Germanic ( Latin : Germani; German : Germanen), they are Roman Empire Period and Celts , Slavs Together they were called by the Romans Europe Three big barbarian It is also one of the representative nationalities of today's Europeans.

The earliest written account of the Germanic people is Ancient Greek WRITER Pythias travelogue ^[1] The Romans Tacitus said Celts According to Rhine The peoples of Edom are the "Germans". Ancient Rome autocrat Gaius Julius Caesar Also in" The Gaulish War The Germanic people are mentioned. ^[2]

Nowadays Sweden In the south, Norse westbound Scandinavia It is considered to be the homeland of the Germanic people, who later migrated to southern Europe Roman Empire During the period they moved south into northern Germany and split into multiple tribes, driving out the inhabitants Alps On the vast plains of the north Celts . Western Roman Empire After its demise, a number of countries were established on its ruins, and in the process of development, they vigorously absorbed, inherited and carried forward the origin Ancient Greek with Ancient Rome The knowledge and experience of natural science, legal and reformed in ancient Rome Christianity (of Jewish origin), which rose rapidly before the 13th century.

current Norse , Danes , Swede , Icelanders , German , Austrians , Swiss , English ( The Anglo-Saxons ), Netherlander , Flemish , Luxembourger All are Germanic, of which the German, Austrian and Swiss languages are German .

Chinese name: The Germans
Foreign name: Latin: Germani; German: Germanen
species: Indo-European - The Germanic language family
categorize: North Germanic, West Germanic
Represent the country: Norse , Denmark , Sweden , Iceland , Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Britain , Netherlands , Belgium , Luxembourg

Have faith in: Protestantism , Catholicism
Ancient mythology: Norse mythology
origin: Scandinavia
Documentary record: " Ada "" The Nibelungen Song "
Wenzi: Rune letter , Latin alphabet
Physical characteristics: She was tall, with blond, silver, brown hair and blue eyes

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Origin of name

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EDITOR

Origin of name

The etymology of the word "Germanic" is uncertain. The most plausible theory currently holds that the word "Germanic" is derived from Gaulish The "proximity" (* ger ) and "people" (* mani Composition, as a contrast, today Welsh In the "near" made ger "Neighbor" in Old Irish gair And today Irish There is a prefix gar- (adjacent), and adjective garach (adjacent). It is also said that the word "Germanic" is used in Celtic Noisy; Such as The Breton language with Cornish In the "cry" made garm "Call" in Irish gairm . In addition to this, scholars have proposed that the word "Germanic" is derived from the Germanic word for "spear/gun" (* G ē r ) and "people" ( manni ) synthesis; Medieval times Dutch the ghere , Old High German the Ger , and Old Norse the geirr Such words can be used as reference.

In the old days, Germanic refers to the region inhabited by the Germanic people, and later in some modern languages, such as English, Greek language , Italian and Russian It is reserved for use as a term for "Germany".

Historical evolution

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EDITOR

Historical evolution

The ethnic origins of the Germanic peoples are not clearly defined. It is said to use iron Nordic People and use Bronze ware , exercise Indo-European the Baltic Sea A mixture of South Shore residents, Bronze Age Later, these people lived in the present Sweden The south, Denmark The peninsula and northern Germany lie between The Ames River , Oder The area between the Hartz Mountains. ^[3]

The earliest use of the word "Germanic" was by Greek historians Posidonius . He first used the term around 80 BC. Perhaps he heard the word in contact with a small people in Central Europe that cannot be identified today and applied it to all the Germanic peoples, it is possible that the name of such a small people later became the name of an entire group of peoples. ^[2]

The Germans

51 BC Cesar In his book The Gaulish War The name "Germanic" is used. Caesar in the campaign of Eastern Gaul will come from Rhine Eastern already Celts The German opponents and other mixed populations are collectively known as the Germanic peoples. Before that the Romans called the peoples of Western Europe Celts The peoples of eastern Europe were called the Cythians. By this time, the Romans realized that the Germans were not Celts, but a separate ethnic group. Tacitus It is said that the Celts called the peoples east of the Rhine "Germanic", and later these peoples themselves called themselves Germanic. According to this statement, the word could have come from Celtic Come here. It is only from this time that one can strictly speak of these peoples as Germanic. The Bronze Age people of northern Europe were almost certainly Germanic. The relationship between the so-called Tomahawks and the Germans is disputed. The latest theory, based on the study of rivers and place names, places the Germanic peoples in the northern mountains of what is now central Germany. But most scholars are skeptical of the theory. ^[2]

In Tacitus' time, the various Germanic peoples were aware of one another kinship . Some Germans who served in the Roman army sometimes called themselves Germani, while those living east of the Rhine did not have a collective name for themselves until the 11th century, when they adopted diutisc (modern German deutsch, meaning "of the people") comes from the word "weigh," from which the word became popular. As for Germani Clan name And the language spoken by the people, the exact meaning is unknown.

