Judaism (Hebrew: י ה ד ledu dialect ת ‎ Yahadut, Judaism), is Jew devotional monotheism National religion, worship Yahweh (translated as "Jehovah" in Christianity, and respectfully called "God") is the unique true God of the universe. In addition to being the religious belief of the Jewish people, it is also the expression of national culture, both in religious documents and religious views, but also in customs, social institutions and unique culture ^{(2-3
]} .

Judaism has a history of more than three thousand years and has experienced four stages of development: ancient Judaism, Rabbinic Judaism, medieval Judaism and modern Judaism. Its doctrinal basis is the text of the Tanakh "And" Talmud In addition to the belief that Yahweh is the only true God in the universe, the basic doctrine believes that the Jewish people are the ancestors Abraham Covenant with the elect of Yahweh, and at the end of the world Messiah Will come to save the Jews and establish a new kingdom of Israel ^{[2
]} . Judaism does not advocate the practice of the religion by other peoples, and its religious practices are usually practiced in synagogue Carried out by full-time clergy Ravvy Host. In terms of religious practices, there are circumcision , Puberty rite The most important festivals are the three pilgrimage festivals ( Passover , Shavuot , The Feast of Tabernacles ) and The Sabbath ^[148-149] .

As a single national religion of the Jewish people, Judaism is not only the spiritual sustenance of the Jewish people and the Jewish nation, but also the spiritual link that connects and unites the Jewish people and the Jewish nation ^[150] . In addition, its texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later generations The Abrahamic religions And the utopian type of the West humanism Faith also has a profound effect ^[4] .

Chinese name: Judaism
Foreign name: י ה ד ledu dialect ת ‎
Yahadut

Foreign name: Judaism
definition: National religion
sutra: " Tanakh "" Talmud "
founder: Abraham

catalogue

▪Three pilgrimages
▪Holy day
▪Other festivals
16ideology
▪Kabbalah mysticism
▪Jewish philosophy
17Sacred place
▪Holy land concept
▪Western Wall
▪Zion
▪Mount of Olives
▪Other holy places
18Religious identity
19Religious communication
▪Germany
▪Spain
▪Poland
▪America
▪China
▪Other countries or regions
20Religious similarities and differences

Lexical origin

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EDITOR

The English word "Judaism" derives from the ancient century Latin "Iudaismus", which is a Latinized variant of the ancient Greek word "Ioudaismos" (guaranου δαίζω), which generally refers to the Jewish beliefs, rules and practices of life. The term Judaism first appeared in books such as The 16th-century "New Chronicles of England and France," later by the Kings of Scotland James I The King James Christian Bible uses this term to replace the passage" From the Maccabees The Greek Ioudaismos is used to denote a subject of the ancient Hebrews. But in fact, there is no word for Judaism in Jewish culture, and the closer Hebrew word should be י ה ד ledu dialect ת ‎ (spelled Yahadut). This is an abstract noun that means everything Jewish, Jewish attributes, Jewish civilization, and can also be translated as Judaism. This shows that Judaism includes the religion and civilization of the Jews ^{[5-8
]} ^{[12
]} .

History of religion

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EDITOR

Religious origin

The specific cause of Judaism has not been examined, combined with the Tanakh chapter" Genesis "And historical research, and the historical origin of the Jewish people has an inseparable relationship. It is also suspected of having links to ancient Babylonian mythology. According to the ancient Babylonian text, The epic of Gilgamesh "Records, God Enlil Intending to cause a great flood that would wipe out life on Earth, Utnadishtimo, the first human being, built a great ship to escape the great flood at the command of the god Ea. Due to Noah's Ark There are similarities in the story, so some historians speculate that the Hebrews were responsible Ancient babylonian mythology In order to establish the religious concept of Judaism ^{[128
]} .

Around 2000 BC, there was one on the west bank of the Euphrates River in Mesopotamia Ur The city (the Bible translates as "Ur"), which at that time belonged to polytheists Babylonian kingdom He is considered to be the patriarch of Jewish origin Abraham Born here. Abraham was originally Abram, for The Semites The descendants of the father Tara believed in the Babylonian gods. According to Jewish legend, Abram questioned the existence of Babylonian gods, rejected idolatry, and had his own ideas about religion ^[9-11] ^[16] .

Around 1750 B.C., or due to war, expulsion, etc., Tara left Ur with her family in an attempt to reach Canaan (now Palestine ), since Tara is here Halan Abram died and became head of the family. According to the Book of Genesis, Abram suffered Yahweh He led the family on a journey to" The Promised Land "Canaan. After this, Abram and Jahweh made a covenant, giving Abram a prosperous incense and a fruitful descendants, and the land of Canaan as their permanent inheritance. Abram changed his name to Abraham, meaning that he was the father of the nations, and Abraham regarded Yahweh as the true God to be believed in, laying the foundation for the ethnic origins and religious beliefs of the Jews. Abraham and his family members were called "Hebrews" by the Canaanites (spelled Hebrew, probably from "Habi-ri"), referring to them as "people who came from the other side of the rivers (i.e., the Euphrates and Tigris)." ^[9] ^[13-15] .

Belief formation

As the generations passed, the Hebrews who thrived in the land of Canaan went through the succession of leaders from Abraham to Isaac to Jacob. According to Jewish legend and the Book of Genesis, the 12 sons of Jacob developed into 12 tribes of the Jewish people, and Jacob received the name "Israel" (meaning "he who wrestles with God") because of his experience in wrestling with God, so the Jews were also called "Israel" or "Israel" in subsequent years. In religious texts such as the Tanakh, the Jews are referred to as "sons of Jacob. ^{[1
]} ^[16-17] .

Around the 16th century BC, the Jews took refuge in Egypt due to the famine in the land of Canaan and lived in Egypt for nearly 400 years. Since the new pharaoh (academic thought may be Pharaoh Ramses II Period, about 1304 BC ~ 1237 BC; Or the persecution and enslavement of his son Pharaoh Menipta, circa 1225-1215 BC. Mose Leading the Jews out of Egypt ^[16] ^[20] .

En route to the Land of Canaan, the Jews wandered the wilderness of the Sinai Peninsula for nearly 40 years. During which Jewish religious thought was further strengthened," decalogue The establishment of Judaism is no longer a hazy form, began to have a clear religious doctrine and core, so it is also considered to be the birth of Judaism ^[16] .

Israelite period

After the completion of the occupation of all the land of Canaan, the heir to Moses after his death Joshua The 12 tribes of the Jews were assigned to different places for settlement ^[19] . After 120 years, the leaders of the 12 tribes" judge He was responsible for exercising his duties as a judge and religious prophet, and was involved in years of war with the surrounding Philistines, Midianites and other races ^{20 [22]} .

Around 1028 to 1013 BC, Saul (Saul) by the Jewish prophet Samuel Elected king and established the monarchy of the United Kingdom of Ancient Israel. Second king David The city of Jebus was made the capital of the country, and the name of the city was changed to the City of David Jerusalem He left many psalms praising Yahweh; The third king Solomon To build the First Temple in Jerusalem, to bring religious relics." Ark of the Covenant It was moved to serve as a place for the worship of Yahweh and other ceremonies, thereby establishing Jerusalem's sacred status as the center of Judaism. After the collapse of the Kingdom of Northern Israel, Jerusalem, which belonged to the Kingdom of Southern Judah, became a Jewish religious center and a symbol of national unity ^[23-24] .

Babylonian period

Prisoners of Babylon, James Disso, 1896

After the death of King Solomon, the United Kingdom of Israel was divided into the South Kingdom of Judah Hokita Kingdom of Israel . The Kingdom of Northern Israel followed in 722 BC Assyrian The invasion died out, and the people assimilated over time. The kingdom of Southern Judah was conquered in 586 BC Neo-Babylon King Nebuchadnezzar II It was destroyed, Jerusalem was severely damaged, and the people were forced into exile in Babylon for 50 years. Prisoner of Babylon ".

With the impact of the new concepts of the Babylonian captivity, the religious conception of Judaism was further strengthened, and the history of Jewish suffering was thoroughly monotheistic. First of all, Yahweh's status was upgraded from the original national god to "the only true God in the universe"; Secondly, the destruction of the Jewish nation is regarded as the "sin" of the Jews themselves (not the Christian concept of "original sin", which is not said in Judaism), that is, the punishment imposed by God on the Jews for not obeying God's law; Finally, the idea of a "Messiah" was added, suggesting that one day a savior (the "anointed One," the "Messiah") would emerge from the descendants of King David to help them out of their suffering and restore their country ^{[25 to 28]} .

Persian period

539 B.C., King of Persia Cyrus Complete destruction Neo-babylonian Kingdom The edict allowed the Jews to return to their homes. Returning Jews rebuilt the temple in 516 BC, according to history Second Temple The resumption of the worship of Yahweh marked the revival of Judaism. With the Jewish collective assembly the Rabbinical Rabbi Ezra Read out Tolla The Torah achieved a high sacred status and established a new Jewish priesthood with the Babylonian scribes (lawyers) as the main body.

For hundreds of years, from the "Babylonian prisoners" to the period of Persian rule, a group of Jewish priests and scribes collected ancient Jewish historical texts and legal documents, collated and compiled them into the Torah and Torah. prophets "Collected Works", basically completed" Tanakh The three components of the Jewish system and the final formation of the Canon ^[26] ^{28 - [29]} .

Hellenistic period

332 BC, Greece Alexander After the Emperor overthrew the Persian Empire, he led an army into Jerusalem, and the Jews began to come under Greek rule. During this period, due to the influence of Greek culture and politics, Judaism was divided into several important factions: those representing the upper echelons of the priesthood and nobility The Sadducees ; Composed of middle-level Jewish scribes and lawyers who believed in the Torah and later developed the oral torah and focused on maintaining Jewish traditions and norms of life The Pharisees ; It is composed of the lower class of farmers and herdsmen who believe in piety, oppose worldly luxury and happiness, and advocate a indifferent and poor life away from the world Essenes ; In addition, there were a number of lower-class proletarians, poor artisans, and petty traders whose religious views were aligned with those of the Pharisees and whose political line advocated violent resistance to Roman rule The Zealots ^{[28 to 30]} .

Ptolemy II During his reign (285-246 BCE), he invited scholars familiar with Greek and Hebrew to translate the Hebrew Tanakh into Greek, a translation of the Bible known as the Tanakh. septuagint It had a major influence on later Latin translations of Christianity ^{28 - [29]} .

Roman period

In 63 BC, Pompeii The Roman army entered Palestine, displacing the Greeks and beginning nearly 400 years of rule. During the period of repeated Jewish revolts, the Second Temple was razed to the ground in 70 AD, and the Roman Empire built a Roman city on the ruins of Jerusalem after 132 AD. Elia Capitolina The Jews were forbidden to enter the city as a result. The Jews also lost their motherland, and began the history of the world's great diaspora for nearly 2000 years ^[28] ^{30 - [31]} .

Rabbinic period

After 70 A.D., as the Temple ceased to exist, the Jewish Sanhedrin, which was the unity of the Jewish people, essentially ceased its functions and activities, and the sects that had developed since the Greek period also suffered different attacks. The remaining Pharisees established a peaceful post war stronghold in Jamenia on the coastal plain of the Philistines, and thereafter in Galilee Tiberias Another center was developed, barely maintaining the functions of the original Sanhedrin of Jerusalem, and both quickly became major centers of activity in the first century Judaism. With the establishment of synagogues by the Pharisees in places such as Capernaum and Korazi, the Jewish centers were able to maintain a consistent religious belief ^[31] .

Around 90 AD, the Pharisees established the official volume of the Jewish Canon known as the Twenty-four Books, the 24 books of the Tanakh. Another important activity was the study of Jewish law and the deepening of its interpretation, and the education of Jews in the study of the law, from which the teachers of the law, who were proficient in the law, received the title of "rabbi". In addition, they created a calendar that bound all Jews and promoted two major customs: that all Jews remember the dates of all events that occurred after the destruction of the Temple; Jews all over the world must pay tithes; A devout Jew must be able to speak Hebrew and pray in Hebrew in the synagogue ^[31] .

The most important development in rabbinical Judaism was the completion of the Talmud, a collection of oral torah. From about 200 to 210 AD, under the auspices of Judas Ha-Nasi, the head of the Usha Synagogue, the rabbis collected the "oral statutes" left by early Jewish scholars and completed the oral Torah in Hebrew. Mishna "Compiled. Later generations combined the corresponding regional conditions and missing parts to compile the Aramaic oral law interpretation compilation Gemala The two were combined into the Talmud, a written account of Jewish spiritual and religious creativity, and a dialectical way of thinking that survived in Jewish life ^[32] .

Medieval period

After the 6th century, Christianity and Islam emerged. Due to differences in religious beliefs and living customs, as well as economic reasons, the Jews living in other countries gradually became unpopular and moved to stay in various countries. During the Renaissance and Reformation in Europe from the 14th to the 16th century, Martin Luther, the founder of the Protestant Reformation, promoted the deeds of Jews, but he also turned against Jews after his dream of converting them to Christianity was shattered. During this period, due to the frequent occurrence of false Messiah incidents, some Jews also had a crisis of faith ^[33] ^[39] .

In the early 8th century, the Babylonian Sanhedrin and Yeshiva extended the Talmud to various Jewish communities with a common legal tradition and way of life, arousing opposition from some Jews. 761 AD, the Babylonians Anan Ben David found karapai . Only the authority of the Tanakh is acknowledged, and the Jews reject evil and good under the direct revelation of God ^[34] .

12th-century Spanish Jewish theologian Moses Maimonides In order to make the Jews who were under the influence of Christianity and Islam firmly believe in themselves, he wrote a philosophical book. A lost path leads to a lost path He systematically combs all the legal materials of Judaism and puts forward a completely rational Jewish philosophy. The book summarized the teachings of Judaism into thirteen tenets, which were widely accepted by later Jews ^[39] .

After the 12th century AD, the increasing persecution caused some Jews to show an increasing desire to detach from reality and seek comfort in observing the mysteries of the universe, and Jewish mysticism rapidly developed and formed Kabbalat A cult of mysticism to reveal the mystical significance of the Tanakh. Its representative founding work, Zohar, contains the interpretation of astrology, angels and demons, the mystical meaning of the spiritual wandering outside the home and the ritual customs of Judaism, and comprehensively expounds the thought of Kabbalism ^[35] .

Modern period

In the 17th century, under the influence of modern western scientific thoughts, some Jewish thinkers questioned the ancient traditional authority and medieval scholastic thinking methods. For example, the Jewish thinker Yury Acosta of Amsterdam in the first half of the 17th century openly denied the authority of the rabbinate and the immortality of the individual soul, arguing that the Torah could not be divine because it contained many incidents that violated the laws of nature. Although influenced by traditional customs, the Talmud spirit still prevails in Jewish communities and synagogues, and at the same time, rationalism, characterized by opposition to the use of Talmud provisions to imprison people's spirits, has further developed in modern Jewish society ^[40] .

After entering the 19th century, with the rise of the ideological Enlightenment movement centered on Britain and France in Europe, Judaism came into being under its influence orthodox , Old guard with reformist Three factions, strictly adhere to the traditional beliefs, laws and rituals of Judaism is the Orthodox one; The opposition to orthodoxy was the Reformists; Between the Orthodox and the reformists are the conservatives. Although the three schools differed greatly in some beliefs and practices, they still essentially shared a religious principle about the future of human happiness and an enduring belief in the true God ^[36] ^[38] .

The rise of racism in European countries before and after the 20th century, coupled with political turmoil, economic crisis and other reasons, some countries and regions once again set off the modern antisemitism The Waves. Jews, on the other hand, were based on the belief and vision that they would one day return to the Promised Land and live freely there, Zionism The trend of thought rose. Especially during the Second World War, Hitler's bloody massacre of Jews turned the diaspora into a strong Jewish nationalist. After the end of World War II, the Jewish survivors strongly demanded the relocation of Palestine and the establishment of a state belonging to the Jewish people. In May 1948 The State of Israel It was founded in Tel Aviv, ending a Jewish diaspora that lasted more than 1,800 years ^[33] ^[41] .

