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The Soviet Union

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A federal socialist state that existed from 1922 to 1991

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Union of Soviet socialist republics (Russian: С о ю з С о kind guide е т с seem и х С о ц и а л и с т и discusses some related problems е с seem и х Р е с п б л и seem), hereinafter referred to as "the Soviet union", is in 1922-1991 Socialist country . ^[1] It consists of 15 equal rights Joining republic In accordance with the principle of voluntary association ^[48] Territorial coverage Eastern Europe For the most part. with Norse , Finland , Poland , Czechoslovakia , Hungary , Romania , Türkiye , Iran , Afghanistan , China , Mongolia and North Korea Border on; with Sweden , America Facing each other across the sea. by Communist Party of the USSR To govern.

October Revolution After the victory, the CPSU led the people to start a large-scale socialism Construction has promoted the development of social productive forces, and the comprehensive national strength has been greatly improved, becoming the second largest in the world after the United States economy . ^[43] The Soviet Union became involved in 1941 World War II , eruption Great Patriotic War , ^[46] It was taken on 30 April 1945 Berlin May 8 of the same year Nazi Germany Surrender. ^[47] Together with the United States, they became the two most powerful countries in the world at that time, known as superpower . In 1955, to fight North Atlantic Treaty Organization , be established Warsaw Pact , Cold war The pattern is completely formed. In the early 1980s, the economic growth rate slowed down, and the national strength gradually fell behind America . In the late '80s, Gorbachev The country was liberalized and democratized, but failed. On August 19, 1991, the Soviet Union erupted August 9 incident . On December 25th, Gorbachev Resign the presidency and hand over power to Boris Yeltsin , Collapse of the Soviet Union . ^[1]

The Soviet Union had power on the world stage in the 20th century Play an important role The role of. ^[42] In science and technology, the Soviet Union aerospace With America Neck and neck A large number of scientific and technological forces and achievements are concentrated in Nuclear weapon , Guided missile , Atomic energy , Space technology And other cutting-edge departments. ^[45] Militarily, the Soviet Union maintained a large number of troops and weapons throughout the year, and stationed troops in many places around the world. in Nuclear force Aspect and America At basically the same level. ^[44]

War defect
German
Post-war impact

Pride comes before a fall, Soviet Union 2021-09-24 10:23

War is a very serious matter for any country. At the beginning of the Second World War, the Soviet Union experienced a "one careless and all lost" war. Although the Soviet Union won the victory in the end, it also exposed its serious shortcomings, and was invaded by Nazi Germany 15 months after the war, and the country was plunged into war. ... details

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Chinese name: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Foreign name: A C, a p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p (Russian)
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (English)
Abbreviated form: The Soviet Union
continent: Europe
capital: Moscow
Major city: Leningrad , Stalingrad , Kyiv , Minsk , Tbilisi , Almaty , Moscow Etc.
National Day: November 7th
National song: " The Internationale (1922 ~ 1944) An unbreakable alliance (1944 ~ 1991)
Official language: Russian
currency: rouble (SUR)
Political system: sovietism
National leader: Lenin , Stalin , Malenkov , Khrushchev , Brezhnev , Andropov , Chernenko , Gorbachev
Population number: 29,304,571 people (1991)
Population density: 12.8 persons/km2

Major nationality: Russian , Ukrainians , Belarusians , Georgians , Kazakh Etc.
Land area: 22402200 km² (1991)
Water area ratio: 0.27%
Total GDP: $757.585 billion (1991)
Per capita GDP: $3,787 (1991)
International telephone area code: + 7
International domain name abbreviation: .su
Road access: Keep to the right
Time frame: 30 December 1922 to 26 December 1991
National motto: Workers of the world unite
The ruling party: Communist Party of the USSR
Official news agency: TASS
founder: Lenin , Trotsky , Stalin , Dzerzhinsky , Bukharin Etc.
Legislative body: Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
State structure: federalism
Guiding ideology: Marxism-Leninism
Time zone: UTC+2~UTC+12

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EDITOR

Poster for the first Congress of Soviets

The full name of the Soviet Union was the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Russian : С о ю з С о kind guide е т с seem и х С о ц и а л и с т и discusses some related problems е с seem и х Р е с п б л и seem to English: the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). ^[63] Soviet (Russian:) The word is a Chinese transliteration of Russian, meaning "conference of representatives" or "conference", "Soviet" was created by the working people of Russia in the course of the revolutionary struggle Organizational form of political power It originated during the Russian Revolution of 1905 as a congress of delegates made up of directly elected representatives of workers and rebellious soldiers, called "Soviets". ^[62] November 7, 1917 (October 25, Russian calendar) The October Socialist Revolution, the first in the world Socialist country The regime -- Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian: Р о с с и ́ й с seem а second С о kind guide е ́ т с seem а second Ф е д е р а т и ́ kind guide н а second С о ц и а л и с т и ́ discusses some related problems е с seem а second Р е с п ́ б л и seem а, abbreviation Р С Ф С Р). ^[61] On October 6, 1922, at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik), Lenin's proposal for the establishment of a new state was adopted. On December 30 of the same year, in Bolshoi Theatre The first Congress of Soviets of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was held, at which the founding Declaration of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Treaty of the Union were adopted. ^[60]

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EDITOR

October Revolution

The October Revolution was victorious (10 photos)

World War I After the outbreak, Russian revolution The situation is rapidly maturing. ^[53] In March 1917, Russian Empire Eruption February Revolution , result in tsar Down, the Russian empire disintegrated. emerge bourgeoisie Representatives of the provisional government and workers and soldiers Soviet The coexistence situation. In April, Lenin returned from abroad and published a book entitled April outline ", proposed from The bourgeois democratic revolution Transition to Socialist revolution The task of... According to Lenin's instructions, The Bolshevik Party He actively propagandized among the masses and led many demonstrations by workers and soldiers. In September and October, the revolutionary situation fully matured and the liberation movement was at an all-time high. ^[53] He seized power from the Provisional Government on November 7, 1917. October Revolution ".

After the revolution it was renamed Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , for short Soviet Russia . Late on the night of November 7, the second Congress of the All-Russian Workers' and Soldiers' Soviet took place The Smolny Palace Be convened. On November 8, the conference adopted and published Lenin's "Message to the Workers, Soldiers and Peasants". Peace decree "And" Land act ". The Peace Act recommended to the warring governments and peoples to end the war and conclude a peace without secession or reparations. The Land Act provided for the abolition of landlords Private ownership of land , implement State land ownership To allocate land to working peasants for cultivation. The conference solemnly declared the return of all power to the Soviets, and elected a provisional government of workers and peasants People's committee . Lenin was elected chairman of the People's Committee. ^[53]

From 7 to 16 November, the Soviet regime was in power Moscow Established. From November 1917 to February and March 1918, Soviet power was established in all parts of the country, first in the cities and then in the countryside. Establishment of the October Revolution socialism The Supreme National Economic Council was established as the national economic management organ. Set up Workers' and peasants' Red Army Workers' police and people's courts. Establishment of the Soviet of Workers', soldiers' and Peasants' deputies People's Commissar department .

In January 1918, the Third Congress of the All-Russian Soviets was convened and approved the" Declaration on the Rights of Exploited Working People Russia was officially declared the Soviet Republic of Workers, soldiers and Peasants. The working people became masters of the country. Carry out Nationalization of land The abolition of national oppression, the abolition of class divisions, class privileges and class restrictions, and the declaration of all inhabitants as citizens have ensured the leadership of the proletariat over the state and education. The October Revolution produced the world's first Dictatorship of the proletariat It opened up a new era of the world proletarian revolution and a new era of national democratic revolution in the colonies and semi-colonies under the leadership of the proletariat. After the October Revolution, the struggle for liberation of the proletariat, the oppressed people and the oppressed nations of all countries flourished. ^[53]

Consolidate political power

Foreign military intervention in Soviet Russia

On November 11, 1918, World War I After the end, Britain, France, Japan, Poland, the United States and other countries were dissatisfied with Russia's unilateral withdrawal German Empire The war, as well as the problems of Tsarist Russia's debt, led to armed intervention in the Russian Revolution. There was a large number of White troops in the country, occupying a vast area, by Kolchak , Denikin , Wrangel , Yudenich They commanded in different places and launched a campaign against the Russian Soviet Republic Russian Civil War . Various ethnic groups in the former Russian Empire took advantage of the Russian Civil War to establish several independent sovereign states. After nearly four years of the Russian Civil War, in 1921, The Bolshevik Party Under the leadership of the Soviet Red Army defeated The White Army Executed Kolchak and drove Denikin, Wrangel, Yudenich, and others out of the country; And defeated the combined armed intervention of foreign armies, forcing the United States, Britain, and France to obey Leningrad Ukraine and Transcaucasia Withdraw, forcing the United States, Japan from Siberia The withdrawal of troops protected the survival of the new Soviet regime.

Lenin and Stalin (1 photo)

As early as late 1917 and early 1918, Lenin On the basis of Soviet Russia The situation at home and abroad at that time, when estimating the possible development path, believed that the development path of revolution and struggle could be relatively short, or it could be long and arduous. In the summer of 1918, with Czechoslovakia The mutiny of the army and the outbreak of civil war forced Russia to implement" War communism ", State capitalism Then it breaks.

After the end of the Civil War, Russia began its practice in the spring of 1921 New economic policy . The essence of the New Economic Policy is state capitalism. The New economic policy during Lenin's lifetime can be divided into two phases. The first phase was from March to October 1921, when the New Economic Policy began Grain tax replace Surplus grain collection system It started. The grain tax is the state to collect from the farmers free of charge in the form of taxation. But the food obtained through taxation was not enough to sustain an army or an industrial enterprise. The grain tax also stipulated that the surplus grain and other products left by the peasants after the completion of the grain tax could be freely exchanged, either with the products of the socialist factories (or with the exchange of commodities), or between small owners, that is, free trade. ^[50] In the first phase of the New Economic Policy, although state capitalism has been introduced, it is still confined to the local and non-state sphere. In the second phase, state-owned enterprises also changed their jobs Economic accounting That is to implement the market mode of operation, the whole society Commodity production And swap for Economic operation The foundation of everything in the economic field Business entity All here Market relationship On the basis of operation, a complete state capitalist system has been formed. Lenin's second hypothesis of the spring of 1918, corrected and tested in practice, has now become a scientific theory. At the same time, Lenin's line of state capitalism was finally formed. ^[51]

Founding of the Soviet Union

After the October Revolution, various ethnic groups in Russia established their own independent states or Autonomous republic . During the Civil War, fighting a common enemy, Russian Federation with Ukraine , Belarus , Azerbaijan , Armenia , Georgia A military and political alliance was established. With the end of the civil war, the recovery of the national economy, and the beginning of the period of socialist construction, the Communist Parties of the Soviet Republics put forward the question of union in order to unify the construction of national defence and economy.