Bronze Age Later, the Germanic people lived in the present Sweden The south, Denmark The peninsula and northern Germany lie between Emme , Oder Between the Harz Mountains. With the application of iron, economic development and Natural disaster From around the 6th century BC, various Germanic tribes began to migrate south. The Vandals , The Geppids and Goth Emigrated from southern Sweden, occupied Baltic Sea The south bank is roughly equivalent to Oder with The Vistula River Between the regions. Early migrations also spread south and west. The result was to crowd out the Celtic peoples who inhabited much of what is now western Germany. They arrived down the Elbe River in the third century BC Bohemia The northern part, along with Salle Enter the Thuringian region. At the end of the 2nd century BC, settled in Jutland The Germanic tribes invaded Mediterranean Cultural zone, in direct confrontation with the Romans. In the middle of the 1st century BC, large numbers of Germanic people came from the hinterland to the Rhine River, and the Roman Empire continued to occur Military conflict . After a long struggle, the Vandals of the Germanic tribe, The Burgundians And the Goths took over The Vistula River The river basin. In the middle of the 1st century BC, they expelled the Celts and eventually settled east of the Rhine River, Danube North sum Beihai Between the vast area.

Rhine

Late 1st century BC, Rome slavery After the Republic was replaced by the Empire, the Germanic tribes directly to its north were conquered. In 9 BC, the Romans extended their territory from the Rhine east to the Elbe, and by Caesar's time the Germans had settled west of the Rhine and south to the Danube. One of the first major battles between them and the Romans occurred at the end of the 2nd century BC, when The Simbri with Teuton The combined invasions of southern Gaul and northern Italy were completely defeated by Marius (157-86?) in 102 BC and 101 BC. BC) was annihilated. The goal of the Roman Empire was to occupy the vast Germanic tribal settlements up to the Elbe River and to incorporate them into the empire Roman province -- Large Germania . The Roman Empire concentrated its efforts on creating the Rhine region Military base . In 12 BC, the Roman Empire concentrated 36 legions on the Rhine front, with a total strength of 300,000 men, and in that year began a war of conquest against the Germanic tribes. ^[2]

Early in the war, the Roman army encountered stiff resistance from the Germanic tribes and suffered heavy losses. In 8 AD, a Roman army deep into the Germanic heartland suffered a heavy blow from the Germanic tribes. The Romans "struggled to conquer opponents in their path, and with each victory they paid the price in blood." However, the resistance of the Germanic tribes was independent, not joint. This allowed the Romans to focus their superior forces on attacking each tribe in turn. After more than 10 years of war, most of the Germanic tribes were conquered. Unable to send enough troops to occupy the entire Germanic territory and effectively rule it, the Roman Empire forced the conquered Germanic tribes to pay tribute to the Empire and enter into compulsory treaty attachments.

After years of struggle, the Germanic people gradually realized that to defeat the well-equipped and experienced Roman army, they must change the disorganized state of the tribes. thereupon Tribal alliance It's starting to appear.

Elbe

In the autumn of AD 9, the warriors of the Germanic tribes, in The Teutoburg Forest Against 30,000 Roman troops, the Germans won a major victory, and three Roman legions were nearly wiped out. After this victory many Germanic tribes regained their independence. This determined the Roman Empire Sphere of influence The border is not at the Elbe, but still at the Rhine valley line.

In 11 AD, the Roman Empire once again crossed the Rhine River to launch a new war of conquest against the Germans, and won partial victories. In 17 AD, the Roman army occupied Strasbourg, Windisch and Mainz . But the Romans could not push further into the Germanic heartland. For several decades in the middle of the 1st century AD, the Roman Empire gradually pushed its borders to the eastern bank of the Rhine, thus reinforcing the Roman Rhin-Danube border system. After the second half of the 1st century AD, the Romans began to build a border wall on the eastern bank of the Rhine. This meant that the Roman Empire had finally ended its wars of conquest.

At the beginning of the 1st century AD, the Roman Empire officially incorporated the upper Rhine and Danube into the Empire, creating two provinces: the Upper Germanic Province and the Lower Germanic Province. The capital of the former is Mainz, the latter Cologne. The governors of the two provinces were the lieutenants of the local Roman garrison.

Two important changes took place in the Germanic regions in the 2nd century: first, the previously divided Germanic tribes united into large tribes, and second, the Germanic tribes increasingly attacked the Roman borders. The reason for the great migration of these Germanic peoples is not clear today, but one possible reason is that the Germanic tribes followed Economy and culture The development of... The clan commune With the disintegration of the system, the upper class of the tribe was eager to expand and seize new land and wealth, and the lower class of the tribe also had to migrate to seek new land to make a living due to the growth of the population. The Roman Empire was weakening and unable to defend itself against foreign invasions. Or it could have been a famine. In any case, from the 4th century onwards, the diaspora of tribes outside the Roman Empire, mainly the Germanic tribes, began to migrate into the Roman Empire on a large scale.