Contemporary age

At the end of the 20th century, a major task for Judaism was to continue interpreting Holocaust . Historically, Jews have sought to understand God through history. They sought to understand the experience of leaving Egypt through the Tanakh, sought to understand the Babylonian exile through the writings of the Great Diaspora, sought to reinterpret Jewish life after the destruction of the Temple through the Mishna and Talmud, and sought to reinterpret the Kabbalah documents as a response to the expulsion of Jews from Europe in the 15th century. The greatest tragedy of contemporary Judaism was the Holocaust of six million Jews. For the Jews, this tragedy meant, "Is God dead? Or has he abandoned them? Or are they being punished for some crime?" Does it mean that "all Christian countries are really hostile and cruel to Jews?" These questions are being asked again and again by Jewish thinkers today ^[42] .

On the other hand, after nearly 2,000 years of exile, the establishment of the state of Israel is seen by many Jews as having almost completed the role of God's sending of the Messiah, so the peace, security, and integrity of Israel are the focus of concern for modern Judaism. In addition, Judaism has been exploring the role of Judaism in a society dominated by pagans, which involves whether a Jew should generally compromise with social values, and whether he should adhere to Jewish values found only in history. The most debated issue of compromise was the question of intermarriage with non-Jews ^[42] .

Gods and creatures

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EDITOR

Believe in god

Yahweh

Yahweh It is the God of Judaism, the omniscient and omnipotent God who created the heavens and the earth in Judaism, and the only God of Judaism, which is called Jehovah in Christianity ^[58] .

The concept of God has changed many times, and the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, the God of Jacob, the God of Moses, and the God of Rabbis have different connotations, and have undergone the evolution of clan God, tribal God, national God, and universal God. At the same time, the image of God has evolved from the God of war, who is homicidal and jealous, to the only universal God, who is love, justice, compassion, and compassion, and who is "omnipresent", "omniscient" and "omnipotent". God is both the creator of all things and the arranger of the order of the universe ^[58] .

The Jewish God has EI (not the Canaanite God) Baal ), El-Olam, YHWH, Adonai, and other names to refer to his name ^[18] . In the Hebrew scriptures, the name of God is represented by four Hebrew consonant symbols (‎, which can be translated as YHWH), which can be translated as "Yahweh", "Yahweh", and "Avith" according to the pronunciation. Since the Jews were afraid to use God's name in vain, when confronted with YHWH, which represents the four letters of God's name, they did not pronounce "Yhwh" but instead "Adonai" to refer to the name of the name, "My Lord." The Christian translation of the Tanakh probably spelled the consonant YHWH with the three vowel sounds of Adonay, resulting in the new name Jehovah ^[57] .

Mythological creation

Angel

Angel (Hebrew: "Prophet"), a supernatural being in Judaism who acts as the voice of God. They appear to communicate God's will among humans, such as have been sent to Hagar In front of ^[98] He went to Sodom to examine the SINS of the inhabitants of Sodom and to convey God's command to Lot ^[99] . The only book in the Tanakh The Book of Daniel It mentions the names of two angels, namely Gabriel And the archangel Michael ^[100-101] . As religious theology developed, it began to evolve angelology The idea of the eight angels and the rank of angels ^{[102
]} .

Satan

Satan (Hebrew: ה ַ ש ָ ּ ׂ ט ָ ן, literal translation for "hostile, opposed"), the exercise of duties similar to the prosecutor of supernatural beings in Judaism, an angel appeared to be quite on identity. In the Book of Job, people who believe in God are tested Job ^[103] . Judaism has no concept of supernatural malevolent beings, but Christianity sees Satan as an evil being "the devil." ^[104] .

Besimus

Besimus (Hebrew: ֵ ְּ, ֵ, ֹ.) is a terrestrial animal recorded in the Tanakh. " The Book of Job It is recorded in the body like copper muscles and iron bones, living on grass, is a huge force. In later analysis, it is thought that it may be a mythological record of hippos or a virtual monster ^{[106
]} .

Leviathan

Leviathan (Hebrew: WWW ִ ְ at ָ at tto ָ comment‎) is an aquatic animal recorded in the Tanakh. In the Book of Job, it is described as a king of water with strong scales, breathing fire and great power ^[105] . In later analysis, it is thought that it may be a mythical record of animals such as crocodiles and whales or a virtual monster formed by confusing concepts ^{[106
]} .

Religious figure

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EDITOR

Adam

The Creation of Adam, Michelangelo, 1511-1512

Adam (Hebrew: http:// http:// http:// http:// http://), the legendary ancestor of mankind, was the first man created by God. The word "Adam" in Hebrew means "man" and refers to all mankind in general.

According to the book of Genesis, when God created man from the dust of the earth, he breathed life into his nostrils, and he became a living soul, and his name was Adam. God set up a garden in the east, in Eden, and gave Adam a place to watch the fruit trees in the garden, and said to him, "Of every tree in the garden, you may eat as you please; Nothing but The Knowledge of Good and Evil tree You shall not eat of the fruit of it, for in the day you eat of it you shall surely die." God also brought to Adam every beast and bird that he had created, and whatever Adam called every living creature, that was its name. He took Adam's rib to create the woman Eve, and the two lived together in the Garden of Eden.

When Adam was tempted by Eve to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, God said to him, "Because you have obeyed your wife and eaten from the tree of which I commanded you not to eat, the earth will be cursed because of you." You will suffer all your life so that you can get food from the ground. It will bring forth thorns and thistles for you, and you will eat the vegetables of the field. The sweat of your face will feed you until you return to the earth." God knew that since Adam and they had eaten from the tree of the Knowledge of good and evil, they were like themselves, knowing good and evil. If they stretch out their hands again and eat from the tree of life, they will live and not die. So he sent them out of the Garden of Eden to work the land ^{[107
]} .

Eve

Adam and Eve, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1528

Eve Eve (Hebrew: ַ ָּ ‬, English: Eve), the legendary ancestor of the human race, the first woman. The Hebrew word for "Eve" means "life," meaning that she would become the mother of all living beings.

God felt that it was not good for Adam to live alone, so he put Adam to sleep, took one of Adam's ribs, and put the flesh back together to create a woman, which is Eve. When God brought Eve to Adam, Adam said joyfully, "This is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she may be called woman, for she was taken out of man." Later, Adam and Eve lived in the Garden of Eden.

Because Eve could not resist the temptation of the serpent, she stole the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, and gave the fruit to Adam to eat, and Adam could not resist the temptation of the woman, and ate the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. When God knew this, he sent the two men out of the Garden of Eden to work the land, and Eve was born to Adam Cain , Abe and Seth They became the first generation of human ancestors ^{[108
]} .

Abraham

The Angel obstructs the Sacrifice of Isaac, Rembrandt, 1635

Abraham (Hebrew: Hebrew, English: Abraham), the ancestor of the Hebrew people. According to the Tanakh, Abraham was born Abram in Ur, Chaldea, and his later name Abraham means "Father of many nations." It is speculated that Abraham may have been a contemporary of Hammurabi, the sixth king of Babylon (about 1792-1750 BC). Genesis chapter 14 says Abraham had a relationship with "King Shinar. Amrafe The king of Shinah is the king of Babylon, and if Amraphe is another name for Hammurabi, Abraham belongs to the 18th century BC and is of the same age as Hammurabi.

Abraham obeyed God's will all his life, and his faith was strengthened by repeated trials. When he was 75 years old, he led his wife according to God's will Sarah , Nephew Rodo And the tribe moved westward, and settled in the land of Canaan. He had an only child when he was 100 Isaac As the apple of the eye. But God tested his obedience by ordering Abraham to sacrifice his only son. Abraham obeyed and sent Isaac up the mountain with wood. And when he came to the place of the sacrifice, he raised his sword to kill Isaac, and the angel of God called to him from heaven, and said, Abraham, lay not your hand on the boy; for now I know that you fear God, because you have not withheld your only son from me. Then Abraham looked up and saw a ram entangled in a dense thicket. Abraham offered the ram as a sacrifice in place of Isaac, his only son. God promised that his descendants would be as numerous as the stars in the sky and the sand on the seashore. Then Abraham sent his servants to the land of Haran in Mesooprice, his own house, to search for the daughters of Isaac Rebecca Be a wife. Later Rebekah gave birth to twins Esau and Jacob After Jacob took a wife Leah and Rachel Together with his two handmaids, they had twelve sons, and after a few generations the twelve sons of Jacob multiplied into the twelve tribes of the nation of Israel. Esau took a Canaanite woman as his wife, and she became the ancestor of the Edomites.

Abraham was the ancestor of the Hebrew people, and today he is the ancestor of world Jewry. He occupies an important position in the history of the Hebrew nation, and Judaism traces the origin of the Hebrew people's worship of the only God Jehovah to him, so he is also the ancestor of the Hebrew religion. The Tanakh records that Abraham lived to be 175 years old and was buried in the cave of Machpelah in Hebron, Canaan, where his wife Sarah was also buried ^{[109
]} .

Mose

Moses Breaks the Board, Rembrandt, 1659

Mose (Hebrew: Tibetans ֹ shin ֶׁ p., ‎ English: Moses) was a political and religious leader of the Hebrew people in the 13th century BC, a prophet and legislator of the Hebrews. According to the Book of Exodus, Moses' parents belonged to the Hebrew tribe of Levi. Hundreds of years after the ancestors of the Hebrews Jacob and his descendants entered Egypt, they developed into a very threatening nation to the Egyptian dynasty, so the new Egyptian dynasty began to persecutes and excludes the Hebrews, making them do hard labor and limiting their population growth, and letting the Egyptian midwives kill the newly born Hebrew boys. After Moses was born, his parents hid him and after three months put him in a bulrush box among the reeds by the Nile. The daughter of Pharaoh of Egypt found the baby when she went to bathe by the river, and took him into the king's palace. Because the baby was "drawn out of the water," he was named Moses (which means "drawn out" in Hebrew).

Moses grew up in the Egyptian court and received a good Egyptian education. But Moses, being a Hebrew, understood the sufferings of his people, and his faith made him aware of his sacred responsibility to lead the enslaved people out of Egypt. It is said that one day he was herding sheep in the mountains and was called by God to accept the mission given to him by God, and his brother Aaron led the masses in repeated and unremitting struggles with the Pharaoh of Egypt, and finally made the Pharaoh agree to let the Hebrews leave Egypt.

According to Jewish legend, Moses lived through" Red Sea After entering the Sinai Peninsula, on Mount Sinai in the south of the peninsula, God issued the ten Commandments and other laws to Moses. On the way into Palestine, Moses followed his father-in-law Jethro The proposal for the establishment of inquisitors and a judicial system to deal with civil disputes. The Hebrews from Egypt wandered in the wilderness of Sinai for 40 years, and finally conquered Sihon king of the Amorites and Bashan king and reached the east bank of the Jordan River in Palestine. Moses died east of the River after climbing to the top of Pisgah on Mount Nebo, overlooking the land God had promised Israel. Before he died, he was appointed Joshua To be his successor, to carry forward his unfinished business of conquering all Canaan ^{[110
]} .

David

David Raises Goliath's Head, Josephine Pollard, 1899

David David‎), the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel (reigned about 1013 BC - 973 BC). David is one of the most influential figures in Hebrew history after Moses. His life is mainly described in the Book of Tanakh Samuel and 1 Tanakh Kings Chapter 1.

David was a descendant of Judah, one of the twelve tribes of Israel, because Saul The king disobeyed God's command and was rejected, prophet Samuel He went to Bethlehem in search of a new anointed one and finally chose David. Later, in another battle between King Saul and the Philistines, due to the giants among the Philistines Goliath Brave and brave, the Israeli army is very embarrassed. King Saul offered a great reward to anyone of the Israelites who could kill Goliath. He would receive a large fortune and the king's daughter, and his family would be spared the duty of receiving food. So David asked King Saul to go to battle and defeat Goliath and bring the Israelites to victory. In the years of war that followed, David again and again won great fame, even surpassing King Saul who had fought all his life. Saul realized that David was a potential contender for the throne, and in order to win him over, he married his daughter to him, and deliberately sent David to the front line often, hoping that David would die at the hands of the Philistines. Finally, Saul resolves to kill David and remove the hidden danger. But his son Jonathan But they were the greatest friends of David, in Jonathan and David's wife, the youngest daughter of King Saul Michal With the help of King Saul, David finally escaped from the control of King Saul, and began a long and repeated struggle for the throne.

The death of King Saul and his son in battle with the Philistines marked the end of the struggle for the throne. David came to Hebron and was officially anointed king of southern Judah. At the same time, Abner, Saul's commander, exalts Saul's son in the north Ishbosheth And Mahanaim reigned over Israel. There were constant conflicts between the North and the South, but the house of David grew stronger and the house of Saul grew weaker. In the seventh year of David's reign as king of Judah Abner rebelled against him, and Ishbosheth was slain. And all the tribes of Israel came to David to Hebron, and David was anointed king of Judah and king of Israel. David was thirty years old when he became king, and he reigned forty years, of which he reigned in Hebron seven years and six months over Judah, and in Jerusalem thirty-three years over Israel and Judah.

The Prayer of King David, Peter de Graeber, circa 1640

When David became king, he made Jerusalem his capital. Jerusalem is located in the middle of Canaan, where David established his capital in order to control the whole Canaan. At the same time, Jerusalem was a point of equilibrium for northern Israel and southern Judah. David drove out the Jebusites who lived in Jerusalem, built the city, and called Zion, south of the city, the city of David, and built a wall around it and fortified it.

David conquered the Philistines, the Ammonites, and the Syrians, the old enemies of Israel, which stabilized the situation of David's dynasty and made it stronger and stronger. But its internal conflicts are also intensifying. His son Absalom At the end of the dynasty, he staged a coup d 'etat and proclaimed himself king in Hebron, forcing King David to flee in panic. Absalom's rebellion was quickly quelled, but it was a severe blow to David, and the dynasty suffered a certain loss of strength, and the Philistines took the opportunity to attack. In the later years of David's life, his sons fought again over the succession. Due to the wisdom of Queen Bathsheba and the role of the prophet Nathan, Solomon, the son of Bathsheba, succeeded to the throne.

The Davidic dynasty played an important role in the history of Jewish development. At the beginning of his reign, David personally led the shipment of the ark from the house of Baal Judah Abinadab, and when it was brought into the city of David, David held a great celebration. Later, King David wanted to build a temple in Jerusalem and other places, and this plan was not realized in David's generation due to the continuous war, but the idea of building a temple for God was a major feature of King David's cause that was different from King Saul's cause, and constituted a major turning point in Hebrew religion since Moses. This transition, initiated by the prophet Samuel and completed by the prophet Nathan around the time of David's accession, would have a profound impact on the future history of Israel's religion.

David's versatility also brought about a reformation of the Jewish form. David was a musician in his youth and played the harp for King Saul many times. In the ceremony to welcome the Ark of the Covenant, he showed his singing and dancing skills. Another of David's contributions was the creation of hymns, and half of the 150 Psalms in circulation are attributed to King David. His hymns and the many prayers and confessions recorded in the First Chronicles also brought about a great change in the form of Judaism ^{[113
]} .