Sign the Alliance Treaty

In August 1922, the Central Committee of the CPB, chaired by Stalin, set up a special committee to propose the accession of the Soviet republics to the Russian Federation as autonomous republics. Georgian leaders opposed the plan and were roughed up. When Lenin, who was ill, learned of this, he immediately wrote to the Politburo of the Central Committee, severely criticizing the "autonomization" program and some people Great power chauvinism Mistake. Lenin proposed that the Soviet republics join together in the Union of Soviet Republics on the principle of equality and voluntarism. On the basis of Lenin's proposal, a new document was discussed and adopted by the Central Plenum in October 1922, which received a warm response and support from the parties and Soviet organs of the Soviet Socialist Republic. ^[77]

On December 30, 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union) was formally established, consisting of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasian Federation. Those who joined the Soviet Union at that time were Russia , South Caucasus Federation , Ukraine and Belarus Wait for four joining republics. The Treaty of the Union adopted by the Congress stipulated that the Congress of Soviets of the Union was the highest organ of state power, People's Committee of the Soviet Union For the executive authority. The treaty also specified that each of the participating republics retained the right to withdraw freely from the Union. ^[77]

Step into a powerful country

After Lenin's death, the Soviet Union was faced with several major problems, among which the more prominent one was the problem of leadership, and the second was the policy turn, that is, how to continue to develop socialism in what form, and these two problems were often intertwined Stalin The firm establishment of the supreme leader and Stalin model The formation of... ^[54]

Shortly after Lenin's death, Stalin and Trotsky The conflict became public. In order to prevent Trotsky from assuming supreme power, Trotsky and Zinoviev and Kamenev Stalin formed an alliance with the latter two. Together, the three men, on the pretext of previous differences between Trotsky and Lenin, quickly removed Trotsky from his principal posts. Soon, due to differences in the line of building socialism, Stalin defeated the opponents Zinoviev And Kamenev. After defeating the three, Stalin proposed his construction socialism The theory of the Soviet Union generally includes the following points: first, the Soviet Union can build socialism alone; second, economic and administrative planning; and third, priority development Heavy industry Fourth, high accumulation and high investment, which requires light industry and agriculture to make sacrifices for heavy industry, which is closely related to the third point. Trotsky and Zinoviev and their supporters opposed this approach, and they formed Toti union They were against Stalin, but their plan was not desirable. So, in December 1927, the Fifteenth Congress of the Communist Party of the Union (Bolshevists) overthrew these people and purged them from the organization. ^[54]

Stalin, who led the industrialization of the Soviet Union

Under Stalin, Communist Party of the USSR The Soviet Union was transformed into a heavy industrial and military power, becoming the first economic power in Europe and the second in the world. In January 1928, Stalin arrived in person Siberia Go to farmers to collect grain, first proposed Collective farm The question had become a matter of urgency, which in effect changed the resolution of the Fifteenth National Congress of the Party, which had just concluded in December 1927. Although the Fifteenth Congress of the Party raised the question of the transition to mass production, it followed the principles of Leninization, emphasizing voluntarism and state assistance, rather than the full implementation of collectivization, let alone the term "collective farm." In April 1928, the Central Committee and the Central Supervisory Commission held a joint meeting and did not adopt Stalin's resolution on accelerating the construction of collective farms and reaffirmed their adherence to the New Economic Policy. In April 1929, the sixteenth Congress of the Party adopted "on the development of the national economy. Five-year plan In 1933, the sown area of the public economy in agriculture will increase to 26 million hectares, accounting for 17.5% of the total sown area, recognizing that the small peasant economy has the potential for development, and asking the Party and the state to help. However, Stalin continued to follow his own path, launching a large-scale collectivization campaign, and from the summer of 1929 the Soviet Union entered the period of total collectivization. The Party's November Plenum, which was later held, confirmed Stalin's policy and changed the decisions of the Sixteenth Congress. By 1933, 99.8 percent of all farmers were on collective farms. ^[52]

Between 1932 and 1933, Ukraine famine The outbreak, which killed 2.5-4.8 million people, was pushed by the Soviet Union at the time Agricultural collectivization Policies have partly exacerbated the spread of famine and discouraged farmers from producing. Ukraine After independence, Western politicians and some scholars argued that the Great famine of 1932-33 was a Soviet war Ukraine Ethnic cleansing and genocide. From 1937 to 1938 it was called the Soviet Union. Great Purge "Period. During that time, 1.3 million people were sentenced, of whom 682,000 were shot. Many people in the military, economic, scientific and artistic circles were purged, and labor camps in the Soviet Union ( Gulag Any citizen or expatriate suspected of being a "reactionary" or a "spy" was put in a labor camp or even shot. Moreover, Stalin's purges targeted not only the central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the top echelons of the Soviet army, but also ordinary Soviet people.

Entering the 1930s, the international situation has undergone relatively great changes, an important manifestation is Fascism The expansion of power. In particular, the German and Japanese fascists threatened the security of the Soviet Union in both east and west, so the Soviet Union sought to improve relations with other countries to contain the forces of fascism. "In the early 1930s, the Soviet Union put forward the strategic idea of establishing an international anti-fascist united front... The Soviet Union greatly adjusted its relations with Britain, France, the United States and other countries... The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the United States (Bolshod) seriously studied the policy and concept of collective security, and on December 12, 1933, adopted a guideline on the development of the struggle Collective security The resolution ". "Collective security" means the establishment of a regional collective security system in Europe and Asia with other capitalist powers. Guided by this idea, the Soviet Union made many diplomatic efforts, such as accession League of Nations , with France, Czechoslovakia Sign a treaty of friendship. However, Britain, France and the United States practiced against fascists for various reasons Appeasement policy Therefore, the Soviet Union's idea of building a collective security system did not materialize. Munich conspiracy Relations between the Soviet Union and the West deteriorated. In 1939, the Soviet Union held talks with Britain and France to build an alliance against fascism. However, the negotiations broke down due to conflicting national interests. So soon the Soviet Union and Germany signed a treaty The Molotov-Ribbentrop pact He signed a neutrality treaty with Japan to protect his own security. ^[55]

Great Patriotic War

Beginning in the 1930s, Western countries Adopt" Appeasement policy "Placation Hitler And made the Soviet Union feel that the West was trying to bring fascism" The evil water draws from the east ". In contrast to the Soviet Union's repeated unsuccessful attempts to form a common European defense system in alliance with Britain and France, Nazi Germany Secretary of state Ribbentrop But repeatedly offered to improve relations with the Soviet Union. In 1939, the Soviet Union adopted the strategy of "pushing the disaster to the west" and finally allied with Germany and secretly signed the" The Molotov-Ribbentrop pact ".

Changes in the Western Borders of the Soviet Union (1939-1940)

World War II After the outbreak, according to the treaty demarcated spheres of influence, the Soviet Union to "establish against a German invasion. Eastern front In the name of the war, troops were sent to partition with Germany Second Polish Republic , invasion Finland And occupy Eastern Europe Some areas. Estonia , Latvia , Republic of Lithuania Was forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union, a move that accelerated the movement of its neighbors toward Fascism Axis powers It also made the Soviet Union unpopular at the beginning of World War II ^[2] . Launched by the Soviet Union in 1939 Soviet-finnish War The Finnish occupation was recaptured at great loss of life. The Soviet-Finnish war highlighted the lack of training and equipment for Soviet soldiers.

On June 22, 1941, the Germans tore up the" The Molotov-Ribbentrop pact "Blitz the Soviet Union, Soviet-german war Here. On December 6, 1941, the Soviet Army withdrew Moscow By late April of the following year, more than 50 German divisions were routed, more than 800,000 German troops were killed and wounded, the enemy was pushed back more than 150 kilometers, the threat to Moscow was lifted, and more than 60 cities were recaptured. The Defense of Moscow The victory declared the complete bankruptcy of Hitler's "Blitz" and shattered the myth of German invincibility since the beginning of World War II The Great Patriotic War A turning point. Between 1941 and 1945, the United Kingdom, together with Canada, supplied the Soviet Union with about 1.5 million tons of military supplies and food ^[3] .

In early 1943, Red Army After strong resistance, obtained Battle of Stalingrad After the victory, the Soviet army took the initiative on the battlefield.

On February 2, 1944, the Soviet Union responded to the 1936 war. Constitution of the Soviet Union Article 18 of the new Constitution states: "Every Republic has the right to develop direct relations with foreign states, to conclude agreements and to exchange diplomatic and consular representation." The new constitution also gives the republics the right to create their own armed forces. In October, the Soviet Union annexed China Outer Mongolia northwestern Tang Nu Wu Liang Hai Area.

The Soviet Union and Chiang Kai-shek, 1945 Republic of China The Government signed the" Sino-soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance cause Independence of outer Mongolia . In May, Red Army Captured the capital of Nazi Germany Berlin , Battle of Berlin Victory, Hitler's suicide, Germany's surrender, the end of the war in Europe. In order to win the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet army and people paid the death price of more than 27 million people (14% of the pre-war population), six Joining republic Occupied by Germany, 1,700 towns and more than 31,000 factories were razed to the ground, and a quarter of the nation's wealth was destroyed ^[4] . On August 8, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, sending troops into northeastern China and northern Korea. August Storm ), Kwantung Army 83,000 killed and 594,000 captured.

Victory in the Great Patriotic War

Put the victory flag on the Berlin Reichstag

"The motherland is calling!"

Stamps of the Russian Federation commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the Victory of the Great Patriotic War (1)

Victory in the Great Patriotic War

Soviet propaganda poster celebrating the 30th anniversary of the victory of the Great Patriotic War (1)

"Don't let German tanks pass through here!"

May 9, 1965 Red Square parade celebrating the 20th anniversary of the victory of the Great Patriotic War

T-34 tanks taking part in the 40th anniversary parade of the Soviet victory in the Great Patriotic War

May 9, 1990 Military parade commemorating the 45th anniversary of the victory of the Great Patriotic War

Participating in the military parade marking the 45th anniversary of the victory of the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet Army's joint military orchestra marched out

On May 9, 2015, the Russian Federation commemorated the 70th anniversary of the victory of the Great Patriotic War

On May 9, 2010, Ukraine marked the 65th anniversary of the victory of the Great Patriotic War

On May 9, 2020, Belarus commemorated the 75th anniversary of the victory of the Great Patriotic War

Join the Cold War

The Big Three at Yalta

At the end of World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States and Britain convened to discuss the post-war world pattern The Yalta Conference . The leaders of the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom attended the Yalta Conference. Through consultations, the Troika decided many post-war issues of vital interest to other countries. For example, the "Far East problem" was to sacrifice China's interests in exchange for the Soviet Union sending troops to northeast China after the end of the war in Europe The Japanese Kwantung Army The commitment to fight. This was especially true in European affairs, where the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union even privately defined their spheres of influence in Europe. The Yalta system A double composite order is created. On the one hand The United Nations As the core International order This is a grand order that applies to the whole world, and it is very broad in scope, and almost all the problems of human life are involved in it. On the other hand, there is the traditional order of great power competition, or the great power order, which is mainly concerned with the relations between great powers and the issues of war and peace. The two orders are intertwined and mutually constraining. ^[56]