"G" is for Germanic-speaking areas

In 376 AD, the Germanic people The Visigoths Tribal acceptance Huns Attack. They're getting Roman emperor Once agreed, cross the Danube to enter Balkan Peninsula the Thrace . The following year, the Visigoths revolted against the oppression of the Romans. 395 years Division of the Roman Empire The Visigoths fought with local slaves and coloni Western Roman Empire . It was founded in southwestern Gaul in 418 The Visigothic Kingdom . Following the Visigoths into the Roman Empire were the following Germanic tribes: the Burgundians, Franks , The Ostrogoths , The Angles and The Saxons Let's wait. The Great migration of Germanic peoples lasted for about 2 centuries. Together with the local slave and coloni revolts, they destroyed the Roman Empire and established many Germanic kingdoms in the Roman territory, among which, Frankish kingdom It became the most powerful of the Germanic kingdoms.

The Roman Empire was under threat from the Franks in the frontier areas of the Lower Rhine. Main The basin was occupied by the Burgundy people around 260, and is located in Deep Forest Agri Dekemet of the District was The Alemanni There is evidence. The Burgundians had apparently migrated from the eastern part of Germany. The Franks and the Alemannies may have been a union of two peoples, and they were divided in the time of Tacitus, although some immigrants from the East may have intermingled among them. Tarsitus spoke of those who lived in Baltic Sea The coastal peoples migrated southeast during the second half of the second century. Therefore, Goth During this period of control Ukraine Kazumon Romania Most of the region; The Geppids occupy Transylvania The mountains to the north; The Vandals And became their neighbor to the west.

By the year 500, the Angles and Saxons had moved in England The Franks had it Gaul To the north. Burgundy occupied Lone Chaung Along the valley, the Visigoths lived to their west. The Ostrogoths settled in Italy, while the Vandals reached Africa. In 507, the Franks expelled the Visigoths from most of their Gaul territory. The territory of the Visigoths in Gaul was then made up of The Pyrenees Mountains Spread to Royal River The valley. After they were driven out by the Franks, they entered Iberia It wasn't invaded until 711 Arab Defeat. The year 568 The Lombards They entered Italy, established an independent kingdom, and by 774, the kingdom was Charlemagne (742 ~ 814) Off. Parts of eastern Germany have been destroyed since the Goths and other peoples left Slavs The Slavs also expanded westward, reaching as far as Bohemia and the Elbe valley. After the 8th century, the Germans retook eastern Germany, Lower Austria Area sum Styria , Carinthia Most of the land, drove the Slavs out of all these places.

Encyclopedia x Mixed Knowledge: Illustrating the Germanic People

Historical event

Circa 500-50 BC, thought to be associated with Proto-Germanic User related to pre-Roman Iron culture The distribution area, in Scandinavia South to carmine The section marked is the Asdorf cultural distribution area.

The earliest reports of the Germanic people come from their contact with the Greeks and Romans.

Greek traveler c. 330 BCE Pythias from Marseille Set off to report Beihai The region and the peoples who live there. A member of the East Germanic people from about 200 BC Bastarnais Into today's Romania Eastern union Macedonia and Balkan Peninsula War broke out on other peoples.

The Simbri and the Teutons

Main article: The Simbri War (Teutonic Invasion)

About 120 BC The Simbri and Teuton The reason for the southward move is not fully verified today. Historical sources at the time said Jutland There was a big storm, so the residents there left their hometown. Today, it is more suspected that the Simbri people migrated because of population growth, as well as the encroachment of the sea on the land and the famine caused by climate change.

They met about 113 BC Roman . The Romans were nearly wiped out in the battle between the two nations. The Germans took a sudden storm as a warning from their weather gods and called off the battle.

In 109 BC, 107 BC, and 105 BC the Romans repeatedly fought these two Germanic armies, but were defeated each time. All the way down to these two Ethnic division The Romans defeated the Teutons in 102 BC and the Cimbri in 101 BC.

Ariovistus

For more information: Gallic wars

The intruders of the Cimbri and Teutons into the Celtic mountains of central Germany dealt a severe blow to the Celtic power in south-central Germany, which later enabled other Germanic peoples (such as the Svebis) to make their presence felt today Hesse and Main Watershed settlement. Under their leader Ariovistus they even broke in Gaul But where it was Cesar Defeated in 58 BC and forced to retreat Rhine East.

Caesar's occupation of Gaul in the 1st century BC made the Germanic peoples immediate neighbours of the Romans. The engagement was never peaceful. Caesar crossed the Rhine in 55 and 53 BC to carry out punitive attacks against the Germans. But Caesar saw the Rhine as the boundary between the Germans and the Romans.

However, the Rhine frontier remained unsettled. Roman emperor Oh, Augustus It was decided to move the soldiers stationed in Gaul to the Rhine. But the Rhine border remains unstable.

So Augustus changed his strategy. From 12 BCE to 9 BCE his adopted son Nero Claudius Dulusus made several attacks against the Germans. He conquered several Germanic tribes. But these tribes didn't actually surrender to the Roman Empire. Eight years earlier, Durusus died from injuries sustained in a fall from his horse during the retreat. His brother Tiberius The resumption of Dulussus' attacks began in the first eight years. In four years he conquered the Cerusians who had hitherto resisted Rome. To continue their march to the Elbe, the Romans built a series of cities east of the Rhine. Some cities in the German state of Hesse today take their names from Latin .