Solomon

The Judgment of Solomon, by Gustav Dore

Solomon (Hebrew: shin ְׁ Jenny ֹ, ֹ p ‬, Solomon) was the most famous king of the United Kingdom of Israel in the mid-10th century BC. Solomon is David Wang Yo Bathsheba Born to inherit the throne after David's death. He reigned from about 973-933 BC for about 40 years. Solomon's father, David, founded the Judean Dynasty and sought to establish a unified empire from the Egyptian border to the Euphrates River. When Solomon succeeded to the throne, it was the strong period of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah. Solomon is said to have made great achievements in the military, political, and commercial fields, and built the Temple of Yahweh, which had never been built before, making Jerusalem the religious center of Israel.

King Solomon was famous for his wisdom and wisdom, and according to the Book of Kings, after Solomon ascended the throne, he offered sacrifices to God. In a dream at night, Yahweh appeared to King Solomon and said to him, "What do you want me to give you?" You can ask." Solomon answered, "God...... I am a young child; I do not know how to go in or out, and my servant is living among the people you have chosen, and they are too many to be numbered; therefore give me wisdom to judge your people and to know right from wrong." God was satisfied that Solomon did not seek glory and wealth, but the wisdom necessary to do justice and righteousness, and he satisfied his request. One day two women came to Solomon and complained. One woman said they were sharing a room with their newborn babies, and that another woman accidentally crushed her baby to death while sleeping at night. While she was asleep, he exchanged her dead child for her living one; Another woman insisted that the living child was hers. When Solomon heard this, he ordered his officers to take a sword and cut the living child in half, and each man got half. At this point, the mother of the living child refused to do so, saying that the child should be given to the other woman, but the other woman agreed to split the child in half. When Solomon heard this, he gave the child to the true mother, the woman who would not split the child.

Solomon was also a famous poet, it is said that "he wrote three thousand Proverbs and one thousand and five songs", the Song of Songs in the Tanakh, which Proverbs is said to have written by him. In his later years, Solomon indulged in extravagance and indulged in women and loved many foreign women, who were influenced by them to worship foreign gods. The situation in the country is worsening, the people are destitute, and the northern tribes are complaining. After his death, his son Rehoboam took the throne, and soon the country was divided into North and south, called Israel in the north and Judah in the south ^{[111
]} .

Messiah

Messiah (Hebrew: Jewish ָ shin ִׁ wikiַ, English: Messiah‎, literally "the anointed One"), does not refer precisely to a religious figure who has already appeared, but to the Jewish religious concept of a "savior" who will appear to save the Jewish people.

Since the time of Moses, all the high priests, Kings, and prophets had to have an anointing ceremony to show that they had been appointed by God. But from around the time of the destruction of Judah by Babylon in 586 BC, the word "Messiah" was given a specific meaning. The prophets of the Tanakh era linked the Messiah to the restoration of the nation, arguing that Judah had fallen because the people of Judah had sinned against God, and that God had used the nations of the Gentiles to punish them. But God will not forget His people forever and will save them. The prophets predicted that in due time God would send His anointed "Messiah" to restore Judah and save its people. This prophecy and hope later spread to the Jews in exile and to the Jews throughout the world for many years to come, who from generation to generation looked forward to the coming of the Messiah to save the Jews from their misery and from their foreign slavery.

In Christianity, the Messiah is identified with Jesus. They recognized that Jesus was the Christ (" Christ "in Greek means anointed king), the savior of mankind, and that all who believed in Him would be saved and forgiven of SINS, thus" Christ "became the title of Jesus. Judaism, however, denied this claim and looked forward to the coming of the true Messiah for many years after AD. There have been many false Messianic incidents in Jewish history, which have led to denominational divisions ^{[112
]} .

Religious doctrine

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EDITOR

Mainstream doctrine

Because Judaism has always emphasized the practical practice of life, rather than the abstract and metaphysical creed, for a long time, Judaism has no written religious texts, even after the Tanakh Canon there is no simple and clear outline of doctrine. Although the corresponding doctrinal concepts are put forward in Deuteronomy, the Ten Commandments of Moses, and the prayer Shema, that is, to "believe and fear God and to follow God's commandments and decrees," they are not sufficient to be regarded as written creeds ^{[44] 43 -} ^{[114
]} .

In the Middle Ages, because many Jews lived together with Christians and Muslims, in order to distinguish them from other religions, Jewish scholars began to try to describe and define Judaism in terms of doctrine. Talmudic scholars have described Jews who deny the existence of God as people who do not recognize their ancestors, because the whole point of the Torah is based on faith in God, but it is also controversial and not widely accepted. 1158, a Jewish scholar Moses Maimonides It proposes 13 principles of faith, which are accepted by the majority of Jews and regarded as the most basic articles of faith in Judaism. These 13 articles of faith read ^{[44] 43 -} ^{[114
]} :

1.
The Creator is the creator and administrator of all things;
2.
The Creator is the one, the only true God;
3.
The creator has no form, no body, no phase;
4.
The Creator is the first being and the last being;
5.
The Creator is the only one worthy of worship, and there is nothing else;
6.
All the words of the prophet are true and correct;
7.
Moses was the greatest prophet, and his prophecies were true;
8.
The Jewish law (Torah) was given to Moses by God and cannot be changed;
9.
The Torah (Torah) never changes nor can it be replaced;
10.
The Creator has insight into all human thoughts and actions;
11.
The Creator gives rewards to those who obey the law; Punish those who violate the law;
12.
The Messiah will come, look forward to it daily and never fail;
13.
Believe in the resurrection of the dead ^{[44] 43 -} .

Other doctrinal views

The discussion on the Jewish creed has been extended to modern times, and many famous Jewish scholars in the 15th and 16th centuries have made some useful discussions on it ^[43] .

Joseph Albo believed that the Jewish creed should be independent, the foundation on which everything else rests. For this reason, he believes that there are only three basic tenets of Judaism: belief in God; Belief that the Torah is divine; Believe in good and evil. According to him, each of these three basic tenets has its own sub-tenets. For example, the objective existence of God includes "knowledge," "unity," and "no body, no form;" The revelation of God consists of two branches: "Prophets" and "Moses' mission". The law of reward and punishment includes two branches: "Teaching the world" and "resurrection" ^[43] .

Allama, on the other hand, believes that when discussing the Jewish creed, we should focus on the ideas emphasized in the Torah. These ideas can be reflected in the meaning of the Sabbath and the Jewish holidays. For example, Sabbath represents creation, Passover represents the insight of the Creator, 77 represents prophecy and revelation, Rosh Hashanah represents the law of reward and punishment, Yom Kippur represents repentance, and Sukkot represents the future world. These ideas represent the fundamental tenets of Judaism ^[43] .

Religious law

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EDITOR

Ten commandments of Moses

Religion in Judaism is inseparable from law. The Ten Commandments of Moses, handed down from ancient times, are on the one hand the core of Jewish doctrine and also the supreme law of Judaism. The central content of these ten Commandments is:

1.
Do not worship other gods;
2.
You shall not carve an idol;
3.
Do not take the name of God in vain;
4.
Keep the Sabbath day;
5.
Honor your parents;
6.
You shall not kill;
7.
You shall not commit adultery;
8.
You shall not steal;
9.
You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor;
10.
You shall not lust after another man's house, wife, slave or maidservant, ox or donkey, or anything else.

These ten commandments cover the essence of Jewish ethical thought and moral code. The first four commandments emphasize the uniqueness of religious belief and forbid Israel to worship his God. The last six belong to the category of social ethics, emphasizing virtues such as filial piety and justice, and rejecting vices such as lust and greed, with the purpose of coordinating social relations between people ^[115] .

613 commandments

Rabbinical Judaism holds that the Moses Commandments contain 613 commandments from God, and the Talmud contains 613 commandments. According to the medieval Rabbi Simmler, "of the 613 commandments revealed to Moses by God at Mount Sinai, 365 were Prohibitions, a number corresponding to the 365 days of the year; Mandates 248 are mandates, and this number corresponds to the number of bones in the human body."

In addition to regulating the temple, sacrifice and religious rites, the commandments also involved many aspects of Jewish life, such as the office and authority of the clergy, the legal status of the common people, rights and obligations, property ownership, debt settlement, marriage and family, health customs, food and daily living, crime and criminal law, judicial bodies and proceedings. In addition, it also includes how to persuade people to do good deeds, how to deal with the relationship between good people and God, the relationship between people and so on. Breaking the commandments is a sin. But not all commandments are equally important. Some are as important as God's laws, and some are less important. For example, ritual is ordained by God and must be carried out. The rule of wearing a bowler hat in public is less important.

Although the commandments must be kept, Judaism believes that keeping the commandments should not be seen as a burden, but as a joy, because those who keep the commandments will be closer to God. In a broad sense, Jews see doing good as performing a commandment ^[115] ^{[116
]} .

Seven laws of Noah

The "Seven Laws of Noah" is a concept of law proposed by medieval Talmudic scholars, which refers to the seven laws granted by God to Noah before the revelation to Moses on Mount Sinai. The specific contents are as follows:

1.
Establishing tribunals to deliver justice;
2.
Do not profane God (including perjury);
3.
Do not worship idols;
4.
You shall not commit adultery;
5.
You shall not kill;
6.
You shall not steal;
7.
Do not eat meat cut from living animals.

The first six are five prohibitions and an admonition derived from the Babylonian Talmud's interpretation of Genesis chapter 2 verse 16, and the seventh is a new prohibition added after the flood. The Jewish rabbis believe that these seven laws were given to Noah before God granted the Torah and the Oral Law to the Jews, and are therefore considered to be laws issued for all mankind and binding on all. And even people of other nations who recognize their sacredness and obey these laws will thus gain a place in the afterlife. Therefore, some Jewish scholars believe that since Christianity and Islam are also monotheistic religions, they have accepted Noah's law from the beginning ^{[117-118
]} .

Noah's Law was later expanded to 30 articles, including the prohibition of castration and witchcraft, but these seven articles have always been considered the most authoritative provisions of the law, and all other laws are based on them ^{[117
]} .

Literary classic

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EDITOR

Tanakh

The Tanakh collection at the Swiss Jewish Museum

" Tanakh "Tanakh" (Hebrew: "tanakh") (translated: "Tanakh", also translated as "Tanakh", Christian known as "Old Testament", "Hebrew Bible") is the oldest, most influential, and most valued text in biblical literature. It is not a book, but a collection of essays, written collectively rather than individually. It consists of three major parts: the Law, the prophets, and the Corpus, with a total of 24 books (one says it should be divided into 39 books). The main disagreements arose over whether to treat the 12 minor Prophets as one book or 12 books, and whether to treat Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles as one book or two books each. From the perspective of the process of compilation, the law part was compiled first, followed by the prophet part, and the anthology was the latest ^[45] .

" Tolla "(Hebrew: words of advice, transliteration: Torah, also known as" Torah "), the name "Torah" in Hebrew means "teaching, instruction," so it is called the book of the Law. Because of... Genesis "" Exodus "" Leviticus "" Numbers "And" Deuteronomy It consists of five books, also known as the Pentateuch. It mainly reflects the creation, the early history of the human race, the life of the founding fathers of the Jewish people, the experience of the Israelites in Egypt, and the history of leaving Egypt under the leadership of Moses and wandering in the wilderness for 40 years ^[45] .

" prophets "(Hebrew: Nevi'im, Navim, Nevi'im), from the book Joshua "" Judges "" The Book of Samuel "" The Book of Kings "" The Book of Isaiah "" The Book of Jeremiah "" Ezekiel "And" The Twelve Minor Prophets "Consists of 8 books. Early prophets (prophets who left no writings) belong to historical literature. From the conquest of Canaan, the age of the Judges, the Age of the Kingdom, the age of division, all the way to the destruction of the northern Kingdom by Assyria, the destruction of the southern Kingdom by the neo-Babylonian Empire, the fall of Jerusalem, and the destruction of the Temple. The later prophetic books include the books of three great prophets and the works of 12 minor prophets, which constitute prophetic literature. The works with the words of excitement, or issued a cry of grief and anger, loudly shout that the nation is in danger; Or show a burning passion, attacking reality, calling for reform ^[45] .

"Corpus" (Hebrew: כ ת ledu dialect ב י ם, transfer: Ketuvim, Kh 'tuvim, called the haji Mr Gladstone act or Christian literature "st"), by the poem "" admonition "" The Book of Job "" Song of Song "" Ruth "" Lamentations "" Ecclesiastes "" The Book of Esther "" The Book of Daniel The Book of Ezra and Nehemiah (split into the Old Testament in the Christian Bible) Ezra "" The Book of Nehemiah ") and" Chronicles "Consists of 11 volumes. In addition to the use of poetry, the collection also records Jewish folk proverbs and short stories ^[45] .

Talmud

" Talmud The Talmud (Hebrew: P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. Tanakh "Religious texts. Records the laws, ordinances and traditions of Judaism. Oral torah Mishna Commentary on the Oral Law Gemala Tanach annotated" Midrash "Consists of three parts ^[56] .

At that time, Jews used the Torah to study the spirit and commandments of Judaism, and combined with the "oral laws" passed down for centuries to solve the puzzles of the Torah's annotations. The rabbis compiled the oral ordinances of the past into the Mishnah, a collection of oral ordinances consisting of six volumes and 63 chapters. Ignoring the religious law, the Halahat, and failing to take into account the external situation, the Gemara was compiled by Palestinian and foreign rabbis as a commentary and supplement to the Mishnah. In the middle of the 4th century AD, the two books were combined into the Talmud, also known as the Palestinian Talmud or the Jerusalem Talmud. Later, due to the decline of the academic study of Judaism in Palestine, the Babylonian rabbis continued to update and compile the Talmud, and completed the Babylonian Talmud at the end of the 5th century AD. Because the Babylonian Talmud is more complete than the Barstan Talmud, the Talmud is often referred to as the Babylonian Talmud. ^[56] .

In revisions over the centuries, the Midrash was also incorporated into the Talmud ^[55] . The content of the Midrash is divided into two parts: an explanation of the law, doctrine, liturgy, and code of conduct in the scriptures, and an explanation of how the law is applied in real life. Halaka " ^[47] ; An exposition of the story, allegory, anecdote, legend, and mystery of scripture. Haggada " ^[46] .

Rabbinic literature

Rabbinic literature It refers to the works written by Jewish scholars with commentaries, codes, and questions and answers as the main content. Since most of these works were written by Jewish rabbis, they are referred to as rabbinic literature. It originated in the Middle Ages and is a unique literary phenomenon and form in Jewish literature. Its emergence is closely connected with the unique history of the Jewish nation, and constitutes the most important part of medieval Jewish literature. There are countless works of rabbinic literature by thousands of authors, and it can be said that rabbinic literature exists in every country or region where Jews live. Rabbinic literature can be broadly divided into three categories by genre:

1.
Commentaries: Works that annotate or comment on the content, source, meaning, and meaning of the Jewish scriptures. As... The Book of the Law "" Tosappho "And other works ^[48] .
2.
Code: refers to the code or obligation formulated by the Jews in accordance with the changing situation during the diaspora to regulate and restrict people's life and behavior. Such as the Mishnatola, the Canon of Commandments and other works.
3.
Questions and Answers: mainly refers to the works that answer the questions that Jews encounter in daily life or that are contrary to Jewish traditions, doctrines, and customs, or that people want to further understand about Jewish classics, culture, and traditions ^[49] ^[63] .

Philosophical literature

Book of creation

The Book of Creation (Hebrew: ְ ֵ ֶ zhizhiְ shores ִ Yanjian ָ ‎), also known as the Book of Creation, is an important document of medieval Jewish mysticism. Written in Hebrew by an unknown author, the book is believed to have been written by a Jewish scholar who lived in Palestine between the 2nd and 6th centuries. The work interprets the spiritual meaning contained in the Tanakh in a way that gives special meaning to the Hebrew letters and numbers, regards the Hebrew letters and numbers as symbols of the language of God, claims that they exist in the space between the spiritual and the material worlds, and asserts that God created the world through 32 mysterious ways of wisdom. These 32 paths of wisdom are represented by the 10 basic numbers from 1 to 10 and the 22 basic letters of the Hebrew language. The 10 teaching characters represent God's eternal spirit, room air, water, fire, East, west, North and South, up and down; The 22 letters form the original source of all existence of man, time and the world. In different combinations, they represent the four seasons of the year, the seven days of the week, the 12 zodiacal signs of the celestial bodies, plants, the human body, and even the name of God.

