying, presenting, and true rhyme Qin, true, Chen, Ren, Chen, there is no other; Qingyun light, screen, ping, flat, and true rhyme of the close sound and clear with; To Zhen Yun this Zhen sound and fine with, just like Gu (press: Gu Yanwu) said not three hundred of the right sound, but also the Qin and Han Dynasty of the ancient sound." This passage shows that there are a lot of similarities between the vowel system of the Hakka language and the ancient rhyme, and the so-called "not the correct pronunciation of the three hundred pieces, but also the ancient pronunciation of the Qin and Han Dynasties" is in line with the fact. Hakka vowels with rusheng terminal [p], [t], [k] and Yang voice terminal [m], [-n], [- ŋ] characteristics, consistent with "guangyun" system, but the terminal [- ŋ] after [ɛ], [I] to [-n] terminal [- k] in [ɛ], [I] to [-t] There is a difference between IPA[h] and IPA[ʦ].
[102]
-
Preservation of archaic words
Hakyu retains a large number of ancient Chinese words. Mr. Zhang Taiyan, a famous master of pronunciation, made a study of the Hakka language system. He wrote the Lingwai Sanzhou Language and attached it to the New Dialect. Sixty-three Hakka words and phrases were selected and used in Wen, Erya, Dialect and Dialect.
The Book of Rites
》、《毛诗》、《
Strategy of the warring States
","
A surname
"And other ancient books to confirm that the source and origin of the guest language, from the Han nationality language, has long been so. Here are some examples of Lingwai Sanzhou Language as follows:
(1) "Dialect" said: "muddy, fat" are Xun sheng, Guo said: "men, muddy, fat, full also", "Zou Yang biography" said "soil" son, soil is full also, so today three states called boy said full son. Press: In today's Hakka language, the youngest son (the youngest of the children) is called "Manzi", and the youngest daughter is "Mannu".
(2) "Calligrapher" in "Summer Palace" note: "Calligrapher's words are strong and good." The good and the beautiful agree. The three states are called beauty, strength, and production. Guang Ya: "Pure, good also." Also called the production, Zheng Gong Sun Chiao Zi beauty, also for production, Ming beauty, production with the training Yi. Press: "Strength" word to read [kin] has beautiful, beautiful meaning; "Jing", foreign language reading [ʦia], generally writing "Jing", called beautiful and white meaning, used to refer to objects, such as "lean meat" for "clean meat" (lean meat) (Note: in the general sense, the net word reading [ʦ? ia]); Production, foreign language reading [ʦan], more refers to people (children) beautiful, can also refer to things (Note: in the general sense, the production word read [ʦ? an] or [san]).
(3) "Say Wen" : "Praise, white good also." On the incessants. Three states called people white good said praise. Press: praise, the guest language read [ʦan], a good meaning, to commend things, often say "different female praise", "strange female praise" (Jiao Ling).
(4) "Shuwen" : "Guangya" ancient Kuang cut. "Music" "number to erect horizontal, horizontal to erect Wu" "Note" : "horizontal, full also. Qi means full." "Shawen" : "horizontal, ancient open cut." This is the right word to Ya. Three states called Guangda full as a "Guangda", transferred to the Geng. Press "Guangya, Guangya", but this pronunciation is different; From the opposite point of view, the ancient pronunciation should be pronounced "kua" as [kua], but in today's Hakka language to read "across" as [va], losing the middle teeth (root of the tongue). In today's Hakka language, a bag filled to the brim means "kua eg kua eg ku ku". Zhang's "Lingwai Sanzhou Language" can prove the long history of the formation of the Hakka language. Since the beginning of the poem, it has not only the language of the ancestors, but also the development of The Times and the changes of the ancestral place, it is not completely consistent with the current Hakka language, which is in line with the evolution law of language development. Therefore, the formation of Hakka language should be parallel with the common language of the Han people in China.