Six years the Romans tried to steal from Mainz The start of the attack is today Bohemia Of a kingdom. But because in Pannonia Unrest broke out, so the operation was abandoned. Nevertheless, the Romans regarded the Germanic region along the Elbe as one of their provinces.

Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

Main article: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

The Germanic resistance seemed to be wiped out after Publius Quinctilius Wallus He was ordered to introduce Roman laws and taxes in the occupied territories. There he was simultaneously prefect and Supreme commander of the Army of the Rhine. Valus was there before Syria Has acquired a reputation for brutality and greed. His rule soon provoked a Germanic revolt. He ordered severe punishment for those who opposed Rome, and the taxes he introduced were considered unfair by the Germans. For the Germans, only slaves paid taxes.

In this way the Cherussian nobleman Arminius was able to unite several Germanic tribes. Alminius himself owns it Roman citizenship even Roman knight . He took advantage of Valus' trust in him and led Valus into a trap. in Battle of the Teutoburg Forest Central Rome lost three legions (about 25,000 soldiers). Thus the Roman project of eastward development came to an end in nine years. Until the Great Migration, the Germanic people had little influence from Rome.

Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

The distribution of the Germanic tribes in Proto-Germanic times (before 100 BC) and the expansion of different historical stages (50 BC, 100 AD, 300 AD), the purple section shows the Roman Empire in 68 BC and 117 AD.

In 14 and 16 the Roman army again crossed the Rhine into Germanic areas under the leadership of Germanicus. Historians disagree about the nature of these two expeditions. It is therefore unclear whether they were a continuation of Roman expansionist policies or a punitive attack.

However, the wars between the Germans and the Romans continued. In '29 the Roman army put down one of the more pro-Roman wars so far The Frisian The riots. In '69 Rome had to bring in troops from Spain and Britain to put out the Batava rebellion. Roman Emperor in 83 Domitian It was decided to move Rome's border north on the Rhine and Danube rivers. A long border wall was built west of the Rhine and north of the Danube to protect the border between Rome and Germania. The Rhine region was divided into two provinces, Upper Germanic and Lower Germanic.

Post-1995 research suggests that the Upper Germanic Boundary Wall was erected not in 83/85 during the reign of Domitian, but in 98 years Trajan Established during the reign. More than 100 years of research on the Upper Germanic Boundary Wall have not found any artifacts (such as boundary tablets, inscriptions, or logs that can be dated) dating back to before 98. And the boundary wall was better suited to the military needs of Trajan's time. The need was not so clear in Domitian times.

122 years in Hadrian Under the rule of the Romans will Necka and Danube The boundary wall between the two has moved again 20 to 40 kilometers to the north. The last time Rome moved its borders to Germanic areas was in 159 during the reign of Antonius Bius.

167 The Markmans, the Qadis, The Lombards , The Vandals Enter with other tribes Pannonia The province led to the Markman War (167-180). Marcus Aurelius Led four times Military action Conquered the invading Germans. Rome may have had plans to create two new provinces. After the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, his son Comodes resumed the defensive strategy of the past. He made peace with the Germans.

Many historians see the Markman War as a prelude to the great migration of peoples. The reason is that Goth to The Black Sea And the migration of the Vandals to the Danube caused by demographic changes on the Roman frontier. The reasons for the migration of these Germanic peoples are unknown today, but may have been caused by famine.

warfare

About 330 BC Ancient Greek The famous explorer Pitaeus from Marseille Off to the North Sea Jutland . On the west coast of the peninsula, he found an amber-rich beach inhabited by a Germanic tribe that Pitaeus called "the Goutons" in his travel diary. Later, according to scholars, this was the "Teutonic" tribe of the Germanic people. During this period the Germanic people were still primitive Nomadic life And are constantly on the move. About 200 BC among the East Germanic peoples the Bastarnais entered the present day Romania Eastern union Macedonia and Balkan Peninsula War broke out on other peoples.

The Long March of the Cimbri and the Teutons

About 120 BC The Simbri and Teuton The reason for the southward move is not fully verified today. Historical sources at the time say that there was a great storm in Jutland, so the people there left their homes. Today more people suspect that famine caused by climate change is the cause of the migration.

1st century BC Cesar occupy Gaul Making the Germans the immediate neighbors of the Romans. The engagement was never peaceful. Caesar crossed the Rhine in 55 and 53 BC to carry out punitive attacks against the Germans. But Caesar saw the Rhine as the boundary between the Germans and the Romans. They met the Romans in about 113 BC, and the Romans were almost completely destroyed. The Germans took a sudden storm as a warning from their weather gods and called off the battle.

In 109 BC, 107 BC, and 105 BC the Romans repeatedly fought these two Germanic armies, but were defeated each time. It was not until the two peoples split that the Romans defeated the Teutons in 102 BC and the Cimbri in 101 BC.