World War II After that, the Soviet Union gradually became stronger and its international status greatly improved. Eastern Europe Some countries went under the influence of the Soviet Union Socialist road , plus the Soviet Union pushed ideology Export, in Europe to expand their own power, the conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union is deepening. In April 1945, Harry Truman succeed Roosevelt The next president. ^[58] Former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, 5 March 1946 Winston Churchill An anti-Soviet, anti-communist speech delivered at Westminster College in Fulton City, United States, using" Iron Curtain The term was used to attack the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Eastern Europe "enveloped in an iron curtain", hence the name of the speech. Iron Curtain Speech ". The Iron Curtain Speech is also considered to have officially opened Us-soviet Cold War The prologue. Immediately after that, Türkiye and Greece There is a crisis. In order to prevent these countries from becoming another "Iron curtain" for the Communists, avoid the secretary of State Dean Acheson Saying that "if a country leans toward communism, there will be a 'domino' effect in the neighborhood," Truman proposed what became known as containment -" Truman doctrine ". ^[58] The Truman Doctrine openly extended the security interests of the United States to the whole world, made the containment of communism the basic national policy of the United States, and was the symbol of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. After a heated debate, the United States Congress passed the "Aid to Greece, Turkey against Communism" bill on May 15. ^[57]

Confrontation between NATO and the Warsaw Pact

On August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested a bomb with a yield of 22,000 tons of TNT Atomic bomb It became the second country after the United States to possess nuclear weapons ^[5] . " North Atlantic Treaty After signing, in order to prevent Federal Republic of Germany join North Atlantic Treaty Organization The Soviet Union once proposed to conclude a peace treaty with Germany, which was rejected by Western countries. On October 23, 1954, the United States, Britain, France and other Western countries signed the" Paris Agreement ", decided to terminate on Federal Republic of Germany To occupy it, absorb it into NATO and allow it to rearm. In this context, the Soviet Union and eight other countries held a conference on the Guarantee of Peace and Security in Europe in Moscow from November 29 to December 2, declaring that they would take joint measures to guarantee their own security in the organization of armed forces and the establishment of joint commands. Soviet Union, GDR, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia On May 14, 1955, the eight countries of Bulgaria, Hungary, and Albania joined Warsaw Signed the" Warsaw Pact And was established Warsaw Pact . Obliging States parties to undertake to settle their international disputes by peaceful means and to consult on all important international questions of common interest; In the event of an armed attack by any State or group of States against one or more States Parties in Europe, each State Party shall, in accordance with Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, exercise the right of individual or collective self-defence, individually or by agreement with other States Parties, by all means it deems necessary, including the use of armed forces. Immediate assistance to a particular country or countries that have suffered such an attack. ^[59] Cold war A stand-off eventually formed.

At the end of February 1953, Stalin suffered a stroke during the night. On March 5th, Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union , Communist Party of the USSR The Central Committee and the Council of Ministers held emergency meetings, Malenkov He became chairman of the Council of Ministers, but Stalin's name still appeared (last) on the list of commissioners. The meeting had just ended, and Stalin was there The Kremlin Died.

Post-war reform

Subject article: The 20th CPC Congress , June 17 in East Germany , The Poznan incident , The Khrushchev reforms , October events in Hungary , revisionism , Cuban missile crisis

Khrushchev addressed the United Nations General Assembly

After Stalin's death, Khrushchev in 1956 The 20th CPC Congress And then rose to the pinnacle of power. The 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union brought the domestic struggle against personality cult to a climax. At the same time Khrushchev began to reform politics. The main manifestations are: strengthening collective leadership, emphasizing the separation of the highest party and government positions; Strive to improve Soviet system Strengthen socialist democracy; To rectify and reorganize the internal affairs organs, reduce the privileges of internal affairs departments and cadres, improve the legal system, and correct unjust, false and wrong cases; We will establish a system for renewing cadres, and implement a long-term system and a rotation system. These measures contributed to the normalization of domestic political life. The domestic political air has begun to become active, and the culture of "thawing" has also intensified. ^[78]

Khrushchev attached great importance to agriculture. First of all, we eased the burden on farmers by abolishing the compulsory sales system, which had been in place since the 1940s, and adopting a purchasing system for agricultural products. We adjusted the purchasing system for agricultural departments to raise the prices of agricultural products, corrected violations of the principle of material interests, and aroused the enthusiasm of farmers. ^[80] Secondly, we should carry out reclamation campaign to increase grain output. In February 1954, after hearing Khrushchev's report, the Plenum of the Party Central Committee adopted a resolution to reclaim raw and mature land on a large scale in Kazakhstan and Siberia. Third, the reorganization of agricultural machinery and tractor stations, allowing collective farms to buy large agricultural machinery, injecting the vitality of independent agricultural development into the rigid collective farm system, so that the old Soviet agricultural system was affected. Fourth, vigorously promote the maize planting campaign and develop animal husbandry. ^[81] Fifth, reform the labor remuneration system and implement it Material benefit principle To ensure that farmers have a stable income and improve farmers' productivity. ^[82] Sixth, accelerate the consolidation of farms and turn economically weak farms into state farms. Khrushchev's policy adjustment and reform promoted the development of agriculture to a certain extent and changed the backward situation of agriculture in the Soviet Union. ^[80]

In industry, Khrushchev adhered to Stalin's general line of socialist construction, which gave priority to the development of heavy industry, and criticized the deviation from this general line and the tendency to give priority to the development of light industry, thereby further widening the serious imbalance between the first and second categories of production. On economic restructuring. ^[78] First, abolish the central government and the Central government Joining republic The vast majority of the ministries of the National Economic Commission of the 105 economic administrative regions have transferred their management authority to the National Economic Commissions, and various companies have been established under the National Economic Commissions. trust Such economic joint organizations exercise specific leadership over enterprises. Secondly, most of the enterprises of the central ministries were transferred to the member Republics and economic districts, and many of the enterprises of the member Republics were transferred to the economic districts and local Soviets. The resolution and decree greatly expanded local authority by placing regional national economic councils in place of specialized ministries to regulate industry and construction. ^[83] Third, further implement the principle of material incentives, change the wage system according to the changes that have occurred in the nature of the work of the staff and the proficiency level, improve the personal material interests of the staff to care about the results of the work, through the implementation of an economically effective wage system as a stimulus to improve labor productivity. ^[84]

Nixon and Khrushchev in Moscow in July 1959

Khrushchev's reforms had achieved some success. In agriculture, the total output value in 1958 was 51% higher than that in 1953. In 1959, the grain output reached 136 million tons, 50 million tons more than in 1953, and the per capita income of farmers increased from 150 US dollars in 1953 to 600 US dollars in 1958. The agricultural structure has been adjusted, and the degree of agricultural mechanization has been greatly improved. In industrial terms, in 1955 the Soviet Union lagged behind the United States in most industrial output. Industrial output was only 35% of the United States, and by 1964 it had reached 65% of the United States. In some major industrial products has been close to or surpassed the United States. From 1953 to 1963, industrial output increased by 1.7 times. The average annual growth rate is 10.5%, twice that of the United States. Science and technology have developed considerably and partly caught up with the process of the world scientific and technological revolution. On June 2, 1954, the Soviet Union built the world's first atomic power station. On August 12 of the same year, Sakharov The first hydrogen bomb exploded successfully, and on August 26, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first intercontinental missile, and on November 4 of the same year, the world's first artificial satellite. ^[79]

After Khrushchev came to power, he decided to cooperate with the United States on major international issues and try to ease East-West tensions. He visited the United States in 1959 Eisenhower The president is in Camp David The meeting led to a general detente between the Soviet Union and the West. ^[85] His goal: by vigorously developing the national economy and military industry, so that the Soviet Union as soon as possible to achieve an equal position with the United States, and then surpass the United States, replacing the United States in the world hegemony. Khrushchev was very worried that a nuclear war between the United States and the Soviet Union would destroy the earth. But he sometimes made adventurist mistakes, such as in 1962's" Cuban missile crisis Had risked war with the United States. ^[86]

heyday

Subject article: Prague Spring , Arms race , War in Afghanistan , Soviet hegemonism , Moscow Olympic Games

Brezhnev

When Khrushchev was forced from power in a bloodless coup in 1964, Brezhnev As First secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he became the supreme leader of the Soviet Union Sherepin After the threat, follow Kosygin and Podgorny Together, they established the collective leadership system of the "troika". The Soviet Union entered the Brezhnev period.

Brezhnev ended Khrushchev's de-Stalinization and restored it to a certain extent Stalin The positive image of Khrushchev corrected the excessive criticism of Stalin, but his ideology and policy were too rigid, resulting in Overcorrect On the contrary, the Soviet state and society were lost reformation With the vitality of progress. The second half of the Brezhnev era is known as the "period of stagnation" and the "period of rigidity" in the Soviet Union. ^[6]

In 1973, under Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet Union became a net food importer for the first time in its history. In accordance with Central Intelligence Agency The average annual growth rate of national income in the Soviet Union was 5.1% from 1966 to 1970, 3% from 1971 to 1975, and 2.3% from 1976 to 1980, while the average annual growth rate of national income in the above three corresponding periods was estimated by Soviet scholars to be 4.1%, 3.2%, and 1.0%, respectively. ^[7]

During the Brezhnev era, Soviet military spending grew at a very high rate. From 1965 to 1979 Military expenditure Spending increased by more than three times, an average annual increase of 8%, after entering the 1970s, from 1972, the Soviet Union jumped to become the world's largest military spending country, its cumulative military spending in the 1970s more than the United States 20% to 30%. The Soviet Union Arms race This has serious implications for long-term economic development ^[8] . ^[6]

Reform failure

Subject article: Andropov , Chernenko , New thinking , Upheaval in Eastern Europe , Normalization of Sino-Soviet relations , Collapse of the Soviet Union

Andropov

Nov. 10, 1982. Longtime Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, former head of the KGB, dies Andropov Succeeded as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR President, after entering the Kremlin, Andropov carried out a bold reform work, carried out a drastic personnel adjustment, and contributed to the progress made in the development of the national economy and the improvement of the welfare of the people. In the rectification of labor discipline and corruption eradication, testing the water reform of the economic system and improve the economic mechanism of the experiment has achieved relatively remarkable results, some measures have also been strongly supported by the Soviet masses. Andropov is considered one of the most effective leaders in Soviet history. Andropov died of chronic kidney disease on February 9, 1984, after only one year and three months in power. With his death, the Soviet Union's "reform road" came to an end.

Chernenko

After Andropov's death, he took over General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR The chairman's Chernenko . At the time, it was clear from Chernenko's age, health and prestige that it was of a transitional nature. He took office for only 13 months, and although he failed to improve the plight of the Soviet Union at home and abroad, he did some concrete work to maintain political stability in the Soviet Union. During his administration, he emphasized the inheritance of the policy, so it was basically maintained Andropov The domestic and foreign policy of the period, first of all in the economic field, advocated the serious transformation of the entire economic system of the Soviet Union, proposed the improvement of economic activities, the reform of the forms and methods of management, and the transformation of the national economy into an efficient and orderly mechanism. It points out that the essence of economic experiment is to give enterprises more rights, improve their sense of responsibility, and get rid of excessive supervision by the central government.

After Chernenko's death, the Soviet Union moved in Gorbachev Time.