(5) Hakka also retains a large number of suffix habits of "also", such as:
1. Where are you? -- Customer: ngi
2
coi
1
nai
4
ya
1
?
2, you are doing something again What are you doing again (with a bit of impatience)?
3, Don't you (not good), good no? -- Definition: Come on, will you?
Fast drop also, no day and night you procrastinate. -- Come on, don't procrastinate like this all the time.
5, You also know (what)? -- How should I know?
This point better reflects the preservation of the ancient Chinese by the guest language.
[102]
-
The inheritance and change of ancient sound
As a branch of authentic language, Hakka still retains a lot of ancient Chinese features or has evolved.
As in the first person of the Book of Songs."
Yang
The word "I" is homologous to the original written word "I (Wu)" of the first person colloquial "I". Because the pronunciation of "You" in the foreign language is classified as the strong mother [Wu], worship rhyme [ai], which is exactly consistent with the "Central Plains rhyme" Yang Ping sound suspicious mother [Wu], to rhyme [ai]. But "across" the oral language is [a], open mouth, Yang flat sound. The pronunciation of "I" belongs to the tenacious mother [O], in the "Guangyun" system belongs to the tooth sound of the mother [O], the rhyme part is the twelfth song [O], and the upper ancient sound belongs to the Hou part [O]. Therefore, the pronunciation of "I" is [O], which is in line with the pronunciation of modern guest language. But the daily spoken language does not say [O] o (= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = From Wei to Jin, all Yu Yu Mo characters are also reading [a] sound, not reading [u] sound or [y] sound. "Although the word" Wu "can not return to rhyme in modern Ke language, it is in fact another writing form of the word" I ". For example, the above "Wu" was the fish department in ancient times, and the actual pronunciation is [O], "I" in Duan's ancient sound seventeen, "Wu" in sixteen, and the consonant sound is closest.
It can be seen that the "I" and "Wu" in the written language of today's Hakic language should be [[a]. Therefore, the three characters of "I", "I" and "Wu" are the same pronunciation, which are three different writing forms and pronunciation of oral, written and materialist pronouns respectively. And the "I (Wu)" ([[a]) in the foreigner language is the result of the change of the "human related to a print" in "Shi ·邶 wind", that is, "I (Wu)" ([[a]) (Yin) with the nasal tail is "a print" (Yang), while without the nasal tail it is "I (Wu)" ([[a]). This is the ancient sound of the foreigner language preserved.
Another example is the word "end", which belongs to the end mother [t] in the ancient sound system, and the ancient part [an]. The "end" of the guest language belongs to the epileptic mother [t] (not pumped), the rhyme part is also rhyme [an], and the joint call [-u-]. It can be seen that the "end" guest sound is consistent with the sound. "End" is the "pick" character in the Book of Songs. "Shi · Zhou Nan · Piaju" : "thin words"; "Sound [tuan]," Guang Ya ":" Tuan, take also." "Take" is "take", "tuat" [tuat], "end" [tuan] is "Yin and Yang turn", "pick" is "end". Nowadays, "hold" means "hold" with both hands and often say "end", such as "serve food", "serve rice", "bring forward", etc., which proves that the ancient phonetic semantics are preserved in modern Hakka language.
-
Grammatical inheritance and development
The character of the word formation of Hakka language has something in common with ancient Chinese, which inherits and develops ancient Chinese.