The war between Ariovestus and Caesar

The breakthrough of the Cimbri and Teutons into the Celt-inhabited central mountains dealt a severe blow to the Celtic power in central and southern Germany. Later, other Germanic peoples (such as the Svebi) were able to live in today's Hesse Settlement of the Peace River valley. Under their leader Ariovistus they even broke into Gaul, where they were defeated by Caesar in 58 BC and forced to retreat east of the Rhine. However, the Rhine frontier remained unsettled. The Roman emperor Augustus decided to move his soldiers stationed in Gaul to the Rhine River. But the Rhine border remains unstable. So Augustus changed his strategy. From 12 BCE to 9 BCE his adopted son Nero Claudius Dulusus made several attacks against the Germans. He conquered several Germanic peoples. But these peoples did not really surrender to Rome. Eight years earlier, Durusus was killed when he fell from his horse during the retreat. His brother Tiberius resumed Dulusus' attacks eight years earlier. In four years he conquered the Cerusians who had hitherto resisted Rome. To continue their march to the Elbe, the Romans built a series of cities east of the Rhine. Some cities in today's German state of Hesse take their names from Latin. Six years after the Romans attempted to attack from Mainz it is located today Bohemia Of a kingdom. But the move fell by the wayside because in today's Hungary Riots broke out.

Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

In the autumn of 9 AD, the warriors of the various Germanic tribes encountered 30,000 Roman troops in the Teutoburg forest, and the Germans resorted to guerrilla tactics Geographical environment Familiar with the Romans, the use of forest twists and turns of the complex road to deal with the Roman army, soon divided the Romans into countless small pieces, one by one. Three Roman legions were almost wiped out. The Germans won a major victory. This victory was a turning point for the Germanic people, and many Germanic tribes regained their independence. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest put the Roman Empire in a difficult position, and the Emperor was forced to abandon his plans to establish the province of Greater Germania. This determined that the boundaries of the Roman Empire's sphere of influence were not along the Elbe, but still along the Rhine valley. In 14 and 16 the Roman army again crossed the Rhine into Germanic areas under the leadership of Germanicus. Historians disagree about the nature of these two expeditions. It is therefore unclear whether they were a continuation of Roman expansionist policies or a punitive attack.

However, the wars between the Germans and the Romans continued. In 29 the Roman army quelled a Frisian rebellion which had hitherto been relatively pro-Roman. In '69 Rome had to bring in troops from Spain and Britain to put out the Batava rebellion.

In 83, the Roman emperor Domitian decided to move Rome's borders north on the Rhine and Danube rivers. A long border wall was built west of the Rhine and north of the Danube to protect the border between Rome and Germania. The Rhine region was divided into two provinces, Upper Germanic and Lower Germanic.

Post-1995 research suggests that the Upper Germanic Boundary Wall was erected not in 83/85 under Domitian, but 98 years later under Trajan. More than 100 years of research on the Upper Germanic Boundary Wall have not found any artifacts (such as boundary tablets, inscriptions, or logs that can be dated) dating back to before 98. And the boundary wall was better suited to the military needs of Trajan's time. The need was not so clear in Domitian times.

122 years in Hadrian Under their rule, the Romans moved the border between the Necca and the Danube 20 to 40 kilometers further north. The last time Rome moved its borders to Germanic areas was in 159 during the reign of Antonius Bius.

Markman War

The invasion of Pannonia by the Macmans, Quartes, Lombards, Vandals, and other tribes in 167 led to the Macmans War (167-180). Marcus Aurelius led four military campaigns to conquer the invading Germans. Rome may have had plans to create two new provinces. After the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, his son Comodes resumed the defensive strategy of the past. He made peace with the Germans.

Arms and equipment

In the early days of the Roman Empire, the weapons used by the Germans, both offensive and defensive, were characterized by a lack of metal. Their main weapon was a kind of spear, and few of them wore swords. They knew almost nothing about helmets and breastplates. They used a light shield, made of wood or wicker, sometimes trimmed with iron, sometimes reinforced with leather, and this was their only defense. This lack of adequate equipment explains why the Germans fought the well-armed Roman army with a fierce attack and quick victory. If they were engaged in protracted hand-to-hand combat, their light shields and spears would meet the heavy short swords and square shields of the Romans, and there would be no hope of victory. By the 6th century, few of the Germanic peoples had sufficient military equipment. None of them has ever built an armed force capable of fighting Justinian the First (Justinian I, 483-565) were heavily armed cavalry marksmen.

Ethnic division

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EDITOR

The distribution of the Germanic people

At the time of Tarsitus, the main Germanic peoples were distributed as follows: the Chatti lived in the Hesse region. The Frisii people are found in Rhine with Emme between Coastal zone . The Chauci people live in Weser the estuary Nearby, and to the south were the Cherusci, a tribe to which Arminius belonged. The name of the Svebi was Swaben Schwaben is the origin of the geographical name, and the ethnic group is scattered throughout Mecklenburg (Mecklenburg), Brandenburg, Saxony (Saxony) and Thuringia (Thuringia) all over; The Semnons of the Havel and Spree rivers belong to the Svebi ethnic group, as do the Lombards, who live northwest of the Semnon region. Another seven ethnic groups believe in it Earth goddess Nerthus, in which the Anglos were concentrated on the Angeln peninsula, east of Schleswig. In the Danube border region of the Roman Empire, the Hermunduri people were born Regensburg The area around Regensburg was developed northward, by Franconia (Franconia) and Datthuringia. Formerly lived in Main The Marcomanni people of the valley are in A.d. In the last decade of the first century, they moved to Bohemia, which had always been inhabited by a group called the Boii Sehrt A place inhabited by a nation. The Marcomanni's eastern neighbors were the Quadi, who lived in Moravia. In the lower Danube there was a people called the Bastarnae, who are often referred to as the Germanic people. The Goths, the Geppids, and the Vandals scattered Baltic Sea The South Shore area. Tarsitus also talks about living in the present day Sweden The Suione people and the Sitone people. He also mentions several historically insignificant peoples, but he is right Saxon He does not mention the people of Man and Burgundy, and of course he does not know the names of some other important peoples that arose after that time.