邓小平与戈尔巴乔夫

In 1988 Mikhail Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union would give up Brezhnevism To reduce interference in the internal affairs of Eastern European countries, a policy his spokesman dubbed" Sinatra doctrine ". This policy led to a series of violent "political earthquakes" in the communist countries of Eastern Europe in 1989. Upheaval in Eastern Europe ).

Gorbachev gave up politically Communist Party of the USSR Over the leadership of the state, the multi-party system will be implemented, and the guiding ideology "scientific socialism" will be changed to "humane and democratic socialism."

Gorbachev The reform eventually led to ideological chaos within the CPSU and Soviet society. August 9 incident After the outbreak, the Russian president Boris Yeltsin Got a handle on the situation. Gorbachev joined him in the purge of the Communist Party. On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev announced his resignation as President and commander in chief of the Soviet Armed Forces and transferred the authority to use nuclear weapons to the President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin .

Coup d 'etat

Subject article: August 9 incident , Collapse of the Soviet Union

with Upheaval in Eastern Europe The governments of the republics of the Soviet Union also followed the example of the Eastern European countries, intending to break away from the Soviet Union and become independent. On August 24, 1991, the second largest republic of the Soviet Union Ukraine Declaring independence, the Soviet Union began to collapse. Later, Russian President Boris Yeltsin outlawed the CPSU and restricted its activities in Russia. At the end of 1991, it signed a contract with the presidents of Belarus and Ukraine in Minsk, the capital of Belarus Commonwealth of Independent States And thus build a similar one The British Commonwealth Structure to replace the Soviet Union. The rest of the Soviet Union followed suit and left, leaving the Soviet Union in name only.

The Soviet flag was lowered over the Kremlin

On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev announced his resignation and handed over power to Russian President Boris Yeltsin. On the night of December 25th, Flag of the Soviet Union Slowly descending from the Kremlin, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was dissolved, The International Communist Movement Suffered a major setback. On December 26, delegates symbolically raised their hands, Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Self-dissolution marks the beginning of the Soviet Union as a Sovereign state Officially ending its existence from law and reality.

Collapse of the Soviet Union After the split into fifteen countries, and most of the economic and military power by the largest Allies Russian Federation Inherit.

territory

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EDITOR

Land area

The Soviet Union spanned two continents, located in Eastern Europe and Central Asia , North Asia . The longest distance from east to west is more than 10,000 kilometers, and north to south is 5,000 kilometers, with a total land area of 22,402,200 square kilometers, which is equivalent to the area of North America. Be on the verge of The Black Sea , Baltic Sea , The Arctic Ocean and Pacific . Across the sea from the United States Alaska , Japanese Hokkaido Island ( The Southern Kuril Islands The disputed territories of Japan and the Soviet Union were effectively controlled by the Soviet Union. Land separation and Norse , Finland , Poland , Czechoslovakia , Hungary , Romania , Türkiye , Iran , Afghanistan , China and North Korea Adjacent, where the same Chinese mainland the Xinjiang , Inner Mongolia , Amur River and Ji Lin There are more than 7,300 kilometers of border lines.

The coastline of the Soviet Union is the longest in the world, with more than two-thirds of its coastal border above the Arctic Circle. Murmansk, because of the warm ocean current, the Gulf Stream, while all the other coasts north of the Arctic Circle are frozen for ten months of the year.

Administrative division

At the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February 1957, Khrushchev It is suggested that "the mode of management by industry and department be changed into a new mode of management by regional principle". The National Economic Commission was established for this purpose. The original plan was to divide the country into 20 large economic regions, but due to various pressures, the new system of National Economic Councils was divided into several parts and "included" in the network of administrative divisions: 70 national economic councils were created in the Russian Federation (accounting for two-thirds of the total of 105 administrative divisions of the Soviet Union), covering 14 autonomous republics and 55 cantons and regions; The city of Moscow has a special National Economic Committee. ^[9]

In 1962, Khrushchev proposed to revise the Constitution, intending to fix the new structure of national economic management in the form of a new constitution. Article 94 of the draft Constitution states that "local Soviets shall be constituted on the basis of the principles of production and territory". Khrushchev insisted on a greater role for the Supreme Soviet and other Soviets in economic leadership. The National Economic Council became the second attempt at administrative division in the Soviet Union. However, the expansion of the powers of the National Economic Committee contradicted the stable administrative divisions of the country at that time. This reform touches on the vital interests of the cadres of various departments and meets great resistance in the implementation process. In November 1962, the number of National Economic Councils of the Russian Federation was reduced to 24 (48 for the entire Soviet Union). ^[9]

In 1991, almost all republics declared themselves federal republics, and four of the five autonomous oblasts (Adygg, Karachayev-Cherkosk, Hakas, Gorno-Altai) also declared themselves sovereign republics that were members of the Russian Federation; The Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Region, Temer Autonomous Region, Khantmansiysk Autonomous Region, and Chukki Autonomous Region all proposed to rename themselves autonomous republics. The directive of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation on free economic zones became the first official document determining the status of the regions and oblasts under the conditions of the establishment of market relations. Following the Primorye Frontier Zone (" Nakhotka "Free Economic Zone in October 1990), in 1991 Altai Krai Sakhalin, Chita, Kemerovo, Kaliningrad Novgorod, Pskov and other places have successively established free economic zones. In this way, a strange phenomenon has emerged - a federation within a federation, an autonomous republic within a federated republic, a national autonomous region within a territory or oblast. ^[9]

Including Bashkir, Buryatia Wait for 20 Autonomous republic There are 8 autonomous regions, 10 autonomous regions and 129 regions or oblasts. The year 1936 Transcaucasian Soviet Socialist Federal Republic It was divided into three republics: Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. It existed from 1940 to 1956 Karelia-finland Soviet Socialist Republic (Incorporated in 1956 Russian Federation Renamed as Autonomous Republic of Karelia ) at this time Joining republic The total was 16, and then it went back to 15.

1922 (4 republics)

1940 (16 republics)

1956-1991 (15 member republics)

Joining republic

The 16 republics that have existed in the history of the Soviet Union:

Three East Slavic kingdoms	Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
	Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
	Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic
The three Baltic States	Estonia Soviet Socialist Republic
	Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic
	Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic
Transcaucasian kingdoms	Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic
	Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic
	Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic
Five Central Asian states	Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic
	Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic
	Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic
	Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic
	Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic
Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic
Karelia-finland Soviet Socialist Republic

Changes of the national emblem of the republics before and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union

political

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EDITOR

The state system

" Constitution of the Soviet Union The Soviet Union is a federal state composed of 15 equal rights Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Socialist Republics). Soviet republics In accordance with the principle of voluntary association. The Soviet Union is a typical Soviet-style socialist country.

constitution

The Constitution of the Soviet Union is the fundamental law confirming and defining the basic principles of the social and state system of the Soviet Union. Russia October Socialist Revolution After the victory, four constitutions were promulgated in 1918, 1924, 1936 and 1977. The fifth time, July 10, 1918 All-russian Congress of Soviets The Constitution of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Fundamental Law), the first socialist constitution in the world, was adopted.

Political party

Article 6 of the Constitution of the Soviet Union states that the Communist Party of the Soviet Union is the sole ruling party of the Soviet Union, Communist Party of the USSR Its 20 million members were the ruling core of the country, and every factory and collective farm had a party branch. At the heart of the system was the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. After the Stalin era, in order to avoid the concentration of power in one hand, the CPSU implemented Collective leadership The principle is that whoever can control the majority of votes of the Central Committee can control the leadership of the party and the country.

National symbol

flag

In 1920, Soviet government Adopt a new flag, composed of red, blue, yellow three colors, the aspect ratio of 2 to 1, the left side is a vertical blue bar, the right side of the red flag with a five-pointed star and crossed hammer and sickle, after this flag Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic The flag. In 1922, after the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the flag design was modified to a red flag with a gold five-pointed star, sickle and hammer in the upper left corner. The hammer symbolizes the working class; The sickle symbolizes the peasant class, and the combination of the two is the symbol of the alliance of workers and peasants, and also the symbol of the Communist Party. The five-pointed star not only symbolizes the five fingers of each hand of workers and farmers (laborers), but also represents" Workers of the world unite "The slogan. Red is the color of revolution, and yellow is the color of revolutionary light. It is worth noting that the back of the Soviet flag does not have a pattern, for a simple red flag.

National emblem

The national emblem of the Soviet Union is oval, and the center of the pattern is painted: the earth shining on the 10,000 rays of a red sun, the earth has the pattern of sickle and hammer, its meaning is the same as the national flag, and the rising red sun symbolizes the bright future of mankind. There is a five-pointed star above the earth. The main pattern of the red sun, the earth and the five-pointed star is surrounded by ears of wheat, and the streamers wrapped around the ears of wheat are written in the words of 15 joining republics " Workers of the world, unite!" ^[10]

Emblems of the republics of the Soviet Union
Name of a republic	Emblem of the Soviet Union	The national emblem of the Soviet Union after its collapse
Russia	Emblem of Russia during the Soviet Union	Coat of arms of Russia
Ukraine	Emblem of Ukraine during the Soviet era	Coat of arms of Ukraine
Belarus	Emblem of Belarus during the Soviet period	Coat of arms of Belarus
Uzbekistan	Emblem of Uzbekistan during the Soviet period	Coat of arms of Uzbekistan
Kazakhstan	Emblem of Kazakhstan during the Soviet period	Coat of arms of Kazakhstan
Georgia	Emblem of Georgia during the Soviet period	Coat of arms of Georgia
Azerbaijan	Emblem of Azerbaijan during the Soviet period	Coat of arms of Azerbaijan
Republic of Lithuania	Emblem of Lithuania during the Soviet period	Coat of arms of Lithuania
Moldavia	Coat of arms of Moldavia during the Soviet period	Coat of arms of Moldavia
Latvia	Coat of arms of Latvia during the Soviet period	Coat of arms of Latvia
Kyrgyzstan	Emblem of Kyrgyzstan during the Soviet period	Coat of arms of Kyrgyzstan
Tajik	Emblem of Tajikistan during the Soviet period	Coat of Arms of Tajikistan
Armenia	Emblem of Armenia during the Soviet period	Coat of arms of Armenia
Turkmenistan	Emblem of Turkmenistan during the Soviet period	Emblem of Turkmenistan
Estonia	Emblem of Estonia during the Soviet era	Coat of arms of Estonia

National anthem

In January 1918, the Third Congress of the Soviets decided to adopt the" The Internationale After the formation of the Soviet Union in 1922, it became the national anthem of the Soviet Union. In the late 1930s, the Soviet Union decided to change its anthem after declaring victory for socialism. After much debate, in 1944 Stalin decided to publish the book An unbreakable alliance "Became the national anthem. After Khrushchev came to power, in a campaign to criticize the cult of personality within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the original" An unbreakable alliance The lyrics were abandoned. On 27 May 1977, the Supreme Soviet approved a revised national anthem, removing references to Stalin's personality cult. ^[11]

Military affairs

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EDITOR

Military system

Subject article: Red Army

Armed Forces of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union and Council of ministers . Carry out Universal compulsory military service He served three years in the Navy and two years in the other services.