As an important document of early Jewish mysticism, the Book of Creation has played a very important role in the development of mysticism. It attempts to give special meaning to Hebrew letters and numbers and uses a mixture of Eastern mysticism Neo-Pythagoreanism In order to interpret the Tanakh and search for the source of mystical thought, it maintains and develops the tradition of metaphorically reflecting the Jewish classics, and promotes the development of mystical thought and its spread among the Jewish people ^[52] .

The Book of Radiance

" The Book of Radiance "(Hebrew: prosodic ֹ, ַ zai ‬, transagram: Zohar), also known as the" Light "or" Hazor ", is Jewish Kabbalat The main book of mysticism. It was written in the second half of the 13th century. It was first cited in the Kabbalah in 1291. Legend has it that the book was written by Rabbi Simeon Ben Johai in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, but it is also believed that most of the chapters of the book were written by Moses de Leon, a famous Spanish mystic in the 13th century, and a few chapters were added by later generations. The content of the book is mainly an interpretation of the Torah, the Song of Songs, the Book of Ludeth and the Lamentations. It attempts to reveal the mysterious meaning of the Torah through the repeated narration of the mystery of the work of creation, the extensive explanation of the Creator's 10 stages of overflow, explaining the work of creation and the continued existence of the universe. The book also discusses the problem of sin and the meaning of prayer and good works. It has long been regarded as a masterpiece of Jewish mystical philosophy, and is considered a "classic" by the Kabbalists, as sacred as the Torah and the Talmud ^[51] .

Other Biblical literature

The Dead Sea Scrolls

Dead Sea scrolls on display at the Israel Museum

" The Dead Sea Scrolls Also known as the Kulam Scrolls, it is a general term for the documents of the Jewish Kulam community. There are 11 fairly complete manuscripts and about 10,000 fragments, all written between the middle of the second century BC and the middle of the first century AD. Written in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, Latin on leather, papyrus, or metal. In addition to the contents of the Tanakh manuscripts, it also involves the recording of the Sutras and Apocrits, and involves some documents that are not part of biblical literature ^[50] .

The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls not only provides important documents for the study of the branches of Judaism and the history of the Jewish revolt against Rome, but also provides clues to the origin of primitive Christianity. In addition, the revision of Tanakh and the research and textual research of Habakkuk are of great value ^[50] .

deuteronomy

" deuteronomy "Is a collection of Jewish religious books besides the Tanakh. After 200 BC, a number of religious texts appeared in Palestine and Alexandria, Egypt, written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, and these biblical language books were read and circulated among Jews in Palestine, Egypt, and the diaspora. When the Tanakh Canon was completed in 90 AD, these books were excluded. However, some Jews in the diaspora still regarded him as a classic equal to the Collected Works, and he was later included in the Greek Septuaginarian Translation. After the Greek translation into Latin, these books were also included. From then on, Catholicism Consider most of these books as part of the Old Testament and call them the "Second Canon." Protestantism These books were not accepted and were called the Sutras.

The word "sutra" comes from the Greek apokryphos, meaning "hidden", which refers to a book that is hidden and not made public. The content includes Ezra, Part 1 "" Ezra Part Two "" Dobby "" Judith "" Esther Supplement "" Solomon wisdom "" Bensilah Wisdom Training "" Baruch "" The Letter of Jeremiah "" Three children's songs "" Susannah "" Bille and Tai Lung "" And Manasseh prayed "" Maccabi rolls up "" Maccabi sends it down ". With the exception of the First Book of Ezra, the Second Book of Ezra, and the Prayer of Manasseh, the Catholic Church treats the other 12 books the same as the Bible. After the Reformation in the 16th century, the Sutra had no place in Protestantism, and Martin Luther believed that the Sutra could not be regarded as the same as the Bible, but was still a useful religious book, which could be used as a model of life and a guide to behavior, but could not be used as a basis for doctrine ^[53] .

apocrypha

" apocrypha Also known as the Apocrypha, it refers to the Jewish religious books that are not included in the Hebrew Canon, nor in the Greek Septuagint and Latin Translation, and whose authors' names are fictitious, so they are called apocrypha. It was written between 200 BC and 200 AD. The contents of the Apocrypha can be roughly divided into seven volumes of historical stories: Jubilee book "" Letters of Aristia "" The Biography of Adam and Eve "" The Martyrs of Isaiah "" The Third Book of Maccabi "" The Four Books of Maccabi "" The fragments of Zadok "; Six volumes of Revelation Literature: 1 Enoch "" 2 Enoch "" 2 Baruch "" 3 Baruch "" The Sibilu language "" The Ascension of Moses "; Poetry Volume 1:" Psalms of Solomon "; Wisdom Literature 3 Volumes: The Twelve Patriarchs 'Teachings "" The sermon of the Jewish fathers "" Ahikar " ^[54] .

Major denominations

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EDITOR

Denomination development

Since the formation of the Talmud, Rabbinic Judaism has been the mainstream of Judaism, although the internal opposition of the Karaites arose due to the excessive emphasis on classics other than the Tanakh, but with the end of the 400-year-old dispute, the Rabbinic Judaism that adapted to the changes of The Times won the victory. The principles promoted by Rabbinic Judaism were also observed by Jews, and were absorbed and accepted to varying degrees even in the later stages of denomination ^[59] .

Under the influence of the European Enlightenment, the Jewish Enlightenment The Haskala Movement From there, it spread from Germany to Eastern Europe. This activity is committed to the secularization of Judaism, the reform to adapt to The Times and circumstances, so that Jews can be "enlightened" by European capitalism, so that Judaism can be maintained and developed under new conditions. The Haskalah movement was a rationalist movement, and as a result it led to a division within Judaism, which gave rise to something similar to the Reformation. In the end, Orthodox, Reform, and conservative factions formed the face of the common concept of contemporary Judaism, but there were also general believers in Judaism who did not belong to any denomination. In addition, there are Reconstructionists based on conservative divisions, Karaites who do not recognize rabbinic texts such as the Tanakh, and other Jewish sects such as Samaritans who are in the ancient Jewish period ^[34] ^{[37] 36 -} ^[60-61] .

orthodox

A common orthodox image of a male with a beard and black clothes

orthodox Adhering to the beliefs and traditions of Judaism, the Torah and the oral law (including the Mishnah and Gemala of the Talmud, etc.) are authoritative, timeless classics, and the only rules for religious life. None of the 613 rules of Judaism can be less or more, otherwise it is heresy according to the Talmud. As the Orthodox form of Judaism recognized by the State of Israel, Haredim dominate Israel, not only monopolizing rabbinical positions at all levels of Jewish organizations, the religious courts, rabbinical parties, and the military, but also gaining many privileges that reform and conservatives do not have. In Israel, for example, only conversions conducted by Orthodox rabbis can be considered Jewish; Only marriages recognized by Orthodox rabbis have legal effect. In addition, the Haredim have their own political parties and parliamentarians in Israeli politics ^[38] ^[60] .

Within Orthodox Judaism in Israel, there are three groups, ultra-Orthodox, Neo-Orthodox and Hasidic, according to their cultural background, traditional customs, religious piety, the degree of adherence to Jewish laws and regulations, and their different attitudes towards modern society ^[38] ^[60] .

ultra-orthodox It is a fundamentalist faction of Orthodoxy, which adheres to the beliefs of traditional Judaism only in the Middle Ages, adheres strictly to the rules and customs, opposes modern science, culture and anything modern, and most ultra-Orthodox do not recognize the State of Israel (although some live there) and do not cooperate with other denominations ^[38] .

neo-orthodox Or Modern Orthodox, most Orthodox Jews in the United States fall into this category. They recognize the authority of the Torah and the Talmud, and observe the holy days, festivals, customs, and traditional morals of Judaism. But unlike the ultra-Orthodox, they strongly support it Zionism With the State of Israel, it seeks peaceful coexistence with other sects, advocating "full acceptance of contemporary culture and harmony between Judaism and modern science." In terms of customs, worshippers are allowed to wear modern clothes, worship in a modern common language, men do not have to wear a beard and a black coat and a black hat, and women do not have to wear a fake hair mask ^[38] .

Hasidic It originates from the Hasidic movement that emerged at the same time as the Haskalah Movement and is a mystical sect. It emphasizes emotion, devalues the dry study of the scriptures, and believes that the essence of religion is not in etiquette and law. And the best way to connect with God is to pray to the point of religious fanaticism. They share the ultra-Orthodox belief in the coming of the Messiah, oppose Zionism, and do not associate with other Jews. The feature is a male with a large beard, a black coat, and a black wide-brimmed hat ^{[36 to 38]} .

reformist

A female reform rabbi

reformist It is an important sect in modern Judaism, advocating the reform of Orthodox Judaism to meet the needs of modern society and modern thought. The Reformers rejected many of the beliefs, laws, and practices of traditional Judaism as not being directly revealed by God, and did not recognize many of the provisions and rituals of the Torah and Talmud, which had long been regarded as authoritative by Orthodoxy. They abandoned many medieval customs in the reform. For example, in synagogues, men and women sit together, sermons are read in the host language rather than Hebrew (often in both Hebrew and the local language), choruses are used, and organ accompaniment is introduced. At the same time, the principle of equality between men and women was implemented, and women had the right to serve as rabbis ^[38] .

The Reformists initially disapproved of Zionism, but after World War II, due to the Nazi Holocaust of Jews, the Reformists began to change their position and support Zionism and the establishment of Israel in Palestine ^[38] .

Reform Jews are concentrated in the United States and Western Europe. There are about 550 Reform synagogues in the United States with about 1.2 million Reform members ^[38] .

Old guard

Old guard He was a moderate between Orthodox and Reform, and was the predecessor of the German Historical School of Judaism. During the Reformation in the 19th century, some German Jews felt that Orthodoxy was overemphasizing tradition and neglecting the needs of real life; The reformers pay too much attention to reality and do not give due status to tradition. So they went to extremes. Therefore, they adopt a compromise attitude and advocate the establishment of active links ^[38] .

In religious thought, the conservatives shared with the Reformers the idea of reconciling Judaism with modern science. Thus, their belief in a Messiah differs from Orthodoxy in that what matters is the establishment of justice on earth, not the appearance of a Savior. Another important difference between conservatives and Orthodoxy is that they do not insist on the Torah as an eternal truth, because the reality is constantly changing, and the rules of the past need to be constantly adjusted, especially the oral law from the rabbinate, the Talmud, is more flexible and adaptable. He believes that the meaning of religion is not to adhere to the form but to grasp and practice its spirit. But there are some differences between the conservatives and the reformers, such as the importance of symbolism in religious ceremonies; Insisting that male infants be circumcised; Certain dietary contraindications still need to be observed; Festivals must also be observed; Worship may be in Hebrew and English or in the native language; On the eve of the Sabbath, candles are to be lit in the house. So conservatives basically accept Jewish law and traditional rituals and customs in principle ^[38] .

One principle that conservatives attach particular importance to is the integration of the Jewish religion with the Jewish culture and the Jewish people, and the cultural support for Zionism. With the development of modern times, the number of conservatives in Israel has increased, and its members are 20% born in Israel, 20% from other English-speaking countries, 23% from Eastern Europe, 18% from South America, 12% from Western Europe, and 7% from Russia. In addition, some Orthodox Jews are classified as conservative because they cannot bear the stuffy feeling of the sect ^[38] .

Reconstructionists

The 2018 Reconstructionist Convention in Philadelphia, USA

Reconstructionists A young Jewish sect that broke away from American conservatives. Originally originated from the religious movement "Reconstructionism" (also known as Jewish Reconstructionism or Jewish cultural Reconstructionism) that arose among American Jews in 1934 Mordecai Capland Judaism is essentially a religious culture, and its religious content is nothing but the humanist and naturalistic expression of this particular culture. Reconstructionism rejects the idea of a transcendent God in covenant with his chosen people, and therefore does not accept the Tanakh as a revelation from God, who, in Kaplan's words, "is the saving power of the Jews in the universe." ^[61] .

The fundamental principle of Reconstructionism is that for Jews to survive and thrive in modern society, they must rebuild their lives on the basis of Jewish history and culture. New ideas developed on the basis of Jewish culture will unite the entire Jewish nation, regardless of denominations, beliefs and customs. Because Jewish culture is more cohesive and Jewish than the creeds and teachings of various denominations, all Jews can maintain their distinctive ways of life regardless of denomination or faith level. In order to preserve and strengthen their Jewish identity, the Jewish people should cherish the elements that make up their common heritage, such as language, art, and religious rituals. But Jews should also learn to respect the differences and diversity among themselves that make Jewish life so rich. Jews also need to be willing to accept constant change and innovation, and should understand that change and innovation are the expression of vitality and development. Religion should be organically linked to the development of human knowledge, and the Jews should be free to develop their religious activities in a variety of ways, and at the same time should be free to interact with other peoples and influence them with their ideas to strengthen human unity and promote human freedom, justice and peace ^[61] .

Reconstructionists are in some ways more extreme than Reform Judaism, but are generally placed on the left of conservative Judaism. This faction advocates the free interpretation of tradition, the synagogue as the center of Jewish life, the democratization of religious life, and the encouragement and support of the building of the State of Israel. In terms of ritual, Reconstructionist synagogues and religious services were similar to those of conservatives, but with additional prayers ^[61] .

Other denominations

karapai

karapai It was a sect of Judaism founded in the 8th century that believed that the Talmud misrepresented Jewish teachings and undermined the purity of the Torah with numerous confusing commentaries. Only the authority of the Tanakh is acknowledged, and the Jews reject evil and good under the direct revelation of God. Although thoroughly criticized by Rabbinic Judaism in the 11th century AD, the sect has been spread to Egypt, Syria, and then through Spain and Turkey to Europe and America, mainly distributed in the Turkic peoples of Russia The Karayim They believe in the Karaites ^[34] .

Samaritan

Samaritans make a pilgrimage to Mount Gerizim on Sukkot

Samaritan It's a remnant of the ancient Jewish sect. Its name comes from Samaria, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Israel, and according to the Book of Kings, the king of Israel Hidden profit Land was purchased from the Samar people to build the city, and the area around the city became known as Samaria. In 722 BC, the Kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the invading Assyrians and the people of Israel were taken into exile in Mesopotamia. Legend has it that during the captivity, they married with other local peoples, and when they returned to Palestine, they were discriminated against and were not recognized as Israelites, but called "Samaritans". ^[60] .

Samaritans believe in the Pentateuch of Samaria, which is the Torah written in ancient Hebrew. It is the only Bible of the Samaritans and predates the common Hebrew Torah, with some differences, having been used in Samaria before the 4th century BC. The Samaritans also read the Book of Joshua. They speak Arabic in daily life and ancient Hebrew in liturgy ^[60] .

Samaritans do not use the Jerusalem Temple as their worship center, but Mount Gerizim, which is 947 meters above sea level, as their holy mountain. They believe that Abraham sacrificed Isaac there and that Solomon built the first temple there, which was destroyed in 484 BC. During Nehemiah's time, the Samaritans built a temple on Mount Gerizim to rival the temple in Jerusalem, which was demolished by the Maccabees in 128 BC. Today the Samaritan High priest lives in the city of Nablus, near Mount Gerizim. Every festival, Samaritans from all over the world gather on the Holy Mountain ^[60] .