In North Germany and Scandinavia The living Germanic tribes can be roughly divided into North Germanic, West Germanic, and East Germanic.

The North Germanic

The North Germanic people are the Germanic people of Scandinavia. They later evolved into the Danes, Swedes, Norse And Icelanders. archaeologist Divide the North Germanic people into east and west.

The West Germanic

West Germanic people include: Elbe The Germanic peoples, such as the Svebi, later evolved into the Swabians, the Macomanis/Markmans, and the Quadi/Quadi, and eventually the Bavarians.

North Sea Germanic peoples such as Batavians, Frisians/Frisians, Kaukens, Saxons/Saxons, Angles, Jutes, etc., later formed the Anglo-Saxons/English.

Rhin-weser Germanic people such as Cherushi, Cardi (ancestors of Hessians), Franks, etc.

The East Germanic

In the East Germanic people Baltic Sea austral Goth Vandals and Burgundians. Archaeologists subdivided them into four groups. As the Huns from Asia Enter and Slavs from Eastern Europe The influx of these people was under great pressure and they were forced to move west and south, which caused a lot of conflict with the local people.

population

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EDITOR

There are about 300 million pure Germanic ethnic groups in the world.

Ranking	countries	National language	population	Germanic population
16	Germany	German	82800000	79.0%
22	Britain	English	65648000	87.1%
66	Netherlands	Dutch	17164300	77.4%
89	Sweden	Swedish Language	10081396	79.4%
96	Austria	German	8794267	81.1%
112	Denmark	Danish	5748769	97.4%
117	Norse	Norwegian language	5277762	84.0%
172	Iceland	Icelandic	343960	92.0%

society

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EDITOR

The Germans (4 photos)

The Germans settled Central Europe After that, the clan organization was maintained. In the middle of the 1st century BC, the productive forces of the Germanic people were quite low, even those who had more contact with the Romans The people of Sauvignon Agriculture is not important, and slash-and-burn methods are still used. After harvesting a piece of land several times, it has to be discarded and replaced with new land. At that time, the Germanic people had not yet settled, there were no slaves, and the chief of the clan conducted public affairs, and in time of war, those who had the power of life and death were elected Military chief Apparently, it is still very complete Clan society . The land is shared by the commune, and the amount of commune land is determined by the number of cultivators; Within the commune, they were distributed according to rank and rank. So the farmland is still commune owned, but it's not Equal distribution MHM. They were distributed according to rank and rank, and the researchers think they were distributed to "extended family communes," which consisted of several generations, cultivated a certain amount of land, used the surrounding wilderness, yes matriarchy The transitional form between the communist family and the modern small family. Farm animal And the homes have been privately owned by the families, no longer Public property ; Farm animals, in particular, were their beloved property, and could be used as payment for misdemeanors. Much later rural communes ( Malk It was from this kind of extended family commune that it developed.

150 years later, the Germanic people have changed a lot. They stopped moving, and there appeared settlements and villages, and they built houses of wood, and coated them with shiny clay, and dug them with hidden things cellar . Agriculture had advanced since Caesar's day, but only grain was grown, and there were no gardens or orchards. Animal husbandry Still important. They often take herd The number of phases boast. They were made of animal skins, but women could already wear them with purple edges linen Clothes. They have light iron weapons. Closer to the Empire, Roman money was used for exchange.

society

In the 1st century AD, most Germanic tribes formed Military democracy And the emergence of large family communes based on regional relations, called "Malk". The members of the commune had simple houses and exclusive yards, several adjoining to form small villages. People were given land from the commune to farm, and the products were their own. According to Caesar's records, the Germanic people engaged in animal husbandry, most of the food is milk, cheese, meat, etc. from the cattle and sheep they grazed, the Germanic people also engaged in some farming, the main crop is grain, tuber Plants, vegetables, etc. But the Germanic cattle and horses were not good breeds by Roman standards.

Little is known about the extent of commerce in early Germanic areas. There must have been Slave trade Many slaves were sold to the Romans. The few potters who made their wares with the tare were selling their wares, as were blacksmiths and miners. The most important goods are livestock. However, most of the appliances used in ordinary Germanic villages were homemade. In Caesar's time, many foreign merchants were peddling Italian and Italian in Germanic areas Celts The products are very active. The merchants supplied the rich warriors with things like wine And things like bronze vessels. Yet since Oh, Augustus After coming to power, the Germanic people from the Roman Empire Imported goods There has been a great increase in numbers. The Germanic leaders were able to buy a wide range of goods, such as terrariums, red tableware, Roman weapons, brooches, figurines, ornaments, and other objects that had not been available before. These Roman products brought a great deal of value to the buyers, but what kind of payment the Germans made in exchange for these goods is not quite clear.