During the Great Patriotic War, the armed forces of the Soviet Union were collectively referred to as the "Red Army and Red Navy", and after the war were renamed as the "Soviet Army and Navy", without distinguishing between independent services. After the war, the Army, Air Force and Navy were officially established in 1946. The Soviet Union restored the structure of the Headquarters of the Territorial Air Defense Forces: the commander of the Territorial Air Defense Forces was appointed, under the command of the artillery commander. In 1948, the Territorial Air Defense Force was formally established, alongside other services, and in 1946, an independent airborne command was established, with jurisdiction over the two main arms, airborne and transport aviation, and the commander of the airborne force was appointed, directly under the leadership of the People's Commissar for National Defense. ^[20]

Military force

In 1949, the Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb. In 1946, the first batch of jet fighters mig-9 and Yak-1 were produced. Production of the four-engine piston bomber began in 1947. The hydrogen bomb exploded before the United States in 1953. In 1947, the P1 missile was tested; In 1949, the high-power liquid rocket engine was successfully developed. In 1950, the P2 missile was tested. It was completed in 1963 as a missile submarine. ^[20]

By 1979, the Soviet Army had a total force of 3.658 million, 1,398 intercontinental ballistic missiles, 1,028 submarine-launched ballistic missiles, 156 long-range bombers, 50,000 tanks, 55,000 armored fighting vehicles, 40,700 artillery pieces, 248 large surface ships, and 8,479 combat aircraft. ^[20]

In March 1969, at the proposal of the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact Organization established new bodies such as the Committee of Ministers of Defense, the Military Committee of the Joint Forces, the Technical Committee and the Committee of Foreign Ministers. The Warsaw Pact organized two armed forces: the Joint Armed Forces and the "integrated" forces. ^[20]

Soviet Kirov-class nuclear missile cruiser

Army establishment

By 1991, the Soviet Army was divided into five services: Land force , navy , Air force , Territorial air defense force Strategic Rocket Force. There are also border guards and internal affairs units. It has 13 military regions, four fleets and one squadron, with a total strength of about 3.7 million men. ^[21]

The Soviet Union is Warsaw Pact The founding country, in German Democratic Republic , Poland , Czechoslovakia , Hungary , Mongolia Other countries have troops. in Vietnam , Cuba And some other Asian, African and Latin American countries also have military advisers or military advisers and technicians stationed there. ^[20]

Soviet Army system table

Soviet military forces in Germany in the late 1970s and early 1980s

Warsaw Treaty Organization insignia

Military service system
Age of onset	18 years old
Recruitment and demobilization time	Twice a year in May-June and November-December (Remote areas and abroad in June and September)
Enlisted age	Army, Air Force, Air defense Force, etc. 2 years Navy 3 years 1 year of higher education
Maximum age of service for officers	Captain under 40 years old Major, Lieutenant General 45-55 years old General, general 60 years old
Maximum age for reserve service	Soldier, Major 50 ~ 55 years old Lieutenant Colonel, Lieutenant General 60 ~ 65 years old There are no rules above
Pre-service military education	Secondary schools offer primary military education from the ninth grade onwards

economy

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EDITOR

summarize

Soviet Five-Year Plan growth map

During the Cold War, the Soviet Union was the world's second largest economy after the United States and was an economic power until it was overtaken by Japan in the late 1980s. However, unlike the United States, which practiced a capitalist free market economy, its economic model was developed according to a highly centralized socialist central planning economy, in which the state monopolized the means of production. The state controls and adjusts the economy by means of five-year plans. After the first five-year Plan from 1928 to 1932, the proportion of industrial output in the national economy rose from 48% to 70%, becoming an advanced industrial country. But industrial development in the Soviet Union was uneven ^[22] . The military industry, heavy industry, chemical industry and aerospace industry related to national defense are very developed and in a leading position in the world, but the light industry and agriculture related to people's livelihood are relatively backward. This also led to a serious shortage of light industry in post-breakup Russia and other former republics.

The economic stagnation that began in the mid-1970s evolved into a crisis in key economic sectors in the 1980s: the economic structure was unbalanced and technological processes were lagging behind. In the early 1980s, the Soviet Union had formed an extreme military-industrial economy. Military products accounted for more than 60% of the machine manufacturing industry, and military expenditure accounted for 23% of the gross national product; By the end of the 1980s, these indicators had increased to 80% and 28% respectively ^[23] . Soviet agricultural growth slowed from 4.3 per cent in the 1960s to 1.4 per cent in the early 1980s. During that period, industrial growth slowed from 8.4 per cent to 3.5 per cent. The prolonged decline of the consumer sector has limited the improvement of people's living standards and quality of life.

ASSETS

Mineral resources

In the Soviet Union Tyumen oilfield Kursk coal mine and other mineral resources, the territory of oil, gas, coal and uranium in the world have a considerable position in the precious metal mineral advantages prominent, the production of main mineral products in the world occupies an important position.

Plant resources

Boreal forest spruce , fir , loose and larch Etc., collectively referred to as Coniferous forest The largest natural area in the Soviet Union is about the size of the United States. In the mid-latitudes the wide band of taiga extends from Finland on the western border The Yansk Mountains On the northeastern and southern coasts of Siberia Baikal . Isolated parts of Daya are found along the mountains, in the southern Urals, and in the Amur River valley in the far east.

Water resources

There are The Yenisei River , Ob River , Lena River , Volga , The Dnieper River Other major rivers, there is the largest freshwater lake - Baikal.

industry

Energy industry

The Soviet Union was one of the world's major energy producers. In 1983, energy production and consumption accounted for 23% and 19% of the world, respectively. The energy industry is the key development of the basic industrial sector of the Soviet Union, accounting for 31.3% of the total industrial investment in the country from 1971 to 1984. Energy production gradually changed from coal in the 1950s to both coal and oil in the 1960s, and oil and natural gas in the 1970s. In 1983, the primary energy production structure was 43.4% petroleum, 30.8% natural gas, 24.2% coal and 1.6% other.

Oil production in the Soviet Union increased from 54.2 million tons in 1950 to 851.3 million tons in 1985, a 15-fold increase. In the 1980s, the Soviet Union was extremely dependent on oil and gas export revenues to keep its economy afloat, and the fall in oil and gas prices hit the Soviet Union hard. Energy exports accounted for 54.4% of the Soviet Union's foreign exchange earnings at its peak (1984). As world oil prices fell, oil export revenues fell from 38.8% (1985) to 33.5% (1987) of the Soviet Union's foreign exchange earnings. The Soviet Union had to increase exports to make up for the decline in foreign exchange earnings caused by the fall in oil prices. In 1980, the Soviet Union accounted for 19.5% of the world's total production, and in 1990, the Soviet Union produced 570.5 million tons, accounting for 18% of the world's total. ^[24]

Coal industry

Coal industry is the traditional energy sector. In 1984, China produced 712 million tons of coal, of which hard coal accounted for 78%. Coal mining is mainly concentrated in seven bases: Donbass , Kuzbas , Ejibastuz , Karaganda , Kansk-Achinsk, Pechora and Moscow The nearby coal fields (together 77.5% of the national coal production in 1983), of which Donbass and Kuzbass are the world's largest coal fields, accounting for 27.7% and 20.5% of the national coal production, respectively.

Textile industry

The textile industry is the most important light industry sector, the output value accounts for more than 60% of the light industry, in 1984 the Soviet Union cotton, wool, linen fabric production ranked first in the world, silk production is second to the United States and Japan. The textile industry is mainly located in the western consumer region, far from the cotton-producing regions of Central Asia. The Central District is the largest textile industrial base in the country, producing 70%, 50%, 45% and 65% of the total output of cotton, wool, silk and linen respectively. The second is The Volga Valley , Southwest, Northwest and Central Asia. The main textile industry centers are: Moscow (cotton, wool, silk, linen textile), Ivanovo (cotton, silk, linen textile), Kalinin (cotton, silk textile), Vladimir (cotton, linen textile), Kostroma (linen textile), etc.

Industrial district

The main industrial zones of the Soviet Union are concentrated in Moscow , Leningrad , Donbass , The Ural Mountains And other areas. Secondary industrial areas include the Baltic coast, Western Siberia and the middle and lower Volga (Wova) River. The Soviet Union began to implement economic zoning in 1922. In November 1982, the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union passed a resolution that the Soviet Economic Zone was 19, divided into three economic zones in the west, east and southwest.

Economic zones of the Soviet Union
Central economic zone	Central Hesse Belt Economic Zone	Volga-vyatka Economic Zone	Northern economic zone
Northwest economic zone	Economic zone along the Volga	North Caucasus Economic Zone	The Ural Economic Zone
West Siberian Economic zone	East Siberian Economic zone	Far East Economic zone	Donets-dnieper Economic Zone
Southwest economic zone	The Southern Economic Region	Baltic coastal economic zone	Transcaucasian Economic zone
Central Asian economic zone	Economic zone of Belarus	Economic zone of Kazakhstan	---

agriculture

The Soviet Union is a big agricultural country, and its agriculture occupies an important position in the world. In 1987, China's grain output was 211.4 million tons, accounting for 10.9 percent of the world's total grain output and ranking third in the world. Among them, wheat output was 83.31 million tons, ranking second in the world. Among the main cash crops, the output value of cotton, sugar beets, sunflower seeds and long fiber flax all occupy the first place in the world. Cattle account for 9.4% of the world's total livestock stock, slightly less than in the United States. Pigs account for 9.6% of the world, second only to China, and sheep account for 9.8% of the world, ranking first. In 1988, its meat production was 19.2 million tons, ranking third in the world. Milk production reached 105.95 million tons, ranking first in the world. 4.656 million tons of eggs, ranking third in the world.

The Soviet Union, with its vast territory and diverse natural conditions, has all kinds of favorable conditions for the development of various agricultural operations. Its per capita cultivated land is 0.86 hectares, equivalent to 2.4 times the world's per capita cultivated land; Pasture per capita is 1.41 hectares, 85% more than the world's per capita. The main agricultural area is also the most concentrated area of cultivated land, about 2\3 of the cultivated land is concentrated in the forest grassland belt and black soil grassland belt with better water, heat and soil conditions, which are suitable for the development of planting and animal husbandry. However, frequent natural disasters often make the agriculture here suffer huge losses, resulting in unstable agricultural production and lack of abundance. Compared with the major capitalist countries, the modernization level is not high, the unit yield of agricultural and livestock products is low, and the agricultural production efficiency is only 20-25% of that of the United States. In addition, poor management and other reasons in agriculture have affected the steady development of agriculture.

The Soviet Union became a net food importer in 1975, and food imports soared. In 1970, the net export was 3.5 million tons, grain imports and exports were flat in 1974, and tens of millions of tons were imported in 1975. Food imports from the United States and Canada alone amounted to 26.8 million tons in 1984. In 1986-1988, food shortages amounted to about 21 billion rubles (in the context of total food production of 136 billion rubles). ^[25] . In addition to a large amount of imported grain, in 1989 imported 600,000 tons of meat, 240,000 tons of cream, 1.2 million tons of vegetable oil, 5.5 million tons of sugar, and 500,000 tons of citrus.

commerce

After the October Revolution, the Soviet Union was established and developed State commerce , cooperative Commercial harmony Collective farm Commerce The three economic components of state commerce are Ownership by the whole people Commerce is the main commercial system of the city.