There are now more than 600 Samaritans in Israel, who claim to be descended from the 10 lost branches of the ancient kingdom of Israel. About half of them live in the village of Kiryat-Luza, near the mountain peak of Gelizim, while the other half are Israeli citizens living in the Holon housing complex near Tel Aviv. There is a synagogue on Mount Gerizim. Passover sacrifices are held once a year ^[60] .

hippocampus

Falassa

The Heminoites are Jews who live in Ethiopia, Africa." Falassa Believed in an ancient branch of Judaism.

The denomination is fundamentally different from other Jewish denominations. First, due to the early religious division, the text is written in the ancient Ethiopian language "Giz", not Hebrew; Secondly, the dietary customs are based on Jewish tradition, but there is no law; Finally, the holidays vary, but also observe certain important Jewish holidays, such as Passover ^[62] .

clergy

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priest

The priest (Hebrew: divinity ֹּ Jesus ֵ priest, translated: Kohen) was responsible for the worship and teaching of the people. The priesthood in Judaism is hereditary and passed only to the tribe of Levi Aaron The descendants of... With the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, the priesthood had fewer functions and fewer privileges. Later rabbis acted as priests in teaching and interpreting the law, but had no priesthood in religious matters, which remained with the descendants of Aaron, to whom the Jews with the last names Kohen, Kowen, and Katz were considered. In the synagogue, this part of the population has the priority to read the Torah in the synagogue and bless the congregation on festivals ^[64] .

Ravvy

Ravvy (Hebrew: ַ ִּ ‎) Rabbi, prior to the 19th century, was an honorable title for a learned Jewish man who had received a formal Jewish education, systematically studied the Tanakh, Talmud and other Jewish classics, served as the spiritual leader of a Jewish community or synagogue, or taught Jewish teachings in a Rabbinical academy. After the 19th century, the rabbinate became a mandatory requirement in all Jewish denominations, and became a religious office elected by Jews or Jewish communities. On the other hand, the Hasidic spiritual leader is also called a rabbi, but does not have to be a graduate of a rabbinical school or seminary, and can be hereditary and chosen by Hasidic members for the position due to personal qualities ^[65] .

officiant

Hymns (Hebrew: ַ ammָ ּ nun, translatorized: Hazzan), a member of the clergy who controls the prayer program and leads the singing of carols in a synagogue. In the early days, the term celebrant referred to a person who held the position of synagogue treasurer in the Jewish church, responsible for the education of children and the holding of prayer meetings, in addition to the management of the synagogue. Later, his duties began to include the temporary preside over prayer services, and eventually, with the standardization of Jewish liturgy and the introduction of liturgical poetry, the position of the hymn as the master of prayer services was confirmed. After the 19th century, its functions were almost equivalent to those of a master, mainly leading the congregation in prayer and singing liturgical music with the choir. The person holding this position must be specially trained and, in addition to musical ability and singing ability, must have a deep knowledge of Jewish liturgy and prayer books. In many non-Orthodox synagogues, the celebrants are also directors of religious schools and are responsible for the day-to-day affairs of the synagogue ^[66] .

Gabay

A Gabbai (Hebrew: Koshi, transliteration: Gabbai), also known as a Shamash, was a synagogue service worker. Takes care of all the details of the synagogue, such as keeping it clean and warm, managing prayer books and other supplies, and assisting the lead singers in public ceremonies. In the Middle Ages, he was usually the master of ceremonies, who used a trumpet to announce the time of sunset and the beginning and end of the Sabbath, collected membership fees, arranged funerals, and delivered letters ^[67] .

Religious institution

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synagogue

The synagogue in the Old City of Jerusalem

synagogue It is a place where Jews carry out collective religious activities and study scriptures. Rumor has it it may have originated First temple After the destruction, Jews lost a place to pray to God, and some Jews began to gather in their homes for collective prayer and study of religious scriptures. Over time, temporary places of prayer and study became established as specialized sites and eventually developed into synagogues. After the complete destruction of the Temple in 70 AD, the role and significance of the synagogue began to rise, eventually becoming a central place for Jewish religious activities. During the Great Diaspora, synagogues were established with the development of Jewish communities around the world, thus evolving into a symbol of Jewish existence.

According to the relevant regulations, as long as 10 bar mitzvah Jewish men can form a congregation, set up their own synagogue, and carry out collective prayer or other religious activities. However, at least 10 adult men must be present at each group religious event, otherwise it can only be conducted in the name of individuals. In Reform Judaism, this rule is not strictly enforced, and sometimes women are allowed to participate in counting.

According to Jewish tradition, religious services in synagogues must be performed in Hebrew. Although some synagogues have now begun to use part of the language of the host country, in general this tradition has been respected and practiced by Jews throughout the 2,000 years of diaspora life. Before the 20th century, most synagogues had a male-female seating system, with the men's section usually in the center of the synagogue and the women's section often either on the side or upstairs, and Orthodox synagogues still practice this system today.

The interior of the synagogue was simply furnished without any idols. The main religious items stored are the ark of the Covenant which holds the Torah, the long lamp which is lit in front of the ark, the covenant tablet engraved with the Ten Commandments of Moses, the nine lampstand, the shield of David, and the chanting altar. The direction of the altar is often aligned with the direction of the Holy City of Jerusalem to ensure that the congregation faces the direction of the Holy City when praying. The ancient synagogue also has a purification pool for the faithful to clean their bodies.

Today, synagogues are still primarily places for religious activities, but religious activities are not the only activities that can be held in synagogues. According to the requirements of The Times, many social activities, charitable activities, and cultural activities could be held in the synagogue. It could also be a center for Jewish education and public affairs ^[72] .

Bette Ding

Beit Din of the Jewish community of Alexandria

Beit al-Din (Hebrew: Judgemental Bite, literally translated as "house of judgment"), in modern times a rabbinical spiritual court, also known as a rabbinical court, dealt with religious cases belonging to individuals (marriage, marriage, etc.), as well as administrative cases of a religious nature (supervising adherence to dietary rules, etc.). By mutual consent, Bette-Din can also serve as an arbitration tribunal. In Israel, the term Beit Din is used to refer to rabbinical courts, which are distinct from secular courts. Under Israeli law, in addition to day-to-day religious functions, the Beit al-Din has almost exclusive jurisdiction over personal matters of Jewish citizens of Israel.

The Beit Din was originally derived from the Tanakh account of Jewish internal judges, and has evolved into different levels of courts and corresponding jurisdictions. During the Great Diaspora, rabbis established the Beit Din in various Jewish communities, and the Beit Din went through many changes to maintain the basis of Talmud law.

When the liberation of modern Jews led to the gradual disintegration of the Jewish community structure, Jews increasingly resorted to social courts and state courts. The Beit Din remains in the Jewish diaspora to this day, and it enjoys only the authority of an arbitral court, whose decisions are recognized by national law. In many countries, especially in Britain, the state rabbinate-led Beit al-Din system still played an important role in Jewish life, and at the time of the British mandate of Palestine, branches of Beit al-Din were established, which were headed by the Supreme Rabbinical Court in Jerusalem. The existing system of Beit Din in Israel is to some extent a successor to the Beit Din structure, which regulates its interrelations with the secular courts and the state administration on the basis of specialized laws of the state ^[74] .

yeshiva

The Jewish Academy is a specialized institution for the study and teaching of the Jewish classics. In the early days, it was mainly a place for the study, annotation and interpretation of the classics. In modern times, it is mainly a college for the training of Jewish rabbis, also known as "Yeshiva". The Yeshiva grew out of the early Jewish "school of Scripture." After the collapse of the ancient kingdom of Judah, the Jewish community began to appear some places where Jewish men gathered together (mostly for the residence of the rabbi). They mainly studied and studied the Jewish classics here, and this special place for the study of classics was called the Sutra Hall. The School of Scripture was further consolidated and strengthened after the destruction of the Second Temple and the complete loss of the status of the Jewish people as a sovereign nation. With the compilation of the Talmud and the deepening of people's interest in learning the classics, the study and discussion activities held in the Sutra hall became more and more frequent, and gradually became the main place for people to learn, annotate and interpret the classics.

Modern yeshiva are mainly concentrated in the United States and the State of Israel. Since the establishment of the State of Israel, nearly 300 colleges have been established. In 1886, the United States established the first Jewish school, "Ezim Talmud College", which was later merged with Isaac Elhanan Academy and developed into the Jewish School of Economics. The first reform rabbinical college established in the United States was Hebrew Union College The college was founded in Singsinrati in 1875. Jewish Theological Seminary of America It was founded in New York in 1886, reorganized in 1902, and is now the main place for the training of rabbis by conservative American Judaism ^[75] .

Religious symbol

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Large satellite

Large satellite (Hebrew: Judaism and Judaism: ‎, English: Star of David), is a mark of Judaism and Jews, consisting of two equilateral triangles with hexagonal stars, which can be seen on the synagogue building and Jewish tombstones. The specific origin is unknown, according to legend, it first appeared on the shield David used by King David. Widely adopted by Jewish mystics in the Middle Ages, it appeared in the Jewish community of Prague in the 17th century, and became the official emblem of the Jewish community and the universal symbol of Judaism after the 17th century.

Since the 19th century, it has begun to appear on synagogue buildings and become a prominent symbol of Judaism. In 1897, the first Zionist Congress adopted it as its flag. After the establishment of the State of Israel, the Great Satellite became the central image on the Israeli flag. In Jewish worship, it symbolizes God's blessing. Some scholars believe that one triangle of the great moons represents God, the world, and man, and the other triangle represents creation, revelation, and redemption. Some scholars believe that one triangle symbolizes the man and the other symbolizes the woman, and the combination of the two symbolizes the combination of Yin and Yang ^[77] .

Kosher lampstand

Seven candlesticks

Kosher lampstand (Hebrew: ()), is a Jewish liturgical articles, divided into seven and nine branches.

According to the Tanakh Exodus, first branch Seven lampstands It was made by an Israeli artisan Bezalel It was hammered with gold and had seven lamps, one in the center slightly higher than the six on either side. According to the Jewish scriptures, the seven lamps represent the seven days of the week, six of which symbolize the six days when God created heaven and earth, and the central one symbolizes the Sabbath. The first seven lampstands used oil, and the 18th century began to use candles, and the seven lampstands have been the symbol of Judaism since ancient times. After the establishment of the State of Israel, the seven lampstands became the symbol of the state of Israel.

The nine branches are mainly used to celebrate the Hanuka Festival. One is taller and is used to light the other eight lamps. Every time Hanuka comes, nine lampstands are lit in Jewish homes and synagogues. In addition to the higher one, one is added every day, and all are lit on the eighth day ^[85] .

shofar

The shofar is played

The horn of the sheep (Hebrew: the shin ׁ ֹ mongolium ָ fluid ‎, English: Shofar), also known as Schofal . It is a religious ritual item of Judaism, made of male goat horns, used for important public and religious events. It will remind the Jews of the story of Abraham accepting God's test to kill his son as a sacrifice to the Lord, symbolizing the obedience and devotion of the Jewish nation to God. According to Jewish teaching, the sound of the horn has the meaning of alarm, awe and celebration, so the shofar should only be blown on these occasions.

During special ceremonies to celebrate Rosh Hashanah, the shofar is blown three times, the first to remind people that God is the Lord of the world; The second reaffirms that God is the Judge of the world, the judge of men, and the judge of all nations; ; The third call calls on people to believe in God, fear God, and return to God. The trumpet player must be clean and dedicated.

The sound of the shofar heralded the arrival of the Sabbath and the new Moon and the anointing of the new king during the Tanakh, and it is still played when the president of the modern State of Israel is sworn in ^[86] .

Religious ritual

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Sacrificial rites

During the Temple of Jerusalem, the main religious ritual in Judaism was the cult. In addition to the weekday morning and evening offerings, there are six special offerings for special purposes: Burnt offering , Meat offering , Haifa , Sin offering , Trespass offering , Wave festival . By offering sacrifices to God Yahweh, Jews communicated their connection with God, expressed their fear, love and worship of God, alleviated their fear and guilt towards nature and society, and achieved psychological balance and peace ^[73] .

fast

Fasting is a special religious act in Judaism, a religious act of fasting for a certain purpose. The purpose of fasting is as follows: to commemorate a certain unfortunate event and pay tribute to the dead; To repent or confess to God; To achieve self-purification; Promote spiritual power in order to restrain people's desire for material things. The Jewish calendar has special fasting days, which have evolved over history. At the time of the Tanakh, the only time to fast was on Yom Kippur. Most of the days of fasting now noted in the Jewish calendar came in later times. Generally speaking, fasting days only abstain from alcohol; Sometimes it is also forbidden to wash (for the purpose of pleasure), to wear shoes (for the purpose of comfort), to apply oil, to do happy events, and to sleep together. Orthodox Jews recite the relevant Tanakh verses and prayers at home or in synagogues depending on the day of the fast ^[73] .

Collective prayer

After the burning of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD, collective prayer, which replaced the cult, was gradually institutionalized. In order to perform collective prayer or other religious services, there must be a Torah book and ten Jewish men who are at least 13 years old and have been bar mitzvah. Children and women are not eligible to attend. In the absence of a quorum, participants may pray only in their personal capacity. On the other hand, you can form your own Jewish prayer class. It does not matter whether there is a rabbi or not, whether there is a synagogue or not. The Jewish collective prayer may be held under a tree or in a building built for this purpose. What matters is whether that quorum is present. In special cases, a Jewish teenager who is about to become a bar mitzvah may also attend prayer classes. Because Diaspora Jews sometimes had difficulty finding ten men over the age of 13, the Talmud provided that Jews could perform weddings and circumcisions without this restriction.

Nowadays, under the influence of the idea of equality between men and women, both Reform and conservative Judaism believe that women over the age of 13 can attend prayer classes. The quorum for collective prayer played an important role in bonding and uniting Jews everywhere ^[73] .

Religious garb

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An Israeli soldier who wears a kippa on his head and has a talisman on his hand and forehead

Kippa A Kippah is a skullcap worn by Jewish men during religious activities. The skullcap covers only part of the top of the head, rather than the whole head, by covering the top of the head to show the fear of God, the color is blue, white, black, etc. Orthodox Jews wear it all day long, and most Jews wear it mainly in synagogues. Wearing the hat has become a symbol of maintaining Jewish religious faith ^[87] .

Square scarf Arba Kanfot is also known as the shawl. A small rectangular shawl similar to the talit, the prayer shawl used by the Jews, has a basic character similar to the base color of white, but has blue or black strips running through it, and is rectangular with ears on four corners. Unlike the prayer shawl, it is smaller in size and has a neckline that can be worn inside the garment. Ordinary Jews only use it for religious ceremonies, Orthodox Jews (men) must wear it all day long ^[88] .

A Jew wearing a talit praying at the Western Wall

The Tallit is worn by Jewish men during weekday morning prayers, Shabbat, and festivals Prayer shawl . The whole is rectangular, with tassels left on both sides, each corner has a small hole, perforated through the rope with a knot; The shawl is made of white linen woven with a number of blue or black stripes running across the ends. The design of the shawl is symbolic; the tassel, tassel, and knot on the rope represent the 613 commandments of Judaism (of which the tassel represents 600, the four tassel represents 8, and the knot on the rope represents 5), and the blue or black stripes symbolize the Jewish mourning for the destruction of the Temple. Ordinary Jews wear this shawl only over their shoulders while praying, while Orthodox Jews wear it on their head, covering their head, neck, and shoulders with it ^[89] .

Scripture amulet Tefillin consists of two black leather boxes about 2 inches square and two black belts attached to the boxes. In two square boxes, one undivided, the other divided into four small cells, each cell contains a special piece of parchment with a text from the Exodus and Deuteronomy, copied in Hebrew on the parchment; The belt should be tied to the upper arm and forehead. According to the regulations, Jewish men should wear a Bible box after the bar mitzvah to show respect for God and to observe the commandments, and must wear it during daily morning prayers except on the Sabbath and holidays. In modern times, most Jews no longer wear it, and only Orthodox Jews observe it ^[90] .