(1) Synonymy compound words in ancient Chinese has long appeared, there are no examples, according to Wang Niansun "Reading magazine Shi Ji fourth" "number of let" article: "Guang Yun" said: "number, let, blame also, number let side text, even let Lian text, the ancients have their own complex language ears." It is said that "Lian Wen" and "compound language" are synonyms used together, that is, synonymy compound words, which have existed in ancient times. In the Hakka language, the inherited application of synonymy words is also ubiquitous, such as "rain Tuu wet" (that is, "rain wet clothes"), in fact "Tuu" is "wet", "wet" is also "tuu", which is preserved in the ancient phonetic and word-formation characteristics of the Hakka language, because "wet" is light lips, "Tuu" is heavy lips
[41]
In the ancient pronunciation system, "wet" in the Hakka language is "Benedict", which becomes visible in the evolution of ancient and modern Hakka language. Modern Hakka inherited the rules of the ancient Chinese synonyms and preserved them in spoken language. Another example is the word "line to marry" in Hakka language. In fact, "line" is "to marry", and "marriage" is also "line", which is a synonym, which can also be proved in ancient Chinese. "Ceremonial funeral" Zheng Xuan notes: "Where the female line in the doctor above said to marry, line in the scholar said to fit people," "Gao Tang Fu" : "Red Emperor female Yao Ji, did not line and died." The word "line" in these sentences is "marry." In modern Guest language, it is said that the married person to the man's home is said to be "married", which is inherited from the ancient Chinese characteristics of this kind of word formation.
(2) The way of verb overlap in word formation, ancient Chinese and guest language is no different. In the sentence "Xingxing" in "Ancient Poetry 19", "Xingxing" is the overlap of verbs. Indicates the state of things. In Hakka language, for example, "eyes MAO (mau)", "eyes (ta)", "eye Jin Jin (kim)", "head covetous (tam)" and so on are very rich.
According to some sources, Hakka is considered to be one of the fastest fading languages on Earth
[42]
.
At present, the situation of Chinese mainland is not optimistic, because of the increase of cultural and economic exchanges between different regions, people widely use it
Mandarin
Traditional Hakka areas generally do not use Hakka language instruction, the younger generation received Mandarin education from childhood. At the same time, due to the popularity of TV media, Hakka language is rarely used in news media and mass entertainment. By the early 21st century, the younger Hakka generation rarely used Hakka. The traditional Hakka nursery rhymes, which were passed down orally, are now rarely recited in their entirety. With economic globalization, Hakka people communicate more and more closely with other ethnic groups, and there is a crisis in the spread and inheritance of Hakka language in overseas Hakka communities
[43]
.
-
Taiwan
In the late 20th century, Taiwan residents gradually realized the importance of protecting their mother tongue, and the Hakka people were no exception. The "government" (Taiwan authorities) set up a special body, the Executive Yuan Hakka Committee, to promote the teaching of Taiwanese Hakka language in schools, and set up
Hakka television
(established in 2003) and Hakka Radio Station
Guest language proficiency certification
And legislation stipulates that trains, rapid transit and other public transport vehicles need to provide Hakka language broadcasting services
[44]
.
In 2010, Taiwan's "Legislative Yuan" passed the"
Hakka basic law
Article 11 of this Law provides: "The government shall promote the official language system and implement a barrier-free environment for the guest language.
[44]
" Since then, Hakka has officially acquired the status of the official language of Taiwan by law
[15]
.
-
mainland
The mainland is relatively late. Hakka people began to fight for the living space of Hakka language in public resources.
The guest language programs of mainland guest TV stations have gradually increased from scratch, such as
Meizhou TV Hakka public channel
,
Huizhou TV station
The Hakka Program
[45]
,
Hezhou TV station
The Hakka program,
Longyan TV Station
Guest Style
[46]
,
Heyuan TV station
People's Livelihood Frontline, etc. However, China's "Law", which came into effect on September 1, 1997,
Regulations for the Administration of radio and television
It is clearly stipulated that radio stations and television stations should promote the national common Mandarin
[47]
. Although the regulations do not ban dialect programming, radio and television stations are heavily restricted in dialect programming. The SARFT has issued several documents to restrict programming in dialects (except for a few dialects such as Cantonese).
[51] 48 -
. Under this background, the guest language programs of mainland radio stations and TV stations can not get a wide living space. Around September 2013, on Weibo,
Just post it
In other places, Hakka, including British and German locals, asked British and German TV and radio stations to open Hakka programs, which caused hot discussion
[52-56]
.