By the end of 1976, there were 213,000 retail commercial outlets in China, and the turnover of retail goods was 139.7 billion rubles, accounting for 69% of the total turnover of goods in the Soviet Union. Cooperative business is the socialist collective ownership business, is the main business in rural areas, in 1978 there are 540,000 members, retail commercial outlets accounted for about half of the national retail commercial outlets, in 1976 retail merchandise volume of 59.9 billion rubles, accounting for about 29% of the national retail commodity circulation.

State commerce and cooperative commerce each have their own wholesale and retail channels. The collective farm business was an important supplement to the city's non-staple food supply, with sales of 5.7 billion rubles in 1980, accounting for 2% of the total retail goods of the Soviet Union. The share of collective farm commerce in total comparable food sales averages more than 8 per cent, while products such as potatoes, fresh vegetables, fruits, berries, greens, honey, etc., account for 30-40 per cent. However, in the organization of domestic commerce, state-owned commerce has always grasped the lifeline of commodity circulation and occupies a dominant position.

Foreign trade

In terms of foreign trade, commodity import and export licensing system is implemented, which is completely monopolized by the state, and the State planning Commission issues plans for foreign trade in the form of state decrees. The Soviet Union's main imports in the 1980s were grain and foodstuffs. In 1990, these two materials accounted for more than 50 percent of total imports. The Soviet Union imported machinery and equipment from the West, including complete sets of oil extraction equipment, the proportion of total imports increased from 29.8% in 1980 to 43.8% in 1990. ^[24]

population

After the October Revolution, the urbanization of the Soviet Union developed rapidly, the number of cities and urban population were constantly increasing, and the urbanization level was rapidly improved. By January 1987, the number of cities had reached 2,176, with an urban population of 186 million, accounting for 66 percent of the country's total population. ^[13]

The 1989 census showed a total population of 286,731,000. The most populous republics are: Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Central Asian republics (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan) The birth rate is as high as 2.6% per year, compared with 0.4-0.7% in Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, Latvia and Estonia. ^[14]

Soviet Union population at a glance
A given year	population	A given year	population	A given year	population	A given year	population
1917	130 million	1926	147 million	1939	170 million	1940	194 million
1946	167 million	1979	265.5 million	1988	284.5 million	1991	286.7 million

culture

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EDITOR

Language and writing

There are about 130 indigenous languages spoken in the Soviet Union, Russian Russian is the official language of the Soviet Union, with about 137.5 million people speaking Russian as their mother tongue (1979 census data), and roughly 50 languages with fewer than 30,000 speakers. Since the 1930s, Russian (Slavic) script forms have been used as the basis for many languages of all ethnic groups in the USSR. ^[24]

Traditional festival

There are eight main public holidays in the Soviet Union, and about 30 other holidays and public holidays in total. National festivals can be divided into agricultural festivals, festivals to celebrate, festivals to sacrifice, festivals to commemorate and festivals to play. ^[65]

National holidays include New Year's Day, Soviet Army Day (February 23), Women's Day , International Workers' Day , Victory Day (May 9), Children's Day , October Revolution Day (7 November), etc. October Revolution Day, May Day in Moscow Red Square held a grand military parade. October Revolution Day in 1990 was the last military parade in Soviet history. Professional holidays include Geologist's Day (the first Monday of April), Fisherman's Day (the second Sunday of July), Naval Day (the last Sunday of July), Mining Day (the last Sunday of August), Teachers' Day (the first Sunday of October), and Soviet Police Day (November 10). ^[65]

date	name	Notes appended to a book
January 1st	New Year	International festival
February 23rd	Red Army Day	The creation of the Red Army in February 1918
March 8th	International Women's Day	International festival
April 12th	Space day	1961 Yuri Gagarin made the first manned space flight
The first of May	International Workers' Day	It is celebrated on May 1st and 2nd
On May 9th	Victory Day	Nazi Germany surrendered and the Great Patriotic War ended
October 7th	Soviet Constitution Day	The 1977 version of the Constitution was adopted, December 5, 1936-1977
November 7th	October Revolution Day	The October Revolution of 1917

Literature and art

Literature, art, film, and publishing in the Soviet Union were controlled by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and free creativity was allowed as long as political criticism was avoided and works were censored. But so-called "negative", "decadent" works (equivalent to Western Avant-garde art Be restricted and prohibited.

Soviet writers' institutions are Union of Soviet Writers . ^[66] Some writers and artists achieved great achievements in the Soviet era, for example, writers Gorky , the writer Ostrovsky , the POET Yesenin , Akhmatova The novelist and poet who won the Nobel Prize for Literature Pasternak , novelist Sholokhov , director Tarkovsky , musician Shostakovich , the dancer Ulanova And so on, many of them enjoyed a high reputation not only within the Soviet Union but also internationally. ^[64]

constructivism (2 photos)

In terms of art, there are two representative pillars of Soviet aesthetics constructivism with brutalism . They are independent of each other and merge with each other to form the Soviet aesthetic. At the time of the success of the October Revolution, the avant-garde artists hoped that the new art form could get rid of the pride of the artists and the wealth of the aristocratic class, so as to penetrate into the life of the people and embody the spirit of the working class and the Communist ideal. With the success of the Soviet Union, artists carried forward this irrational overhead art style, and gradually evolved into a sense of Soviet originality constructivism . ^[75]

Science and technology

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EDITOR

Scientific and technological system

In order to take advantage of the prestige of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the world scientific community, the Soviet government celebrated the 200th anniversary of the establishment of the Academy of Sciences in 1925, and changed the name of the Russian Academy of Sciences to "Soviet Academy of Sciences". From 1925 until World War II, the Soviet Academy of Sciences was brought under the direct authority of the Soviet Government (1933); Headquarters moved from Leningrad to Moscow (1934); The Engineering Science Division was established (1935) to promote basic scientific research with military scientific research and improve the overall level of military scientific research and military production; Recommend members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and military industry managers to become academicians; We will significantly increase the number of research institutions, researchers and funding. However, the CPSU leaders also persecuted and suppressed intellectuals through the establishment of "Sharaskar" institutions and "Great purges". ^[67]

When World War II broke out in 1941, the Soviet government established a "mobilization" mode of scientific research management and operation in response to the war, relying on an efficient social organization management network integrating "politics, military, industry, science and technology" to unite the whole people and ultimately win the war. In this system, Stalin had absolute command, strict control of the institutions from the top down, and rapid feedback through the KGB intelligence system. Scientists directly participate in important military research projects in the system and establish a symbiotic relationship with those in power. ^[67]

After 1945, Stalin and the subsequent Soviet leaders maintained and expanded the "mobilization" model, integrating the research and development and comprehensive utilization of computers, atomic energy and space into the priority development strategic fields, and creating a five-part integrated national science and technology system with rigid structure of "politics, military, industry, science and education", which achieved breakthroughs in science and technology in a short period of time. To achieve the purpose of comprehensively developing basic research, protecting the national defense industry and national security. ^[67]

In April 1961, the State Science and Technology Committee was changed to the State Scientific Research Coordination Committee of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union. In 1978, it was renamed the State Committee of Science and Technology of the Soviet Union. ^[18]

aerospace

The first man in space was Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin^[73]

Soviet space research originated Tsiolkovsky The idea of using rockets for space flight in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1920s and 1930s, Tsiolkovsky's ideas were widely spread in the wave of socialist construction, which stimulated the great interest of the Soviet public in the space industry. In 1924, the Soviet Union established the world's first space flight research organization, the Interplanetary Communication Group. From 1930 to 1933, the Soviet Union developed the first liquid rocket engines and the world's first electric heating rocket engines. In 1933, the Soviet Military Commission approved the establishment of the world's first national rocket technology research institute - Jet Science Research Institute. This marked that Soviet rocket research was incorporated into the national military scientific research system. But, with the leader Tukhachevsky The marshal was killed in the "Great Purge," and Soviet rocket research came to a near standstill. ^[67]

Soviet orbital Sputnik stamp

After the end of the second world war, the Soviet Union absorbed a large number of excellent German engineers and technicians on good terms. After five years of study and nearly 3 billion rubles of research and development investment, the Soviet Union for the first time independently designed and developed an improved version of the V-2 rocket - the P-2 rocket, the world's first nuclear bomb delivery vehicle P-5M rocket and the first intercontinental ballistic missile P-7. But the main man in charge of Soviet aviation Korolev More concerned with the peaceful development of space. He used the P-7 to successfully launch the world's first artificial Earth satellite in 1957, ushering in the human space age. ^[67] 1959 The Soviet space probe Luna II sent back the first images of the far side of the moon. 1961, Hero of the Soviet Union Yuri Gagarin Go into space aboard the Orient 1 spacecraft and become the first person to go into space. In 1986, the Soviet Union launched Mir space Station Before it crashed in 2001, it was the largest aircraft ever built. 1988, the Soviet Union The space shuttle Blizzard The successful launch was the culmination of Soviet aviation technology. ^[68]

The research and development of rocket technology and space flight in the Soviet Union "experienced a process from expert consciousness to top-level decision-making of the government", which was a process of strategic selection and integrated construction of basic science, applied science, natural resources, human resources and technical equipment by pooling the efforts of the Soviet Union. It shows the superiority of systematization, informationization and rapidity of the five-in-one nationalized science and technology system of "politics, military, industry, science and education", which is an important sign that the Soviet Union has reached the top of the scientific and technological power. ^[67]

Theoretical research

1922, according to Einstein the General relativity , Soviet scientist Alexander Friedman The universe is still expanding. 1934. Soviet scientist Pavel Cherenkov It was found that a particle traveling at close to the speed of light emits light when it passes through a liquid or translucent object. This phenomenon became known in physics as" Cerenkov radiation ". This principle has since been widely applied High energy physics It is used to detect charged particles and measure their velocity. ^[69]

Jofei, A.ha. He was a leading scientist in the history of Soviet science and was at the heart of the development of Soviet physics throughout his life. Jofei is the first person engaged in semiconductor research in the Soviet Union, in the 1930s and 1940s, Jofei and his colleagues together on the properties of semiconductors, photovoltaic batteries, thermoelectric effect to do research, began to study miniaturization in the 1950s, these have played a positive role in the development of Soviet physics and Soviet industry. He also advocated the establishment of the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology in 1918. The Institute is the cradle of Soviet physics and the center of the development of Soviet physics, but also the birthplace of the Jofei School. The main members of the Joffe school are Kapitza , Kurchatov , Landau Luginsky, Semenov , Gikoin, Mikheev, and many others. Among them Semenov , Landau, Kapitza Both won Nobel Prizes. ^[72]