Religious custom

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Recite Shema

Shema (Hebrew: Shin ְׁ multiplexַ chychyִ shin ְׂ refugeָ functions ֵ instructed ‎), the Jewish prayer, Hebrew for "Hear", is a word from Deuteronomy chapter 6, verse 4, which reads in its entirety: "Hear, O Israel! Yahweh our God is one Lord." Because it is the first sentence of the whole sentence, Deuteronomy chapter 6 verse 4 is called "Shema" specifically, in order to emphasize that God Yahweh is the unique Lord. With the development of Rabbinic Judaism, the second Shema and the third Shema evolved, expanding and developing the first Shema in content, emphasizing the careful observance of "Shema", which will be blessed by God, so that the grain will be abundant and the livestock will flourish.

The first Shema says, "When you lie down, when you rise up, you are to talk, and you are to tie it on your hands as a sign and put it on your forehead as a scripture." Therefore, the Jews read Shema in the morning and evening prayers and liturgies, wrote it on ceremonial articles, and studied, memorized, studied and obeyed the Law in accordance with the provisions of Shema in daily life. According to legend, in 135 AD, Bar Kokhba The uprising failed, and the leader, Aqiba, recited Shema from his mouth as he was tortured and martyred by Roman soldiers. Therefore, later generations of Jews, in times of persecution, also followed the example of Aqiba and recited Shema to affirm their firm belief in and love for the only God in the universe ^[76] .

Prayer

Jewish man during morning prayer at the Western Wall

Devout Jews believe that prayer is a way of expressing the attitudes and feelings of a Jew, and therefore strive to find many reasons to pray. The daily prayer book of the Jews Siddur A compilation of benedictions and prayers in Hebrew and Aramaic, it is a Jewish prayer book for weekdays and the Sabbath, containing passages from the Tanakh and Talmud and a selection of works by medieval rabbis and poets.

Jewish prayers are recited in Hebrew or other languages. Some Jews believed that no matter what language the prayer was in, God understood the prayer. Religious Jews pray at least three times a day: morning, afternoon, and evening; Sometimes at home, sometimes in the synagogue; They express their praise to God, gratitude, faith, and hope for a better future by praying and reciting blessings. When praying, wear a "Yamluk" or "kaba" over your head. These three prayers are called "prayers of the heart." ^[78] .

Say blessing

For the Jews, religious rituals and activities are a way of translating faith into action. Devout Jews are always looking for reasons to say a hundred blessings a day to make their lives special.

In synagogue services, in private prayer or on other occasions (such as before the execution of commandments or after an escape), they recite a blessing of praise and thanks to God. The benedictions begin with "Blessed be the Lord our God, King of the Universe," followed by words of praise and Thanksgiving. On weekdays, before and after meals, devout Jews also recite a blessing, thanking God for providing enough food for the world ^[78] .

Dietary taboo

Dietary prohibitions are a hallmark of Jews, and in order to maintain their sense of sanctification and to highlight their identity as God's chosen people, many devout Jews have been adhering to the Jewish dietary precepts in Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14, which are called Kashrut (Kashrut). The Kashrut Commandment divides food into clean and unclean, and any unclean food must not be eaten or touched. According to Kashlut precepts, all plants and birds can be eaten, and animals are only allowed to eat cloven-hoofed ruminants. In fact, only cattle, sheep, deer meat can be eaten, and pig, rabbit, horse, camel meat, etc., are unclean and cannot be eaten.

The Kashrut commandment also stipulates that it is forbidden to eat raw meat, beef and milk at the same time, food with blood, the fat under the peritoneum of cattle and sheep, and the hamstrings of cattle and sheep are not allowed to eat (because according to the Book of Genesis, the Jewish ancestor Jacob injured his hamstrings in a struggle with God, so Jews choose to eat the hamstrings when slaughtering cows and sheep). Any animal living on scavengers in the water, on land or in the air, including aquatic animals without fins, scales, bones or shells, such as manfish, shrimp, lobsters, clams, etc., are also considered unclean and inedible. Among the clean things, those who die without being slaughtered, without being killed by a single cut, or without performing religious procedures, are not to be eaten.

Devout Jews usually keep two sets of cutlery in their homes, one for meat and one for dairy. In addition, two sinks and two sets of tea towels should be provided. Some particularly devout Jews, in order to ensure that the food they eat is clean, only eat canned beef and lamb, which is inspected by the rabbi and prepared by the Rabbi. If they ran out of cans, they ate vegetables and fruits, did not even use restaurant utensils, and did not drink alcohol that non-Jews had a hand in brewing ^[78] .

absolution

The ritual of washing all or part of the body according to Canon law, implying purification or offering. Jewish law requires a woman to be immersed in water before marriage and after menstruation. Converts to Judaism are also baptized before entering the religion; Jewish men also often baptize before the Sabbath and major holidays. Judaism has a series of detailed regulations on baptismal rites, such as Jewish men must be immersed in water four times before the Sabbath, the four letters used to symbolize the name of the Lord, and the water must be clean. Such baptisms often take place in Jewish purification pools. The cleansing ritual also includes daily washing of hands after getting up and before eating, which is often done using a copper pot of water specially used for cleansing ^[80] .

circumcision

circumcision One of the most important rituals in Judaism, circumcision involves cutting the foreskin of a Jewish boy's penis with a knife. Circumcision for Judaism is God's covenant with Abraham and his descendants, so it is very strict and inviolable, and because it is associated with the Covenant, it has the concept of "blessing" for Judaism. Therefore, Judaism requires Jewish men to be circumcised. And has become an important part of Jewish life.

When circumcision is performed, friends and family are usually invited to celebrate. Circumcision was initially performed by the father of the baby, and was gradually replaced by specially trained circumcisers. In the modern State of Israel, it is performed by officially appointed doctors specializing in circumcision. During the ceremony, the baby is held by the godfather and the father recites a special prayer: "Praise be to You, our God, Ruler of the universe." You have sanctified us by your holy decree, and you have commanded our children to enter into the covenant of my father Abraham." After the operation, the circumcised person recites a prayer while holding a glass of wine and announces the name of the child for the first time in public. Relatives and friends present congratulated with the prayer, "He has made a covenant and therefore entered into the Torah, the scope of permission for marriage." In addition, men who convert to Judaism are also circumcised at the time of their conversion, as a sign of covenant with God and the acquisition of Jewish identity ^[81] .

Puberty rite

Bar mitzvah at the Western Wall

Puberty rite The bar mitzvah usually takes place when a Jewish boy reaches the age of 13. After the ceremony, the boy is treated as an adult and can join the ranks of adult believers. The rite of passage is not an ancient custom, but only began to develop gradually around the 14th century. Ancient Jewish law books say that Jewish men must observe the 613 holy Commandments of Judaism after reaching the age of 13. For this reason, it is also called a bar mitzvah.

The bar mitzvah ceremony is usually arranged to take place in the synagogue on a Sabbath day after the recipient turns 13 years old. The recipient is expected to prepare for the celebration in a considerable period of time, including the study of the Tanakh and the preparation of speeches. During the ceremony, the rabbi gives a special sermon to the recipient, focusing on the recipient's future responsibilities, especially to his family and to Jewish society. At the same time, the recipient is required to keep the commandments of the Torah all his life and to impart his knowledge of the law to his children. At the ceremony, the recipient steps up to the altar and reads the relevant passages of the Tanakh in Hebrew, followed by a bar mitzvah speech in which he/she vows to live according to the teachings of Judaism all his/her life, dedicates himself/herself to the Torah, and expresses special thanks to his/her parents for their upbringing. The bar mitzvah symbolizes the recipient's coming of age and publicly demonstrates his new status as a full member of the Jewish community.

The bar mitzvah is a major event in Jewish family life, and the celebration is as important as the wedding. A formal invitation is sent to all relatives and friends in advance, and a banquet is held after the celebration. All guests will present gifts to the recipient at this time to show their best wishes. According to tradition, the father of the recipient presents a Jewish prayer shawl on this day.

Since 1810, the reform party has abolished the individual bar mitzvah, and changed to the collective bar mitzvah of young men and women, and the date is mostly fixed on the feast of 77. Since the 20th century, the rite of passage has been restored, but the age has been postponed to 15 or 16. In modern times, with the popularization and deepening of the idea of equality between men and women, in addition to the Orthodox, the synagogues of other Jewish denominations began to hold a bar mitzvah ceremony for Jewish women who have reached the age of 13, making the bar mitzvah a custom for all Jewish men and women to celebrate entering the ranks of adulthood ^[82] .

Wedding

The wedding witness holds the marriage certificate

Judaism views marriage as the most voluntary condition of man and as a social union created by God at the time of creation. According to the Tanakh, the purpose of marriage is, first, mutual assistance between men and women, second, sexual intimacy, and third, the continuation and reproduction of the race. Although polygamy was also popular among the upper classes at the time of the Tanakh, there are many references to a single wife, indicating that monogamy is still the basic form of marriage. To bear many children is considered a great blessing, to be barren is considered a tragedy and shame, and the Talmud regards non-marriage as an unnatural state.

In Judaism, the marriage agreement between a man and a woman is concluded by the act of betrothal, which specifies in writing the time and place of the wedding, the financial obligations of both parties, including the bride's dowry, and the conditions of the marriage are written by breaking a plate, as opposed to breaking a tankard at the wedding. During the engagement and marriage, gifts are exchanged between the bride and groom, and the groom is required to read the Torah in the synagogue on the first Sabbath before and after the wedding, while the groom is required to bathe one night before the wedding.

Depending on the Jewish community, the location of the wedding usually varies, such as open air, synagogues and other venues. Every day is suitable for marriage except the Sabbath, festivals, and some other days. During the whole day before the wedding ceremony, the bride and groom should fast. There are no special rules about what the bride and groom should wear.

The usual procedure for a Jewish wedding is to first write a marriage document, which is usually ready to be filled in with the amount of money the husband must pay his wife in the event of divorce. The groom then receives some kind of commemorative object, usually a handkerchief, from the rabbi who is conducting the ceremony, lifts it up and returns it to the rabbi. Then, the witness signs the marriage document. The wedding attendants escorted the groom to where the bride was waiting for him. He took off the veil of the bride's head, and the rabbi spoke his blessing. Then the father of the bride and groom led the bridegroom under the canopy, and the bridegroom stood facing the direction of Jerusalem, or if at Jerusalem, facing the direction of the Temple. The bride is led under the canopy by the mother of the bride and groom holding a lighted candle. If there was no canopy, two or four men held up the mantle. As the bride was led under the canopy, the rabbi blessed the bride and groom.

The groom's father handed him a glass of wine, and he drank a little; The bride's mother hands her a glass of wine, which she sips. In many communities, a rabbi hands glasses to the bride and groom. The bridegroom put the ring on the forefinger of the bride's right hand and said, "This ring is promised to me by you, according to the law of Moses and Israel." Then the marriage book is read by the rabbi or one of the distinguished guests. Then the father of the bride asks the groom to finish the wine in the cup, and the mother of the groom asks the bride to finish the wine in the cup. Finally, a glass glass is broken to commemorate the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and the displacement of the Jewish people; At the same time, remind the groom and bride that human happiness is fragile and needs careful care. After this, the newlyweds are taken to a separate room, where they usually stay for only a few minutes and eat for the first time after the fast. This is the end of the wedding ceremony, and then the wedding reception begins ^[84] .

funeral

Jews respect the custom of a simple, speedy burial. But it's generally not allowed on Shabbat, Yom Kippur, and festivals. There are no sacrifices at the funeral, only prayers and the recitation of the Tanakh. The dead were wrapped only in a shroud and buried within a day or two of death, with a rule that those executed should not spend the night at the stake.

Before the burial, Jews hold a memorial service in the synagogue, and several months after the burial, a memorial gathering is held in the cemetery to sacrifice the gravestone. After the burial, the family of the deceased to stay at home for a week, relatives and friends often come to the door during this period, as a mourning for the deceased and condolences to the relatives of the deceased.

The Jewish people attach great importance to "burying in the homeland", that is, burying in the homeland of Israel after death, with the Jewish diaspora around the world, "burying in the homeland" is practically impossible, but many Jews with strong religious ideas carry a small bag of soil from Zion and bury it with them after death symbolize the custom of "burying in the homeland".

Judaism does not advocate the sacrifice of life to sweep away life, so Jews do not lay a wreath when they sweep the tomb, but use inanimate objects, such as small stones, instead, to express grief.

The Jews did not use cremation; they regarded the burning of bodies as an act of extreme cruelty, and considered that only notorious criminals and mortal enemies deserved this punishment. Dead bodies in the wilderness are also seen as God's worst curse on the dead ^[83] .

Religious festival

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EDITOR

The Sabbath

The Sabbath is usually lit by candles, with hala bread as the staple food and drinking alcohol

The Jewish holidays are all based on Jewish calendar In addition to the three major festivals of Passover, Torah, and Sukkot, The Sabbath It is the main festival of Judaism, that is, the Jewish weekly day of rest, and the most inviolable holy day in Judaism. In the Torah, the Sabbath system is associated with several ideas: that God created the world in six days and rested on the seventh; The social significance of the Sabbath is that it is a day of rest for all people, including servants and Gentiles, representing the idea that all people are equal; The Sabbath is associated with the idea of holiness; God made a covenant with Israel to keep the Sabbath day from generation to generation as an everlasting covenant ^[79] .

The Sabbath is the period from sunset on Friday afternoon until the first star appears in the sky on Saturday afternoon, and Jews must stay at home until sunset on Friday. Jews are not allowed to work, shop, travel, cook, or do business all day on the Sabbath, but are allowed to hire non-Jews to do jobs that Jews are forbidden to do on the Sabbath. On the Sabbath, Jews are also not allowed to smoke, make fires, extinguish fires, turn on or off lights, press buttons, make telephone calls, walk long distances, carry money, use any public transportation to synagogues, set sail on ships, or take off on airplanes. Jews are convinced that keeping the Sabbath is even more important than life. In their eyes, the above rules are not a burden, but a way for them to take a full day's rest from the hardships of daily work. On the Sabbath they devoted themselves to the worship of God by resting, praying, studying, singing, and talking ^[78] .

Three pilgrimages

Tabernacles built on the Feast of Tabernacles

The three major pilgrimage festivals are the Passover, the Feast of 77th, and the Feast of Tabernacles, which are the three major festivals specified in the Tanakh. Since the ancient Jews usually made pilgrimages to Jerusalem and offered sacrifices to the temple when celebrating the three major festivals, it was also known as the Three Major pilgrimage festivals ^[91] .

Passover

Passover Derive from Nisan A week-long festival that starts on the evening of the 14th. It commemorates God's salvation of the Israelites in the Book of Exodus and celebrates the day of freedom from suffering under God's grace. The most important part of the festival is the Passover seder, where symbolic foods are eaten and the history of the exodus of the Israelites is recounted through the recitation of the Haggadah. It is celebrated for seven days in Israel and among Reform Jews, and for eight days by other Jews. During the festival, people do not eat bread, only matzoh. Some people also wear white linen clothes, indicating happiness, joy, holiness, tolerance ^[92] .

Shavuot

Shavuot Also known as Pentecost, it is the last major festival of the year in the Jewish calendar. It commemorates the day when God appeared on Mount Sinai and made a covenant with Israel. The customs of the feast of 77th include the reading of the Book of Ruth in the synagogue, the eating of meat and dairy products, and the placing of bread made of fresh wheat on the table as a sign of sacrifice to God ^[93] .

The Feast of Tabernacles

The Feast of Tabernacles It begins on the fifth day after Yom Kippur, on the 15th of the month of Tisley, and lasts for eight days. It commemorates the tent life of his ancestors for 40 years before they came out of Egypt and entered Canaan, and God's shelter for the people of Israel. During this period, everyone except the elderly and the infirm had to live in makeshift huts. On the first and last days of Sukkot, special ceremonies are held in synagogues to celebrate the festival, with people waving branches tied together with palm branches ^[94] .