In the areas inhabited by Hakka people, the language of the station announcement is rarely used in Hakka (except for some routes of the bus in a few areas such as Ganzhou), and the majority of people have the requirement of opening Hakka language station announcement service
[58] 57 -
. Shenzhen's subway announced stops in Mandarin, Cantonese and English rather than in passenger,
foreword
Etc.
Old Shenzhen dialect
The practice is highly controversial
[59]
;
● International Organizations
Fourth session, 29 September - 2 October 1978
World Guest Family Congress
Decided: "In order to maintain the traditional language accent of the guest group, in future, all guest meetings will be made in guest language."
[60]
Hakka language as the carrier of pop music, micro films with the Hakka awareness of protecting mother tongue has been developed. As Taiwan has taken the most care in protecting guest language, so
Hakka pop music
The popular culture represented by the guest language is also the most significant in Taiwan.
The Taiwan Golden Melody Awards have an award for Hakyu pop music to encourage and affirm Hakyu pop culture. In 2014, Hakyu pop music entered the Chinese Golden Songs list, which played a role in promoting the development of Hakyu music.
Chen Shanbao
The teacher is committed to cultivating Hakka children's talents and has created a large number of new Hakka nursery rhymes.
Sit in rows and sing folk songs
""
Moonlight light Xiucailang
""
Happy New Year
"Moon light lotus Pond" "Good mother" and so on, and widely sung in the major Hakka areas, in order to inherit Hakka culture, children learn Hakka has played a very good effect, in recent years by Shenzhen University affiliated education Group Experimental primary School, Jiangmen Taishan Chixi Central School and so on hired
Hakka nursery rhymes
In order to promote the development of Hakka nursery rhymes and Hakka folk songs into the campus, experts in folk songs guidance have been well promoted
[98]
;
The hakka language inherited more
Ancient Chinese
Features, such as the complete entry final [-p], [-t], [-k]. It is generally believed that the guest language and later
Middle Chinese
The inheritance relationship between Tang and Song dynasties is obvious. Reciting Middle Chinese works, such as Tang poetry and Song Ci, in guest language is much more consistent with the rhythm of Mandarin and Mandarin.
Cantonese also retains the Middle Chinese entrant IPA[-p], [-t], [-k]. In contrast, Hakka is more ancient and closer to Middle Chinese than Cantonese. Eg. The most obvious example is "fish". In both Mandarin and Cantonese, you see [yu] (IPA[jy]), but in Haku you still see [i] (or marked [ȵi]). In Cantonese, it is difficult to tell whether it is ancient because there is no distinction between mother and mother. If Fei mother [f-] did not appear before the end of the Tang Dynasty, that is, the so-called "ancient no.
Light labial
Most of the guest languages have the [f-] sound, which is very large. Some exceptions such as "fan", whether Cantonese or Mandarin is pronounced together [fan], but Hakka is pronounced [p? an], it can be seen that Hakka still retains a small amount of "ancient no light lip sound" state, and Fangmu [p? -] still rarely differentiates non-mother [f-].
Further comparison --
"Bark" word: Hakka [p? ui], [p? ou], Japan
Wu Yin
[bai], Japan
Han Chinese pronunciation
[hai], Hokkien
Teochew
[pui],
Hokkien
the
Fuzhou dialect
[pui], [hie],
Wu language
The Wenzhou dialect and
Shanghai dialect
Is [vi], Cantonese
Canton dialect
[fai], Beijing, Nanjing and Lanzhou dialects [fei].
"Fat" characters: Ke [p? ui], [p? i], Japanese Wuyin [bi], Japanese Han [hi], Chaozhou and Fuzhou [pui], Shanghai [vi], Bai [bi], Guangzhou [fei], Beijing, Nanjing and Lanzhou [fei].
[61]
Because the Hakka language is mainly distributed in southern China, it has a lot of mutual influence with its brother languages.
In terms of phonology, Gan and Ke are the closest ones. It is generally believed that in the formation and development of (ancient) guest language, both guest and Gan have
embryology
The relationship. As a result, the pronunciation characteristics of modern Hakic language and modern Gan language are relatively close.