The achievements of the Jofei School in theoretical research are very creative, especially in the field of condensed matter physics, which is in a leading position in the world. The leading figure in this field was Landau, who made an outstanding contribution to the development of physics in the Soviet Union and was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962 for his fundamental theory of liquid helium. Joffe and other members of the school also made important contributions to this, such as Kapitza's research on low temperature in the 1920s while in England, and his research on new methods of air liquefaction in 1936-1938; In 1937, the invention of liquid helium super liquid was announced, and in 1940, the temperature change under the condition of helium from solid to liquid was discovered, known as the "Kapitcha qualitative change", and in 1978, he was also awarded the Nobel Prize for his inventions and creations in the field of low temperature physics. ^[71] Lev Landau He also introduced the famous "Ten Commandments of Landau". ^[70] ^[72]

After the end of World War II, most of the leading nuclear and atomic physicists of the Soviet Union participated in research related to the development of nuclear weapons, led by Kurchatov. Kurchatov was the leader of the Soviet atomic weapons program and made a major contribution to the creation of the technical base for the atomic nucleus. He began to study nuclear physics in 1933 and achieved important results. 1934 research branch nuclear reactions, known as "electron bombardment"; Isomerism was discovered in 1935. These works were very important for the study of nuclear reactions and dynamical structures, enriching his theory of the atomic nucleus, and contributing to his series of studies on heavy nuclear fission. In 1942, the Moscow Second Nuclear Weapons Research Laboratory was established under the leadership of Kurchatov, and its backbone was Aleksandrov. In 1949, the Soviet Union successfully developed the first atomic bomb, and all members of the Jofei School participated in its development. The Soviet Union exploded its first thermonuclear bomb in 1953, and under Kurchatov's leadership the peaceful use of atomic energy developed. ^[72]

In 1975, for his contributions to the theory of optimal allocation of resources, Kontorovich He shared the Nobel Prize in Economics with the American economist Garin Koopmans, becoming the first Soviet economist to win the prize. ^[76]

category	Prize winner
The year 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry	Nikolai Semyonov
The year 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics	Lev Landau
The year 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics	Nikolai Gennadyevich Basov , Alexander Mikhailovich Prokhorov
The year 1975 Nobel Prize in Economics	Leonid Kontorovich
The year 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics	Peter Kapitza
The year 1990 Nobel Peace Prize	Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev
Source of information: ^[74]

traffic

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EDITOR

summarize

Because of its vast territory and the uneven distribution of population, resources, industry and agriculture, transportation was particularly important for the development of the Soviet economy. In 1984, the total turnover of goods in China was 7,682.1 billion ton-kilometers, of which 47.4% were railways, 30.8% were pipelines (including only crude oil, oil products and natural gas pipelines), 12.1% were maritime, 6.2% were highways, 3.5% were river transport, and the proportion of air transport was very small. In 1984, the country's railway operating mileage was 144,100 km, second only to the United States, of which 47,900 km were electrified.

Sea transport

Shipping has developed rapidly since the late 1950s. In 1982, the total tonnage of merchant ships over 1 million tons was 23.79 million tons, accounting for 5.6% of the world's total merchant shipping tonnage, ranking fifth in the world. Ocean transportation accounts for more than 2/3 of its cargo turnover. Of the five merchant fleets in the Black Sea, Baltic Sea, North Sea, Far East and Caspian Sea, the first four are mainly responsible for ocean transport. In the early 1980s, there were only 12 ports with an annual throughput of more than 10 million tons, and most of them were comprehensive ports. The Black Sea - Sea of Azov is the largest sea area in terms of cargo and passenger traffic in the country (accounting for 69% of the country's maritime cargo turnover and 65% of passenger traffic in the late 1970s). Major seaports are The Black Sea littoral Novorossiysk , Odessa , Tuapuche , Ilichovsk, Batumi ; Baltic Sea littoral Ventspils , Leningrad , Klaipeda ; Pacific coastal Nakhodka , Vostochny , Vladivostok ( Vladivostok ); Arctic coastal Murmansk Let's wait.

Transport by river

There are 63 rivers with a length of more than 1,000 kilometers. Since the 1930s, the Soviet Union has been renovating some of the great rivers in Europe, building a series of navigable canals and large scale Water conservancy project Have communicated Volga , Kama , The Don River , The Dnieper River , Moskva River , Neva Wait for six big rivers, realized White Sea , Baltic Sea , Caspian Sea , The Black Sea and Azov Sea The five seas are open to navigation. Since the 1960s, a deep-water waterway with a total length of 6,600 kilometers and a depth of 3.65 meters has been built, connecting major rivers in the western region into a complete water transport network. In 1984, China's inland waterway mileage reached 137,000 kilometers. The busiest river transport is the Volga river system, accounting for 55% of the country's river freight and 48% of passenger traffic in the late 1970s.

railway

The Soviet railway is a very large railway transportation system and the most important mode of transportation in the Soviet Union. The distribution is very uneven, with the western region accounting for about 70% of the country's total railway length, with the central, southern and western parts of Europe being more dense.

By 1989, before the collapse of the Soviet Union, the length of railway operation in the Soviet Union was 147,500 kilometers, second only to the United States; Among them, the length of electrified railway ranks first in the world, with a total length of 53,800 kilometers, accounting for 36.5 percent of the country's railway operating mileage. The total length of double-track railway sections is 53,800 kilometers, accounting for 36.5 percent of the country's railway operating mileage. More than 4 billion tons of cargo and 4.3 billion passengers were transported that year. Soviet railways accounted for 55% of the country's freight turnover and 37% of passenger turnover.

Pipeline transportation

Pipeline transportation is the fastest developing mode of transportation since the 1970s. In 1984, there were 78,300 kilometers of trunk pipelines and 165,000 kilometers of trunk pipelines. The basic flow of the pipeline is from east to west, that is, from western Siberia to the western region, and some pipelines go west to some countries in Eastern and Western Europe. In addition, there are a small number of south to north or north to south pipelines, such as the pipeline from Central Asia to the Central region and the Urals.

Air transport

Air transport is mainly responsible for passenger transport. In 1984, the length of China's civil aviation routes was 1.02 million kilometers, of which domestic routes were 838,000 kilometers, and the passenger transport turnover accounted for 18.6 percent of the country's total. Moscow It is the largest airport in the country, and there are other major airports Leningrad , Kyiv , Sverdlovsk , Novosibirsk , Tashkent and Irkutsk Let's wait.

nation

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EDITOR

There are more than 100 ethnic groups in the Soviet Union:

Population proportion	nation
51%	Russian nationality
15%	Ukrainian nationality
6%	Uzbek nationality
4%	Belarusian
About 24%	Kazakhs, Tatars, Azerbaijanis, Armenians, Georgians, Moldovans, Tajiks, Lithuanians, Turkmen, Germans, Kyrgyz, Jews, Latvians, Estonians, etc
other	Chuvash, Dagestan, Bashkir, Polish, Finnish, Lapp, Mongolian, Kurdish, etc

diplomacy

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EDITOR

generality

By the end of 1991, the Soviet Union had diplomatic relations with 152 countries and joined more than 500 international organizations. The main areas of Soviet influence were Eastern Europe and scattered countries in Asia.

The Soviet Union facilitated the creation of the socialist bloc, Socialist camp Founded in 1949, it initially included 13 socialist countries, including the Soviet Union, Poland, the Democratic Republic of Germany, and Czechoslovakia. Yugoslavia was expelled from the socialist bloc by the Soviet Union after 1950. China's relations with the Soviet Union deteriorated in 1960 and it essentially withdrew from the socialist bloc. Later, Vietnam, Cuba, Angola, Ethiopia and other countries also joined the socialist camp, reaching a maximum of 17 countries. In response, economic and military cooperation organizations among socialist countries were also established. Committee for mutual Economic assistance Founded in 1949 and headquartered in Moscow, it has 10 member countries, including the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Eastern Europe. On May 14, 1955, eight countries, including the Soviet Union, signed the Warsaw Pact, which was established on this basis Warsaw Pact It has long been in military competition and confrontation with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

Socialist country after World War II

In 1964, after Brezhnev came to power, the Soviet Union's foreign strategic thinking once again tended to internationalism, actively engaged in arms race with the United States, and strictly controlled it Satellite state While expanding its sphere of influence in the Third World, 1968, The Soviet Union invaded Czechoslovakia . In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan . In 1985, after Gorbachev became the new leader of the Soviet Union, he began to shrink the internationalist foreign strategy and improve relations with the United States ^[26] And carry out a comprehensive strategic contraction in third world countries ^[27] While improving relations with socialist countries.

Prague Spring

With Eastern Europe

The Soviet Union had a lot of influence in Eastern Europe, and most of the socialist countries in Eastern Europe were more or less manipulated by the Soviet Union ^[28] . ^[29] During the Cold War, the boundary between the Soviet-controlled or independent socialist states of Eastern Europe and the capitalist and neutral states of the West was called Iron Curtain East of the Iron Curtain was the Soviet sphere of influence, which formed the Warsaw Pact to counter NATO.

Eastern European countries in the Soviet sphere of influence: Bulgaria, German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Poland. Yugoslavia and Albania, although socialist, were not allied with the Soviet Union. Part of Austria's eastern territory was occupied by the Soviet Union until 1955 Austria Declare as A permanent neutral state Until.

With Asia

The Soviet Union had great influence in Asia, and there were countries in Central Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East that had very close relations with the Soviet Union, especially in East Asia and Southeast Asia. The Soviet Union actively developed relations with South Asian countries in the early years of the Cold War. ^[30]

Asian countries in the Soviet sphere of influence: Mongolia, Afghanistan (until 1979), Vietnam, India, Laos, South Yemen.

In 1950, China and the Soviet Union signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance, which was abolished in 1980.

Sino-soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance

With Africa

The Soviet Union had sporadic Allies in Africa, mainly in South Africa and East Africa. African countries in the Soviet sphere of influence or allied with the Soviet Union: Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Ethiopia.

And America

Subject article: Cuban missile crisis

The Soviet Union also had Allies in Central America, mainly Cuba ^[31] Wait for the country. Most of these countries broke away from the Soviet Union during the middle and late years of the Soviet Union, the end of communist regimes, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the end of the Cold War.

With China

Subject article: Sino-soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance , Sino-soviet controversy , Zhenbao Island self-defense counterattack , The Tilekti affair , Agreement between the People's Republic of China and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Eastern section of the Sino-Soviet border

On March 23, 1935, the Soviet Union and Japan , The "Manchukuo" Officially signed for resale Middle East railway A deal for the manchukuo.

On August 21, 1937, the Soviet Union and China signed a treaty Sino-soviet non-aggression pact He began to expand military assistance to China and supported China's war of resistance in various forms of military assistance ^[32] . In 1937-39, the Soviet Union and China signed three contracts totaling $250 million Loan agreement ^[33] . At the same time, military advisers were sent to take part in the combat command ^[34] Set up a volunteer air force to fight in China ^[35] . On September 27, 1940, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed the Treaty of Alliance, and the relations between the Soviet Union and Germany and Japan deteriorated. The Soviet Union tried to ease the tension between the Soviet Union and Japan Soviet-german war On the eve of the outbreak, the Soviet Union and Japan signed a treaty in Moscow on April 13, 1941. Soviet-japanese neutrality Treaty " ^{[37] 36 -} .