Holy day

Rosh Hashanah

Rosh Hashanah It is a Jewish festival to celebrate the beginning of the New Year, and the festival is on the first day of Tisli. Since the tenth day following the feast is Yom Kippur, it marks the first day of the ten-day Penitent Day and is therefore known as a day of reverence and repentance. It is a day to reflect on what people have said and done in the past year and to reflect on any SINS they may have committed. Judaism believes that all people will be judged by God on this day, so Jews also call this day "Judgment Day." One of the ways to celebrate the New Year is to go to the synagogue to participate in the New Year religious service, people are to say three prayers, three times the blow of the shofar, the sound of the horn indicates both the fear of God and the belief in God. Devout Jews also go to the seaside, river or a place with running water in the afternoon, hold a atonement ceremony, and recite the Book of Micah. But Rosh Hashanah is also a time of celebration, when families usually get together and eat apple preserves and bread dipped in honey at a New Year's dinner to symbolize the year ahead will be happy. People also send each other New Year cards and New Year gifts, many people also go out to travel to show joy ^[95] .

High Holy Day

High Holy Day It is the tenth day of the month of Tisli and is the most solemn and holy day of the year for the Jewish people. It is derived from Moses' sacrifice of goats and other rituals to God to atone for the SINS of Israel. On Yom Kippur, religious services are held in synagogues throughout the day, and Jews are required to pray in synagogues and participate in special prayer services. Some believers will fast on that day, do not eat, drink or work for a day, pray in the synagogue, and redeem themselves for any SINS they may have committed during the previous year ^[96] .

Other festivals

Judaism also has a number of festivals that commemorate the history of the Jewish people, mainly celebrating the Jews' freedom from persecution during the Babylonian captivity. Purim "; A memorial to the Jewish Uprising led by Judah Maccabi. Hanukkah "; Commemorating the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, mourning and fasting" Fast day "And so on. With the migration and change of the Jews and the establishment of the State of Israel in modern times, there are also "Holocaust Remembrance Day" to commemorate the Holocaust in World War II ^[91] .

ideology

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EDITOR

Kabbalah mysticism

Kabbalah's Tree of life concept

Kabbalat Kabbalah is a system of Jewish mysticism, which generally refers to all schools of Jewish mysticism. (Hebrew: ַ Jewָ ּ jewָ ‎, English: Kabbalah, literally translated as "acceptance" or "inheritance"). The background of its creation is derived from the suffering of the Jews, and Kabbalism attempts to obtain magical power to save the suffering of the Jews by mysterious methods. Some of them try to predict the time when the Jews will be saved, and some claim to be the Messiah or the substitute of the Messiah in people's eager hope for the coming of the "Messiah". They also interpret the Tanakh in mystical terms, arguing that the Torah has a hidden meaning beyond its literal meaning, and that even the 22 letters of the Hebrew script have their own spiritual meaning ^{[124-125
]} .

In the 13th century, influential mystical works such as the Book of Glory, the Book of Light, and the Book of Metaphors appeared, which included descriptions of angels, demons, and apparitions. Kabbalists claim that the Jews will suffer on earth but will be victorious in heaven. They also believed that unclean and unclean spirits could make people sick, and that some mystical magic was used to exorcise ghosts and cure diseases, which was also in opposition to Jewish rationalism ^{[124
]} .

Kabbalists were often associated with the Jewish hope that the Messiah would come to earth and deliver salvation, resulting in a long period of false "Messiah" incidents among the Jewish communities scattered in Babylon, Turkey, France, and Spain. Some Kabbalists predict a certain year as the "year of salvation", proclaim that the Messiah from the descendants of David will come in that year, etc., but as time passes, nothing happens and the truth of the false Messiah is revealed. But under the spread and influence of mysticism, the farce of the false Messiah continues to be staged ^{[124
]} . With the rise of Haskalah in the 18th century, Kabbalistic mysticism gradually lost its importance among Jews, but Kabbalistic mysticism also provided a great influence on the development of Western mysticism, Christian mysticism, and alchemy related mystics ^{[126
]} .

Jewish philosophy

Jewish philosophy It is an interpretation of the Jewish creed and the whole world (including nature, society, and spirit) in accordance with general philosophical concepts and norms. Derived from the Jewish law and rabbinic traditions of Jewish culture, Jewish philosophy is a discipline developed when Jews participate in philosophical reflection on the outside world. Macroscopically speaking, it is an integral part of the history of human philosophy. It includes both the general philosophical works written in Hebrew by Jewish philosophers in the late Middle Ages and the secular philosophical theories of modern and contemporary Jewish thinkers, but excludes the works of philosophers who are of Jewish descent and whose ideological system has not been influenced by their national culture.

Since its formation, Jewish philosophy has experienced three periods: Hellenization, Middle century and modern times. According to its main content, it can be roughly divided into:

1.
Interpretation of concepts specific to Jewish culture, such as God's chosen people, the Law, and the Messiah;
2.
As a religious philosophy, the study of common issues in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as well as certain metaphysical propositions, such as the existence of God, creation, and the human soul;
3.
As pure philosophy, it explores general philosophical questions such as logic and the nature of the world.

Although the Torah and the Rabbinic scriptures have clear views on God, man, and the world, they can only be regarded as theological rather than philosophical works due to their lack of systematic theoretical exposition. The Jewish philosophers in the past generations cited these two kinds of documents in their works to demonstrate their philosophical views, indicating that their philosophical thoughts came from these, which led to the characteristics of Jewish philosophy with the Torah as the core. However, due to the literal limitation of the Torah, the methodology of Jewish philosophers in studying its connotation is also quite similar to that of Kabbalistic mystics, that is, through personal understanding to uncover the "great meaning" hidden behind the "micro words" of the Torah.

According to Jewish philosophers, the first sentence of the Ten Commandments proclaims the existence of God, and Deuteronomy 6:4 makes it clear that God is the only true God. They believe that God's omniscience, omnipotence and intangibleness are confirmed in the Torah. Similarly, if God's essence is recognized as equivalent to existence, his essence is unknowable, but his manifestations are knowable, and this view is also reflected in the Torah. Jewish philosophers also derived many conclusions from the chapters on the origin of the universe in the Torah that the world was created out of nothing, that heaven and earth have a boundary, that the upper boundary has vitality and reason, and that the lower boundary consists of the four elements of earth, air, water and fire. Many chapters in the Torah reveal the nature of man: man has five senses, but the most fundamental attribute is wisdom, which makes him the spirit of all things; Man has free will; The ultimate goal of life is to understand and love God; The golden mean is the best way to behave and so on. For the Tanakh, the most common comments by Jewish philosophers represented by the late Middle Ages are Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes.

Rabbinic Judaism, represented by the Talmud, came into being in the later period of Greek philosophy and was probably influenced by it. It is generally believed that the Jewish scholars who compiled the Talmud had an understanding of Greek philosophy (especially in popular texts) Stoicism Some knowledge, but not familiar with classical Greek philosophical works. In their books there is nothing but a Epicurus Except for a few references, there is no mention of the major Greek philosophers of the time, and Greek philosophical vocabulary is not used. Although the Rabbinic scriptures, like the Torah on the face of it, lacked philosophical rigor, later Jewish philosophers cited them to justify their own philosophical ideas. They believe that the anthropomorphic description of the divine must be understood metaphorically in order to derive a view of the whole world from it. In their view, the basic claim of Rabbinic Judaism about human nature is that man is powerless to change his natural attributes, but can exercise free will, and therefore there is a cause-and-effect relationship between his actions and what happens to him: "good is rewarded with good, and evil with evil." The most valuable elements of the philosophy of Rabbinical Judaism are the two mystical views of the Jewish Spiritualist school: the "creation theory" and the "Divinity theory". ^{[127
]} .

Sacred place

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EDITOR

Holy land concept

In the Jewish scriptures, the concept of holy places is almost non-existent. The Mishnah divides "holy" into 10 levels and considers the native land of Israel to be holier than any other place in the world. In Israel, Jerusalem Cities are holier than other cities; In Jerusalem, Jerusalem Temple Another level up; In the temple, Sanctum sanctorum It is more sacred, and only the High priest can enter on the day of Atonement. Therefore, what is called holy in Judaism is measured by the canons and commandments, not by what has happened there or who has stayed there. However, over time, and possibly under the influence of other cultures (especially Muslim cultures), Jews began to regard some places as holy places for Jews, or to make pilgrimages there, or to hold prayers there that were different from those in other places, and these places were also clustered in and around Jerusalem ^[68] .

Western Wall

The Western Wall is also known as Wailing wall It is the only remaining section of stone wall associated with the Second Temple in Jerusalem. The wall is 48 meters long and about 19 meters high, and is made of 12 layers of boulders, without any adhesion between the stones, but the wall is exceptionally strong. It was incorporated into the Islamic rock top and the walls of the Mosque of Agshar in 691 AD and returned to Jewish control in 1967.

As one of the most sacred objects of Judaism, the Western Wall has long been a special place of prayer in Judaism. The gathering of Jews under the wall for religious prayer is recorded as early as 333 AD. In modern times, Jews pray in this wall every day, and on religious festivals, a large number of people gather under the wall to hold religious prayer ceremonies to remember their ancestors and recall the suffering of the nation. Prayer is divided between the north and the south, with the north dedicated to women and the south dedicated to men ^[69] .

Zion

Mount Zion is a mountain around ancient Jerusalem. "Zion" in the Tanakh is a name for ancient Jerusalem, probably derived from David's capture of the "fortress of Zion," a citadel that defended the city of Jerusalem, and Solomon's temple on the hill to the east of Zion. Later, Mount Zion was used by the Jews to denote three separate areas, namely, under the mountain east of Jerusalem David City The eastern hilltop Temple Mount The West Mountain, which still retains a large number of ancient city buildings, is called Mount Zion in modern times, where many sites are preserved. According to the Tanakh, Mount Zion is the place where God lives, and it is also the holy mountain where God anointed David King, who is said to have been buried at the foot of Mount Zion. As a result, Mount Zion became one of the sites for Jewish prayer pilgrimages ^[71] .

Mount of Olives

The Mount of Olives is the holy mountain in the eyes of Jews, and it is the closest mountain to the temple in Jerusalem, named for the olive trees on the mountain. According to the Book of Zechariah, when the day of salvation comes, "God's feet will stand on the Mount of Olives." Since ancient times, Jews have always wanted to be buried on the Mount of Olives. There are an estimated 150,000 tombs on the mountain, including those of the legendary prophet Zechariah and many Jewish rabbis of the 15th to 20th centuries. Later, many leaders of the Zionist movement, such as Herzl, were also buried there ^[70] .

Other holy places

For Jewish pilgrims, in addition to Jerusalem, is located Hebron the The Cave of Machpela It is also of particular importance because it is said that members of the Abrahamic clan are buried here. It is located in Hela Mount Karmal Elijah's Cave, because of the legend that the prophet Elijah once hid here has also become a holy place. In addition, the vast majority of tombs that Jewish pilgrims wish to visit are concentrated in the Galilee region, because most rabbis of the Talmud era lived and taught there, among which Safed and Tiberias are also the resting places of famous Jewish scholars in history, and many Jewish community halls and historic Jewish buildings remain ^[68] .

Religious identity

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EDITOR

The roots of Judaism as a national religion of the Jewish people come from the basis of the Jewish doctrine and law that "the Jews are God's chosen people and will be an example to the Gentiles" (Isaiah 49:6 says, "It is a small thing for you to be my servant and to restore the tribes of Jacob and to bring back the saved ones of Israel; And I will make you a light to the Gentiles, that you may execute my salvation to the ends of the earth." ^[119] ). Therefore, the followers of Judaism must be Jews, and Judaism does not take the initiative to preach among foreigners, does not welcome foreigners to believe in its teachings, and its missionary objects are Jews who have not kept kosher. These people may have adopted their Jewish traditions because they lived in places where there was no Jewish community, or they may have lost their Jewish traditions by marrying outside the country, and the missionaries would encourage them to return to Jewish customs to restore their legitimacy ^{[120
]} . Judaism generally considers any child born to a Jewish woman to be a Jew, while Reform Judaism considers any child born to a Jewish parent to be a Jew ^{[121
]} .

According to Jewish tradition, to convert to Judaism, a non-Jew must undergo a study of Jewish culture and customs, undergo the test of a rabbi, and undergo circumcision to gain Jewish status ^{[120
]} ^{[122
]} . In modern times, the Law of Return, issued after the establishment of Israel on the definition of Jewish identity, mentions that non-Jews can be regarded as Jews after converting to Judaism through strict procedures, including the need to firmly believe in Judaism, be familiar with Jewish teachings, follow the Jewish commandments and perform necessary procedures, and be examined and approved by the Jewish court ^{[123
]} .

Religious communication

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EDITOR

Because of the national and exclusive nature of Judaism, the historical spread of Judaism has always been closely related to the demographic changes of the Jews. Due to the existence of mixed living in different countries, based on geographical culture and other aspects of the customs and customs, resulting in the existence of such as the Jewish Karaites, but ethnically close to the Turkic people "Karayim"; The adoption of "Giz" as the official language, ethnically Ethiopian "Farisa"; Ashkenazi Jews, Sephardi Jews and other ethnic groups who observe local living habits and practice corresponding rituals. However, due to the inheritance of Jewish identity, culture, customs, religion and other aspects, most of them still identify with their "Jewish" identity in the corresponding internal ethnic cognition ^[34] ^[62] .

Germany

The Old Synagogue in Erfurt, Germany

The Jews first came to Germany with the Roman legions. They traded and lived in cities built by the Romans on the banks of the Rhine. Ashkenazi Jews ". There are references to the Jewish community in Cologne in the 4th century, Jewish settlements in the 10th century, Jewish communities in southern Germany in the 11th century, and thriving Jewish communities in Mainz and Ishva in Wurms, which became the spiritual center of all Jews in Central Europe.

In the Middle Ages, due to the brutal persecution and mass killings during the Crusades, some prosperous Jewish communities on the Rhine River declined, and some Jews were forced to undergo baptism, and the economic and social conditions of German Jews deteriorated seriously in the 12th and 13th centuries due to the restriction of economic activities, until the 15th century began to recover. During this period, the Ashkenazi produced a great deal of religious literature, the suffering of the Jews during the Crusades was reflected in literature, the Ashkenazi rules of prayer were established in the 15th century, and Talmudic scholars worked to adapt the Talmudic rules to the conditions of Christian life in Europe.

In the 18th century, under the influence of the ideological enlightenment, the Reform Judaism movement emerged among German Jews, which sought to dilute the strictness of kosher rules, make prayer rituals close to Christian rituals, and emphasize the spiritual and ethical aspects of Judaism, thus dividing Reform Judaism. Interest in the Jewish question arose as a result of social and religious sects in German Jewish life, contributing to the emergence of a new school in the study of Jewish religion, history, and culture - Jewish science. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Germany became a center for the study of Judaism using methods developed by European science.

In the 20th century, due to the anti-Semitic policies of Nazi Germany, a large number of Jews moved to the United States, Canada, South Africa, Australia and other countries, and the mass murder of Jews brought the history of German Jews to an end. Although Jews continued to migrate to Germany, most of them were not German Jews ^{[129
]} .

Spain

Statue of Moses Maimonides in Cordoba

In the 1st century or earlier, Jews came to the Iberian Peninsula and became known as Sephardic Jews. The Visigoths, who occupied Spain in 412, began persecuting Jews after the king accepted Catholicism, and for the next several hundred years restricted many of the rights of the Jews, demanding that Jews convert to Christianity, and those who refused to convert were expelled from Spain. Although there were periods during this period when Jews returned to or converted to their original faith due to relatively lenient policies, Christian oppression caused most Jews to leave Spain on several occasions.