In terms of vocabulary, Min language is close to Ke language in the bottom vocabulary, such as: 朘, 膣 cunt, ru, wu, etc. Cantonese and Gan also have a large number of cognates with Hakka. In addition, due to the Hakka area and Cantonese area,
mandarin
Bordering the region, Hakka has a lot in common with these dialects in terms of vocabulary.
The following table shows the similarity of dialects by region:
[62]
|
Beijing (%)
|
Jinan (%)
|
Xi 'an (%)
|
Hankou (%)
|
Chengdu (%)
|
Yangzhou (%)
|
|
|
Taiyuan
|
60.8
|
60.7
|
61.4
|
58.2
|
61.6
|
63.1
|
|
Suzhou
|
49.9
|
51.1
|
54.8
|
54.9
|
54.5
|
60.8
|
|
Wenzhou
|
39.4
|
42.8
|
44.1
|
42.2
|
44.1
|
40.7
|
|
Changsha
|
60.9
|
55.6
|
59.3
|
67.6
|
66
|
52.9
|
|
doublet
|
49
|
48.1
|
48.8
|
53
|
50.6
|
45.9
|
|
Nanchang
|
58.2
|
49.8
|
53.3
|
60.2
|
61.8
|
54.3
|
|
Xiamen (in Fujian Province)
|
48
|
43.9
|
47.1
|
50.7
|
47.7
|
45.9
|
|
Chaozhou
|
44.3
|
41.5
|
46.5
|
46.8
|
49.9
|
47.5
|
|
Mei County
|
52.8
|
46.5
|
47
|
56.2
|
57.2
|
50.2
|
|
Guangzhou
|
47.5
|
45.4
|
45.5
|
47
|
45.4
|
46.7
|
Linguists generally put
Meixian dialect
As a typical representative of guest language
[7]
,
Meizhou TV station
[63]
,
Meixian Radio and Television Station
[64-65]
,
Radio Meizhou
[66]
,
China Radio International
(
The Voice of Hakka
)
[67]
,
China National Radio
(
The Voice of God
,
Voice of China
,
Voice of Hong Kong
)
[68-70]
,
Voice of Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area, China Media Group
[71-72]
,
Sound of the Straits
[73-74]
and
3CW Australian Chinese radio station
[75]
The guest language programs usually use it to broadcast and have
China Radio International Meizhou program production studio
and
Central People's Radio Meizhou editorial Department
And other program production agencies
[76-77]
. In Taiwan, the four counties dialect (i.e
Sixian opera
) is a typical representative.
In case
Mei County
As the reference object, there are similar and different accents in Hakka language. Roughly speaking, including Meixian dialect,
Huiyang dialect
75% of the guest languages, including the four counties, can be common (that is, the similarity is greater). The 75% of hakka is also known as
Mainstream guest language
. Mainstream Hakese refers to the Cantonese dialect and other Hakese branches developed from the Cantonese dialect (such as Tonggu Pian Hakese, Ninglong Pian Nan Pian, Yuantingzhou Pian Nan Pian, Sichuan Native Cantonese, West Guangdong-South Guangxi Dialect, etc.); However, Gutingzhou northern accent (the original Tingzhou Northern accent), Gannan old Hakka (Yugui Pian), Shuiyuan accent, etc., are not among the "mainstream Hakka" because of their great differences with Guangdong and Taiwan films (but the mainstream Hakka language has linguistic laws, these Hakka languages usually have).