From February 4 to 11, 1945, the heads of state of the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom and their foreign ministers signed a secret agreement on the question of Japan. The Yalta Agreement " ^[38] . In April 1945, the Soviet Union announced the abolition of the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Treaty and declared war on Japan on August 8. On August 9, the Soviet army crossed the Sino-Soviet and Sino-Mongolian borders to The Japanese Kwantung Army Launch a surprise attack. ^[39] On August 14th, Republic of China Delegates were forced to sign a treaty with the Soviet Union Sino-soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance ".

1949年毛泽东访问苏联时与斯大林在一起

On October 2, 1949, the second day after the founding of the People's Republic of China, the Soviet Union announced its recognition of New China. The following day, China and the Soviet Union formally established diplomatic relations. ^[40] The Soviet Union was the first country to recognize and establish diplomatic relations with New China. In 1950, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China signed a treaty Sino-soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance ".

Korean War During the period, the Soviet side provided military assistance to China in China The first five-year plan , Second five-year Plan During the period, the focus of Soviet aid to China was the construction of "156" basic industrial facilities.

Sino-soviet relations deteriorated sharply in the 1960s, and aid was greatly reduced until terminated. In 1962, China and India clashed militarily. Sino-indian War Soviet side supported India. In 1969, large-scale military clashes broke out between China and the Soviet Union on the border, including Battle of Zhenbao Island . In August of the same year, the Soviet Army was on the western border of China and the Soviet Union Oh, Tirekti Retaliatory strikes were carried out on the Chinese side, and the two sides once again engaged in armed conflict. The history of this series of events is called" Sino-soviet border conflict ". The two countries were on the brink of nuclear war.

In 1985, Gorbachev came to power and began to adopt a more conciliatory foreign policy, which received a positive response from China. In May 1989, Gorbachev visited China and relations between the two sides were further restored.

On May 16, 1991, China and the Soviet Union signed the" Agreement between the People's Republic of China and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Eastern section of the Sino-Soviet border ". ^[88]

On December 27, 1991, State Councilor of the People's Republic of China Minister of Foreign Affairs Qian Qichen Call the Foreign Minister of the Russian Federation and announce the recognition of the Government of the People's Republic of China Government of the Russian Federation And decide the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the People's Republic of China to the former Soviet Union Wang Jingqing He was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the Russian Federation. Qian Qichen also called separately Ukraine , Belarus , Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan , Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan , Turkmenistan , Georgia , Armenia , Azerbaijan , Moldova The foreign ministers of 11 countries announced The People's Republic of China It recognizes the independence of these States and is prepared to negotiate diplomatic relations with them separately. ^[87]

戈尔巴乔夫与邓小平亲切握手

society

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EDITOR

People's livelihood

The main social security system of the Soviet Union consisted of the retirement pension system ^[15] The subsidy system, the medical care system and the social service system.

The social security system of the Soviet Union was the first social security system under socialist conditions in the world. In 1918, the "Regulations on Social Security for Workers" approved by the People's Committee of the Socialist Federation of Russia was implemented. In 1927, high-standard retirement security benefits were implemented for labor heroes. In 1928, the first state decree on pension treatment in the Soviet Union decided to introduce a pension system for textile workers: men from the age of 60, women from the age of 55. In 1936, the Constitution of the Soviet Union established in legislation material security in the event of old age, sickness and incapacity for work. On October 1, 1956, the Soviet Union implemented the State Guarantee Law. Since 1964, the Soviet Union has implemented state social insurance and state deposit treatment for the main cadres of the farms. Since 1969, social insurance has been introduced for farm workers. On July 15, 1970, the Soviet Union promulgated the Principles of Labor Legislation. The Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, adopted on October 7, 1977, established a unified Soviet civil social security system.

medium

The official news agency TASS . The official newspaper of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was Pravda Other major newspapers are Izvestia , Komsomolskaya Pravda , Literary newspaper, Labour Daily , Red Star Let's wait.

education

Subject article: Education in Soviet Union

Education in the Soviet Union is very popular and lasts for ten years throughout the country China compulsory education And basically eliminated illiteracy. According to statistics, in 1983, the Soviet Union spent 33.9 billion rubles on education, accounting for 6.3% of the national income. In 1984, there were 138,000 pre-school education institutions and 7,624 vocational and technical schools in the Soviet Union. ^[17] ^[19]

In 1930, the sixteenth Congress of the Communist Party of China put forward the task of universal compulsory primary education, and the work of universal compulsory primary education was fully realized in 1934. Since 1925, in Colleges and universities Start setting up Graduate department In 1934, the system of academic degrees and academic titles was officially established. Of the 874 institutions of higher learning with open enrollment listed in the 1984 All-Soviet College Enrollment Manual, 398 were administered by the Ministry of Higher and secondary Professional Education of the Soviet Union and its member republics, while the rest were administered by relevant ministries and social organizations. The Ministry of Higher and Secondary Education of the Soviet Union directly managed 32 universities, of which 3 were comprehensive universities, 4 were economics colleges, 1 was law colleges, 1 was foreign language teachers' college, and the remaining 22 were engineering and technical colleges. Famous universities in the Soviet Union are Moscow University , People's Friendship University of Russia , Leningrad University , Kharkiv University , Kiev University School of International Relations, etc. ^[16]

Physical education

The Soviet Union held it in 1980 The 22nd Olympic Games , and its results in major international multi-sport Games:

Sports type	Number of gold MEDALS	Silver MEDALS	Bronze MEDALS	Total medal count	Ranking (Europe)	Ranking (World)
Summer Olympic Games	395	319	296	1010	1	2
Winter Olympic Games	78	57	59	194	3	4
Summer universiade	407	329	253	989	1	2
Winter universiade	95	85	63	243	2	2
World games	15	13	8	36	11	18

Successive leaders

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EDITOR

Supreme leader

Leaders of the Soviet Union
Photos of people	name	Term of office	remark
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin	Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (B - l - e ́ h - l - l ́ h - l - l - e ́ c - l - l - l - l)	November 8, 1917 - January 21, 1924	People's Committee of the Soviet Union Chairman, Workers' and Peasants' Defence Committee chairman ^[12]
Josef Vesalionovich Stalin	Josef Vesalionovich Stalin (Ring-threshold) I phi B I) (Ring-threshold)	April 3, 1922 - March 5, 1953	In April 1922, at the first meeting of the newly elected Central Committee of the 11th Congress of the Party, he was elected general secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (Bolshevik) ^[41] . 1941 Also Chairman of the People's Council of the Soviet Union (renamed Chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1946) ^[41] . Nationality: Georgians
Georgi Maximilianovich Malenkov	Georgi Maximilianovich Malenkov (Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe Zhe)	March 6, 1953 - September 6, 1953	Stalin's successor after his death on 5 March 1953. ^[49]
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev	Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (Osan osan Osan Osan osan osan osan osan osan osan osan osan osan osan osan osan osan osan	September 7, 1953 - October 14, 1964	First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union He served concurrently from 1958 to 1964 Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union . It was convened in 1956 The 20th CPC Congress In October 1964, Brezhnev was forced from power by a coup d 'etat.
Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev	Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev (Л е о н и ́ д И л ь и ́ discusses some related problems Б р е ́ ж н е kind guide)	October 14, 1964 - November 10, 1982	First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (renamed General Secretary on 8 April 1966). He served from 1960 to 1964 and from 1977 to 1982 Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR . Nationality: Ukrainians
Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov	Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov (Ю ́ р и й В л а д и ́ м и р о kind guide и discusses some related problems А н д р о ́ п о kind guide)	November 12, 1982 - February 9, 1984	General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR .
Konstantin Ustinovitch Chernenko	Konstantin Ustinovitch Chernenko (a) a) A) A) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a)	February 13, 1984 - March 10, 1985	General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR .
Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev	Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (Manna x x density C) (Manna x x density C)	March 11, 1985 - August 24, 1991	General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from August 1, 1988 to May 25, 1989 Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR He served from March 14, 1990 to December 25, 1991 President of the Soviet Union .

Head of state

The nominal head of state of the Soviet Union was the leader of the Soviet Union, originally All-russian Congress of Soviets Chairman of the Executive Committee / Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union Chairman, since 1938 Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR , after 1990 President of the Soviet Union .

job	name	Term of office
All-russian Congress of Soviets Chairman of the Executive Committee	Lev Borisovich Kamenev	November 9, 1917 - November 21, 1917
	Yakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov	November 21, 1917 - March 16, 1919
	Mikhail Fyodorovich Vladimir Sky	March 16, 1919 - March 30, 1919
	Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin	December 30, 1919 - July 19, 1938
Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union chairman	Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin	30 December 1922 to 12 January 1938
Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Chairman of the bureau	Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin	From 17 January 1938 to May 1946
	Nikolai Mikhailovich Shwernik	May 9, 1946 - March 15, 1953
	Clement Evromovich Voroshilov	March 15, 1953 - May 7, 1960
	Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev	May 7, 1960 - July 5, 1964
	Anastas Ivanovich Mikoyan	July 5, 1964 - December 9, 1965
	Nikolai Viktorovich Podgorny	December 9, 1965 - June 16, 1977
	Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev	June 16, 1977 - November 10, 1982
	Vasily Vasilyevich Kuznetsov	November 10, 1982 - June 16, 1983
	Yuri Andropov	June 16, 1983 - February 9, 1984
	Vasily Vasilyevich Kuznetsov	February 9, 1984 - April 11, 1984
	Konstantin Ustinovitch Chernenko	April 11, 1984 - March 5, 1985
	Vasily Vasilyevich Kuznetsov	From March 5 to July 27, 1985
	Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko	July 27, 1985 - August 1, 1988
	Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev	August 1, 1988 - December 25, 1991
Note: In 1990, the Congress of the People's Congress of the Soviet Union adopted the Law on the establishment of the Post of President of the Soviet Union Constitution of the Soviet Union The Supplementary Law was amended to establish the President of the Soviet Union, and Gorbachev became the first president of the Soviet Union.

Head of government

The head of government of the Soviet Union is People's Committee of the Soviet Union Chairman / Council of ministers Chairman, Prime Minister of the Soviet Union after 1990.

job	name	Term of office
Soviet Russia, People's Committee of the Soviet Union chairman	Vladimir Ilyich Lenin ^[12]	November 8, 1917 - January 23, 1924
	Alexey Ivanovich Rykov	January 23, 1924 - December 19, 1930
	Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov	December 19, 1930 - May 6, 1941
	Josef Vesalionovich Stalin	May 6, 1941 - March 19, 1946
Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union	Josef Vesalionovich Stalin	March 19, 1946 - March 5, 1953
	Grigory Maximilenovich Malenkov	March 5, 1953 - February 8, 1955
	Nikolai Alexandrovich Bulganin	February 8, 1955 - March 27, 1958
	Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev	March 27, 1958 - October 15, 1964
	Alexey Nikolaevich Kosygin	October 15, 1964 - October 23, 1980
	Nikolai Alexandrovich Tikhonov	October 23, 1980 - September 27, 1985
	Nikolai Ivanovich Ryzhkov	September 27, 1985 - January 14, 1991
Premier of the Soviet Union	Valentin Sergeyevich Pavlov	January 14, 1991 - August 24, 1991

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