When the Arabs invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 711, there were no openly Jewish communities. The active support of Jews to Arabs, and the provision of religious freedom and judicial autonomy by Arabs to Jews, led to the rapid development of Sephardi Jews in various fields, and several Jewish communities or cities with large concentrations of Jews reached their peak in the 10th century, with Cordoba becoming a center of Spanish, Arab, and Jewish culture. During this period, the Jewish upper class actively participated in political activities and harmoniously combined religious culture and secular culture.

In the 12th century, due to The Muwahid Dynasty During religious persecution, Jewish centers moved from the Muslim south to the Christian north. With the transfer of the Spanish regime to Christian Christianity, the unrestricted Jewish community became a transmitter of Arab cultural influence, and continued to engage in scientific activities, including medicine and astronomy, producing a number of famous doctors and astronomers. However, because the Church feared the expanding influence of Judaism, it began to impose a series of restrictions on Jews, resulting in the decline of Jewish and Arab cultural traditions and the disappearance of the conditions for the flourishing of Jewish science.

The Deportation of the Jews, Roque Gamelow

At the end of the 14th century, the situation of the Sephardic Jews deteriorated dramatically. The rise of religiously motivated anti-Semitism, the conversion of many synagogues to Christian churches, the conversion of Jewish communities to Christian settlements, and the forced choice of death, baptism, or slavery of many Jews led to signs of a decline in Jewish cultural influence in Spain. In 1492 Reconquista After the formal end, Spain, which wanted to maintain national and religious unity, signed a decree expelling the Jews. Historians estimate the number of Jews deported at 200,000. About 120,000 Jews found temporary accommodation in Portugal, where they were forced to convert in 1497; About 50,000 Jews left for North Africa, with a small number going to France and Italy. The development of Jewish culture in Spain was halted and the center of Jewish spiritual life shifted to the countries of Central Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa. It was not until 1869, when the ban was abolished by the Spanish Constitution, that a small number of Jews moved to Spain again, with many Jewish refugees from France, the Netherlands and Belgium settling there before and after World War II.

Culturally, the oldest Hebrew teaching and research office in Spain was built in the 14th century University of Salamanca The second Department of Hebrew Studies was established in 1509 at the University of Alcala de Henales (renamed after 1836) University of Madrid ). During the First World War, the University of Madrid also established the Department of Jewish History, Hebrew language and Hebrew Literature, and later University of Barcelona and University of Granada Similar teaching and research offices have also been established. In 1941, the Institute was established at the University of Madrid for the study of the history and culture of Spanish Jews, as well as for the study of Judaism and the Middle East. In 1964, the Museum of Spanish Jewish Culture was created in the synagogue built by Samur Halevi Aboulafia in Toledo ^{[130
]} .

Poland

The Acceptance of Jews in Poland, by Jan Mataiko, 1889

Jews began to live in Poland as early as the 9th century, and it is believed that these Jews arrived from the Black Sea coast via southeastern Russia.

In the 11th and 13th centuries, due to the Crusades and the persecution of Ashkenazi Jews by the Christian Church, a large number of Ashkenazi Jews went to Poland to establish a Jewish community. Due to the important role played by the Jews in Polish economic life, the Polish rulers issued a decree in 1264 to protect the Jews. The decree guarantees the inviolability of Jewish life and property, forbids the imposition of higher taxes on Jews than Christians, and forbids insults to Jewish cemeteries and synagogues. The decree was further expanded in the 14th century, guaranteeing Jewish rights in trade, transportation, and religion, which led to more Western European Jews being drawn to Poland. Although in terms of social life, Jews were still prohibited from living with Christians due to the oppression of the Christian Church, and were required to live in specific places. However, compared with the anti-Semitic trend of the same period, the social environment of Polish Jews was relatively liberal, and therefore some members of the Polish Jewish community engaged in the study of the Talmud throughout their lives, developing the highest level of Jewish Talmud research and school of thought in the Middle Ages.

At the end of the 17th century, due to the instability of the Polish state, the safety and life of the Jews were increasingly insecure. As a result, some Jews, influenced by religious messianism and mysticism, looked forward to the appearance of the Messiah to save them from the suffering of reality. In the meantime, Sabaiah Zevi The emergence of the "Messiah", such as Jacob Frank, caused a strong reaction among Polish Jews, and after the false Messiah's identity was revealed, the Hasidic movement grew rapidly in eastern Poland under the influence of trauma and mysticism, eventually becoming one of the Orthodox denominations.

In the 18th century, Poland was divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and the former Polish areas with a dense Jewish population were under Russian rule, and the living environment of Polish Jews was greatly affected and deteriorated due to the influence of Russian Orthodox Church. And the anti-Semitic wave of 1881 was associated with" May act ", prompting the slaughter and deportation of thousands of Jews. Western European Jews began to move west in large numbers, many to the United States, but also a considerable number of Zionist influences moved to Palestine.

During World War I, Poland was restored under the Treaty of Versailles. Despite the influence of persecution and emigration, Poland still had the largest Jewish population in the world at the beginning of the 20th century. But with the invasion and annexation of Poland by Nazi Germany in 1939, Polish Jews were wiped out by the Holocaust. Most of the survivors left for Palestine and the United States; only a few Jews remained in Poland ^{[135
]} .

America

Jews first arrived in America in 1654. The Europeans discovered America just as Spain began mass deportations of Jews or forced conversions to Christianity. In the mid-16th century, some Maranay Jews (Jews who converted to Christianity) arrived in the South American colonies from Spain and Portugal, and after the establishment of the "Inquisition" in South America, some fled to North America and settled there. By 1776, when the United States gained independence, there were about 2,500 Jews on the North American continent, spread along the East Coast.

In the 19th century, due to the war, anti-Semitic activities and other reasons, the number of Jews from Europe to the United States began to gradually increase, most of them Ashkenazi Jews. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the wave of large-scale persecution and killing of Jews in Poland and Eastern Europe led to the large-scale immigration of Jews to the United States, and the establishment of organizations such as the International Women's Garment Workers Union and the American Garment Workers Federation in the early 20th century. It was designed to lead the Jewish workers at the bottom of American society in their collective struggle for higher wages and better working conditions. In addition, because there is less inherent prejudice against Jews in European countries in American society, the social environment of Jews is more equal and tolerant. However, with the arrival of a large number of Eastern European Jewish immigrants, American society gradually felt the pressure and impact of Jews, and anti-Semitic thoughts and activities were also rising, and in 1921, the immigration quota Act was passed to control the entry of Jews.

Due to the liberal religious environment in the United States, Reform Judaism in the Ashkenazi Jewish community was fully developed. The Eastern European Jewish immigrants, who have been oppressed and persecuted by the outside world for a long time, have maintained strong cohesion and traditional religious consciousness, formed a high level of religious studies, and made Orthodox Judaism still dominant in the Eastern European immigrants. As a result of the conflict between the reformists and the Orthodox, the conservatives in between emerged.

In contemporary times, as American Jews become more and more closely integrated with American society, their Jewish characteristics become more and more indifferent. Most young American Jews began to declare that they did not believe in Judaism, that they considered themselves Jewish because they had been born Jewish or had habitually maintained certain traditional ways of life. In addition, another major impact on American Jews is the increasing prevalence of intermarriage with non-Jews, which makes the younger generation of Jews know little about the teachings, concepts, theology and other aspects originally advocated by Judaism, and the Jewish characteristics are constantly stripped away ^{[140
]} .

China

Break a seal

A restored model of the Kaifeng Synagogue on display at the Museum of the Israeli Diaspora

Jews began to set foot on Chinese soil more than a thousand years ago, at the latest in the Tang Dynasty had entered China. According to historical records, the Jewish community with a certain scale did not begin to appear until the Song Dynasty, when Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty, was the main center of Jewish settlement in ancient China. According to literature records, about 1,000 Jews settled in Kaifeng in the 10th and 11th centuries for the purpose of doing business. They paid western cloth to the Emperor of the Song Dynasty, and the emperor was very pleased with them. The emperor made a proposal of "Owning to the Middle Xia, abiding by the ancestral tradition, and leaving Bianliang", so that the Jews could live in China while maintaining their own traditions, and accepted several Han Chinese names. Currently known are Li, I, Ai, Gao, Mu, Zhao, Jin, Zhou, Zhang, Shi, Huang, Li, Nie, Jin, Zhang, Zuo and Bai ^{[143
]} .

Ming Dynasty stone tablet rubbings

In 1163, they established a synagogue in Kaifeng, forming a sizable Jewish community known as "Kaifeng." Kaifeng Jews ". They basically follow the traditions of the Jewish nation, praying three times a day, fasting four times a month, observing precepts seven times a year, practicing intermarriage, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish dietary regulations. With the improvement of their economic and political status, the construction of synagogues was frequent, and the name of Judaism was Sinicized as "Judaism." A gift of joy to teach Claiming to be "a teacher of music", he also left stone tablets describing his ancestral history and the life of the Jewish community. With the abandoning of the study of the Jewish classics, embarked on the development direction of reading the books of Confucius and Mencius and following the road of imperial examinations, there appeared a number of famous Jewish people who became famous in imperial examinations and were awarded official salaries. As the Jewish population moved around the country, the pace of Jewish assimilation accelerated, and by 1642 only 200 were still living in Kaifeng. Later, due to the lack of a rabbi, religious activities gradually ceased, and the national cohesion began to lose after 1688. Some Jewish families converted to Islam, while some intermarried and were assimilated with other ethnic groups, leading to natural integration with Han, Hui, Manchu and other ethnic groups. After the founding of New China, some Kaifeng Jews still identified themselves as Jews in several censuses and continued to follow Jewish customs ^{[141-142
]} .

Modern Chinese Jewish community

Shanghai Rachel Hall

In the mid-19th century, the Treaty of Nanking led to the emergence of new Jewish communities in Hong Kong and Shanghai, China. In the early 1930s, the four major Jewish communities, based on Shanghai in East China, Harbin in northeast China, Tianjin in North China, and Hong Kong in South China, were the main centers and activity centers of modern Chinese Jews, and their activities included the adjacent areas of the above-mentioned cities. Its commercial achievements are the most obvious, and it has made contributions and had a certain impact on the development of modern economic life and modern cities in China at that time ^{[141
]} .

The Sephardi Jews who first lived in Shanghai built a Jewish cemetery in 1862 and a synagogue in 1887, announcing the emergence of the modern Shanghai Jewish community. The Jewish community had 600 to 700 members in the late 1930s, making it the wealthiest Jewish community in Shanghai. At the end of the 19th century, Ashkenazi Jews from Russia arrived in Shanghai, forming a second Jewish community. In the 1930s, Jews persecuted by Nazi Germany took refuge in Shanghai, forming the third Jewish community, and on the eve of the outbreak of World War II, the community increased in size, becoming the largest Jewish community in Shanghai. In 1941, Jews from Poland and other regions arrived in Shanghai, forming the fourth Jewish community. At this point, the total number of Jews in Shanghai has exceeded 30,000, becoming the largest Jewish settlement in the Far East ^{[144
]} .

The original Harbin Synagogue is now the Harbin Old Hall Concert Hall

In the second half of the 19th century, after Russia obtained extraterritorial privileges in the northeast from the Manchu government and the right to build the China Eastern Railway, Ashkenazi Jews living in Russia began to live in Zhuli, Harar, Qiqihar, Harbin and other places, among which Harbin was the center of Jewish activities. By 1903, the Jewish community in Harbin had 500 members. The first synagogue was built in 1909. Subsequently, Jewish educational institutions, medical and health institutions, activity centers, cultural and entertainment venues, and various political and cultural organizations were established, and the number of Jews in Harbin reached 15,000 in 1931 ^{[145
]} .

From the middle of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century, Jews settled in Tianjin and engaged in commercial activities. In 1904, they began to purchase land to build Jewish cemeteries, Jewish communities, Jewish schools, synagogues and other places, which became the Jewish center in North China. After the Japanese occupation of Northeast China in 1932, many Harbin Jews fled to Tianjin to make a living, bringing the Jewish population of Tianjin to an all-time high of about 2,500 ^[146] .

Hong Kong is the earliest Chinese city that Jews set foot in in modern times. In 1842, members of the famous Jewish Sassoon family came to Hong Kong for business, and a Jewish cemetery was built in 1858. However, the Hong Kong Jewish community did not take shape until the early 20th century, with the construction of the Ohir Lee Synagogue and the establishment of the Jewish Club in 1909, marking a period of steady growth for the Jewish community in Hong Kong ^{[147
]} .

The trend of modern Chinese Jewish community

After the outbreak of the Second World War and the Pacific War, the direct persecution of Chinese Jews by the Japanese authorities further affected the economic activities and cultural life of the Jews, thus diminishing the influence of the Jews in China. After World War II, the outbreak of the third Civil War in China caused the stagnation of Jewish economic activities and the outflow of capital, and the exodus of people.

By the end of the 1940s, the Jewish communities in Shanghai, Harbin, and Tianjin had largely lost their vitality. By the end of the 1950s, the nearly century-old Jewish community in China had virtually died out. Only the Jewish community in Hong Kong under British rule was not greatly affected and developed to some extent in the following years, becoming the most active and influential Jewish community in contemporary Chinese territory. In addition, a small new Jewish community began to emerge in Taiwan in the 1950s. The Taiwan Jewish Association, with its activities centered in Taipei, was founded in the mid-1970s and now has more than 100 members, most of whom are staff members of foreign companies in Taiwan, making it a highly mobile Jewish community ^{[141
]} .

Other countries or regions

Middle East and North Africa

Mizrahi Jews (Hebrew: "Oriental Jews", Mizrahi means "East" in Hebrew), mainly Jews from the Middle East and North Africa. These include areas such as Kurdistan, Lebanon, Syria, Yemen, Turkey, and Iran in Western Asia, as well as Jewish communities in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco in North Africa. Some of these groups were originally from Babylonian prisoners who sought refuge in Persia, Egypt, and Yemen, but there were also large numbers of Sephardic Jews who had fled to the Middle East or North Africa due to persecution by medieval Spanish authorities. Therefore, in religious ceremonies, they are sometimes called "Sephardi". ^{[131
]} ^[132-134] .

Other countries

Jews have also established Jewish communities and synagogues in India, Greece, Italy, France, Belgium and other countries and regions, but there are also differences in history, spoken language, religious rituals and other aspects of the population. With the introduction of the Return Act of the State of Israel, most Jews from various countries emigrated to Israel, but some also went to the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia ^[136-139] .

Religious similarities and differences

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EDITOR

Judaism, Christianity and Islam are closely related and have their own similarities and differences ^[97] .

Common ground

1.
Doctrinally: strict monotheism, against idolatry and polytheism.
2.
Classically: Christianity regards the Jewish Tanakh as the Bible · Old Testament; The holy book of Islam, the Qur 'an, retains many teachings taken from the Tanakh, and refers to prophets or messengers that have their equivalents in the Tanakh, such as Ibrahim (Abraham), Musa (Moses), Dawood (David), and Suleiman (Solomon).
3.
Jerusalem is a holy place for all three religions.
4.
Common periodic timing and Holy Week days ^[97] .

difference

Jews call themselves "God's chosen people," and Judaism is simply a covenant between the chosen people and God. Therefore, they had no need to promote the religion to the "non-electors" and did not welcome outsiders to join the covenant, and this nationalism and exclusivity prevented its outward expansion and spread, so that it remained the national religion of the Jewish people. Christianity and Islam have one thing in common, that is, the universality of doctrine, such as Christianity's "salvation by faith" and Islam's "faith in God will perpetuate the hereafter." As a result, while promoting its teachings, it attracted many followers and became a world religion ^[97] .

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