There are places where the Hakka language was not previously referred to as "Hakka" or "Hakka". Example: The western Guangdong - southern Guangxi area of the Hakka language is generally called
yap
[78-80]
,
New people's dialect
[81]
In some places in Guangxi, it is also called"
Such a word
"
[82]
; The Dongjiang area
Water source sound
Although it is called "local dialect" (in Meizhou, Heyuan, Huizhou, Shenzhen, Shaoguan and other places, Hakka is also the local dialect), it is also a Hakka language from the mainstream point of view of the academic community
[83-87]
; Sichuan and Chongqing area, there is a"
Native Cantonese
In addition, in Hunan, Yun, GUI, Shaanxi, Zhejiang and other places of the Hakka language, some of these dialects because surrounded by other languages, was once ignored by scholars, the past related investigation is less
[19]
[88]
.
Cover of the Universal Dictionary of Guest Language [40]
In addition to the Chinese characters described above,
Ecclesiastical Roman
In addition to the General Pinyin scheme, other organizations also have their own Hakka Pinyin schemes, such as the Taiwan Language Association has a Taiwanese phonetic phonetic scheme: Hakka Phonetic scheme, the Taiwanese Hakka Pinyin scheme used in the teaching of Taiwanese native language, and the mainland has a Hakka Pinyin scheme launched by the Guangdong Provincial education department.
[96]
Hakka phonetic system
(short for
customization
) :
Hakka pinyin
It is one of the Guangdong Pinyin schemes announced by the Guangdong Provincial Education Department in September 1960
[96]
To Meizhou, Guangdong Province
Umeicheng
Accent as standard, to
Latin alphabet
Spelling sounds, represented by numbers in the upper right square
Tone of voice
. Taiwanese Hakka pinyin scheme is more similar to this, only for the tone marking method and some characters are different.
-
letter
Pinyin uses the Latin alphabet, in which r and w are not spelled
Meixian dialect
. e is an alteration of the letter e, used for [doing so].
-
Initial consonant of a Chinese syllable
The total number of initial consonants is 19. A syllable that does not start with a consonant is called a zero initial. The list is as follows:
|
b [p] wave
|
p [p?] Woman
|
m [m] touch
|
f [f] fire
|
v [v] socket
|
|
d [t] many
|
t [t?] Drag
|
n [n] move
|
l [l] Lo
|
|
|
g [k] brother
|
k [k?] family
|
Eg. ng [O] o me
|
h [h] River
|
|
|
j [ʦi-] squeeze
|
q [ʦ? i-] wife
|
x [si-] west
|
||
|
z [ʦ]
|
c [ʦ?] female
|
s [s] think
|
Note: zi
1
, female ci
1
si
1
The equal vowel [ɿ] is represented by i; [ʦi-], [ʦi-], [si-] are not written as j, q, x alone, but as ji-, qi-, xi-, that is, similar to Mandarin, j, q, x three initials exist only when they are connected with i; [ȵ] and [ŋ] phonemes are almost, unified marked as ng.
-
A compound vowel used in a Chinese syllable
|
i [sound] the capital
|
i [i] clothes
|
u [u] Aunt
|
|
a [a] A
|
ia [ia] also
|
ua [ua] Hang
|
|
o [Quality]
|
io [i named
|
The value of this property is uo [u] right
|
|
e [doing] this
|
ie [i do] (scattered)
|
ue [u] do not fare well
|
|
ai [ai] suffer
|
iai [iai] Coconut
|
uai [uai] strange
|
|
oi [quality] i mourn
|
||
|
Concave *
|
iau [iau] waist
|
|
|
eu [giri u] EU
|
||
|
iu [iu] Yes
|
||
|
iui [iui] sharp
|
ui [ui] is expensive
|
|
|
am [am] nunnery
|
iam [iam] flooded
|
|
|
em [gird m] anvil
|
||
|
em [AW] Needle
|
im [im] Yin
|
|
|
an [an] class
|
ian [ian] Smoke
|
uan [uan] Guan
|
|
on [quality] safety
|
ion [i value n] Nguyen
|
The uon [U-n] tube
|
|
en [giro n] Yeah
|
ien [i did n]
|
uen [u] did not do so
|