The most important grain is barley. The Germans often did not cultivate their fields to allow them to regain their productivity. There were frequent famines in the Germanic regions. The Germanic people came into contact with the plow around the 1st century, but its prevalence was low.

The beginning of the Iron Age in Germany, that is, in the main areas where the Germanic peoples lived and lived, was about four centuries earlier than in the Kaiser's time. But even in Caesar's time, Metallic material It was also a luxury item for Germanic housewares, most of which were made of wood, grass, or clay. Most of the larger metal parts they used were made of bronze, although the weapons were not made of copper. Pottery is still mostly handmade, and containers such as POTS made of pottery are quite rare.

from Tacito Before the Great migration, the progress of the Germanic people was particularly rapid, but there is no written record. Archaeological excavations show that trade with Rome flourished. They use... Domestic animal , slaves and amber In exchange for Roman weapons, textiles, and gold and silver articles. At the same time, farming, animal husbandry, Metal working , textile and Shipbuilding industry It was further developed and the population increased dramatically.

economy

The Germanic people were mostly settled farmers and rarely hunted. The economy is self-sufficient, and handicrafts include ironwork, pottery and woodworking. Indo-European The wheel has been invented since the time of language, and in Germanic languages it has two words. The Germans had no currency. Trade between them is dominated by the exchange of goods. The most important goods (like the Romans) were livestock. Today's English fee (to charge) is the same root as the German Vieh (livestock).

The most important animals are cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses. apiculture And the weaving industry also has. And the Germans knew how to make it cheese They have their own word for cheese.

The Germanic people came into contact with the plow around the 1st century, but its prevalence was low. The most important grain is barley. The Germans know how to use it fallow To restore the fields to their productivity. They also know how to use fertilizer. The grain is mainly made into porridge, until Middle Ages Until now only the rich could afford bread.

Because of the higher latitude, photothermal Insufficient, plain for Moraine plain The soil was poor, and productivity in the Germanic region was much lower than in Rome to the south. Tacitus He wrote: "They have a lot of livestock, but most of it is not good. Even cows are not as big as cows, and even their horns are small." There were frequent famines in the Germanic regions, and many people malnutrition . their Mean life It's relatively low. historian It is estimated that this is the main reason for their migration.

live

Julius Caesar In those days, the Germanic people wore very little, often just a piece of hide, and men and women bathed together in the river. The diet is mostly dairy and meat, they don't put much effort into agriculture, and the land is redistributed every year. The Germanic settlements were quite small. From examining their burial sites archaeologists can infer that their settlements typically had about 200 inhabitants. There was no systematic plan for these settlements: if one Germanic settled in one place, others would move in. Villages such as these can still be found today in Germany and other Germanic cultural areas.

Archaeologists know from archaeological excavations that the houses of the Germanic people were wooden houses, because the wood has long since rotted, and the way they were built can only be examined by the holes in the pillars they left in the foundations. The most common Germanic housing was rectangular. People and animals live in the same house with only a wall separating them. There are no other walls in the house. And in the middle of it is a ignition point. A hole in the house was used to vent smoke. The Germanic houses had no Windows.

By looking at what remains of the skeleton and in marshland Studies of preserved bodies in the city have proved that the Germans were indeed taller than the Romans, and that they did have considerable physical strength, and that most Germans did have blond hair. The Germans are generally a head taller than the Romans.

The health of the Germanic people was often poor: malnutrition and arthritis It's very popular. Their average life expectancy is only 35 years.

Ancient writers jointly reported that the Germanic people intemperance Very impressive. The main alcohol is Mead and beer . The Germanic people often feast on important festivals. They believed their gods loved wine, too. Tacitus reports: "It is a drink made from barley or wheat, which bears a certain resemblance to wine..." Of their alcoholism, he wrote: "It is easier to overcome them with wine than with weapons, provided they are given enough to drink."

Culture and art

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EDITOR

Culture and art

Roman Slave society As the culture came in, the city had luxury markets and shower facilities, water mains from mountain streams or springs, sewage canals, and long distances Road network Highly developed Handicraft industry Urban and rural houses had heating facilities, and the Romans had many cultivation techniques, such as Grapes Planting methods, the introduction of horticulture, etc., all this speaks volumes Roman culture The impact on both regions. This influence also permeated the language of the Germanic people. The Germanic language Many words in the fields of military, quarrying technology, architecture, horticulture, trade and transportation can be traced back to China Roman . Through Roman merchants who went to trade in Germanic areas and Roman soldiers who stayed in the conquered areas, Roman culture infiltrated other Germanic tribes across the border walls. By the 1st and 2nd centuries, Roman goods had spread throughout the Germanic tribal areas, especially in Bohemia, Rhine with Weser The vast area between them is the mainstay of Roman culture receiver .