|
Eg: True
|
in [in] cause
|
|
|
iun [iun] allows
|
un [un] Town
|
|
|
Eg. ang [a] eg cold
|
Eg. [ia] [IA] [g] [g] eg
|
Eg. [ua] eg
|
|
The ong [gold] River
|
iong [i upheaval] [I upheaval]
|
uong [u] n [u] n] n light
|
|
Eg. iung [iu] eg
|
Eg. ung [u] eg
|
|
|
ab [ap] Duck
|
iab [iap] leaf
|
|
|
eb [giri p] granules
|
||
|
eb juice
|
ib [ip] town
|
|
|
ad [at] eight
|
iad [iat] B
|
uad [uat] scraping
|
|
od [Callit] repression
|
||
|
ed [giri t] north
|
ied [i did not do it]
|
ued [u girt] Koku
|
|
Eg: In ed
|
id [it] one
|
|
|
iud [iut] depression
|
ud [ut] bone
|
|
|
ag [ak] choke
|
iag [iak] tin
|
uag [uak]□
|
|
og [kjel] evil
|
The value of iog [i value k]
|
uog [u turmoilk] Guo
|
|
iug [iuk] breeding
|
ug [uk] D
|
|
|
m [m] HMM
|
n [n] five
|
Note: The vowel of line i, when there is no initial, is written as yi, ya, yo, ye, yai, yau, yu, yui, yam, yim, yan, yin, yun, yang, yong, yung, yab, yib, yad, yid, yud, yag, yog, yug; For ease of reference, IPA[-p][-t][-k] tail style may be retained for the final part of the phonetic script, and accordingly written in the -P-T-k style instead of the -b-d-g style.
* Concave pronunciation should be ngiab
5
[ȵ ap
1
], here seems to borrow the pronunciation of Mandarin.
-
Tone of voice
|
Tone class
|
level
|
Positive level
|
Rising tone
|
Falling tone
|
Yin ingress
|
Yang ingress
|
|
Tone mark
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
|
Tone value
|
44
|
11
|
31
|
52
|
2
|
5
|
|
spell
|
fu
1
|
fu
2
*
|
fu
3
|
fu
4
|
fug
5
|
fug
6
|
|
Example word
|
Husband,
|
help
|
fu
|
rich
|
blessing
|
clothing
|
* Fu is also pronounced pu
2
[p ʰ u
44
].
-
Suggestions for improvement
As the above Hakka phonetic scheme is based on Meixian dialect only, it does not include the rolling Hakka dialects (such as zh, ch, sh, r, similar to Mandarin) and the common side fricatives of the western Guangdong-southern Hakka (Ya-hua) in the initial consonants [ɬ]
[79]
(can be expressed as sl), does not consider some of the mouthing [y] in the final (can be expressed as u in Mandarin), does not take into account the tone of five keys, seven keys and other non-six keys, so the scheme can not be completely common in the interior of the guest language.
A feasible way is according to the current program, in accordance with the same rules, the appropriate increase of phonemes, such as (zh, ch, sh, r, sl, u, etc.), the tone value is not completely consistent everywhere, so it can not be unified, but it can be unified according to the following suggestions:
|
Tone class
|
level
|
Positive level
|
Upper Yin
|
A surname
|
Removal of Yin
|
Yang depletion
|
Yin ingress
|
Yang ingress
|
|
Tone mark
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
Note: For the mainstream guest language (six keys), the upper voice is not Yin and Yang, the upper voice is represented by 3, the outgoing voice is represented by 5, 4 and 6 are left out; For the water source sound, sea and land dialect and other guest language (seven tones), only the upper voice does not distinguish Yin and Yang, the upper voice is represented by 3, 4 is not used; For the Changting dialect and other Ting North piece of guest language (five keys), the upper voice does not distinguish Yin and Yang, the upper voice is expressed by 3, and 4 is not used, there is no sound, 7, 8 are not used.
With the adoption of the above improvement suggestions, the maximum degree of compatibility has been achieved, meeting the requirements of more branches of the guest language except Meixian dialect, without the need to independently revise the scheme.