The introduction of Roman culture facilitated the connection between the Rhine and Danube The economic development of the region also accelerated the development of the Germanic clans Material culture The development of... Germanic tribal dignitaries, military chiefs and personal soldiers passed through peace Roman Empire Having acquired vast amounts of land and wealth through war and trade, they began to organize production and life on the model of the Roman world, becoming the rich and privileged class of the Germanic tribes, the Germanic The clan commune The system gradually disintegrated.

Franks in Clovis (Clovis) under the leadership of the official announcement of acceptance Catholicism Doctrine, later Burgundy People are here again Sigismund He converted to Catholicism at the behest of Sigismund. Prior to this time, no major Germanic ethnic group was Catholic. The reason why they choose Arianism The reasons for not accepting Catholicism are not clear. Continental Europe The last conversion Christianity Most of the Germanic peoples were the Old Saxons, who became Christian in the second half of the 8th century Scandinavia Christianity was not accepted by peoples until the tenth century. England It became Christian in the 7th century.

Legend

On account of Germanic People generally have blond hair, blue eyes, and tall, prominent Caucasian features, and these Caucasian features are often The Nazi Party The grounds on which the Germans were regarded as a superior race. The Nazi Party also used these white characteristics as a standard to measure whether a nation was a good nation, and these prominent white characteristics have been derived from the legend of Germanic people in history.

In the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, Germanic people in German-speaking areas were often represented as "supermen", the main reason for this image Tacitus , Cesar Description of etc. In their writings they described the Germanic people as blond giants with superhuman strength.

Studies of bones left behind and bodies preserved in the marshes have proved that the Germans were indeed taller than the Romans, and that they did have considerable physical strength, and that most Germans did have blond hair. The Germans are generally a head taller than the Romans.

religion

Some sources say 476 Western Roman Empire Before the collapse, none of the powerful Germanic peoples living beyond the borders of the Roman Empire professed Christianity; But the Germans, who had entered the provinces of the Empire before 476, converted to Christianity within 30 or 40 years. The Vandals probably lived between 409 and 429 Spain The Burgundians converted to Christianity between 412 and 436 Gaul Christianity was adopted in the east by the Ostrogoths around 456-472 Pannonia The province became a follower of Christianity. All these Germanic people believed in Christianity Arianism The doctrine of... In 496, the Franks were in Clovis Under the leadership of Clovis, he formally declared his acceptance of Catholic doctrine.

Mythic

In Caesar's time, the Germanic gods were mainly the sun god, the moon god, the fire god and so on.

The Germanic language

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EDITOR

The earliest records of the Germanic people come from classical writers of the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. From about 200 the Germanic people began to use a script of their own. Previously, history was only possible through archaeology and linguistics ( Comparative linguistics ) method to verify. Through the analysis of various Germanic languages (Old German, Old English Careful comparison of Germanic languages with other Indo-European languages, linguist It is possible to essentially reconstruct the Germanic language (also called "pre-Germanic" or "pan-Germanic"). The main results of these comparisons are:

Germanic languages belong to the Indo-European language family, of which it belongs to the western branch.
In Indo-European languages Celtic It's closest to old Italian. These three languages are made up together Old European languages . Three or two thousand years ago, that is The Bronze Age In the early days, ancient European languages were the languages of Central Europe. But its exact location and time are unknown today, or highly disputed.
The Germanic languages are very similar to each other, which probably means that they have had a long time to co-evolve. Most linguists date the separation of pre-Germanic languages from Celtic and Old Italian languages to the first half of the second millennium BC.
After the Germanic languages split off it remained in contact with Celtic languages. Some Celtic words were borrowed from Germanic languages. Also Germanic pairs Finnish It also has an impact. Some Germanic words appear in Finnish (e.g. King, kuningaz in Germanic, kuningas in Finnish). For example, ring, Germanic ringaz, Finnish rengas, etc.).

The earliest use of the word "Germanic" was by Greek historians Posidonius . He first used the term about 80 years ago. Perhaps he heard the word in contact with a small people in Central Europe that cannot be traced today and applied it to all the Germanic peoples. It is possible that the name of such a small ethnic group later became the name of an entire ethnic group. It is highly unlikely that the Germans themselves would call themselves Germanic.

51 BC Cesar In his book The Gaulish War The name "Germanic" is used. Caesar here will be all Rhine The peoples of the East are collectively known as the Germans. Before then the Romans will Western Europe The nation of Celts , while Eastern Europe The nation is called The Scythians . At this time, the Romans realized that the Germans were not Celts, but a separate ethnic group.

Sol The Thor of the Germanic people. His hammer is the thunder. Painted by Marten Eskil Winge, circa 1872.

Roman historians Tacitus In his book The Germanic Annals The term "Germanic" is a relatively new term. At first only the Tungs ( Tungrer They were called Germanic, and later all Germanic peoples were called so. Tacitus says that the Gauls called the peoples east of the Rhine "Germanic". Later these peoples themselves called themselves Germanic. According to this account the word may have come from Celtic.

Tacitus in his book lists in detail each of the Germanic tribes from the Rhine to Vistula From the Danube to the North Sea and Baltic Sea Between places of residence.

In all seriousness, it is only from this time that one can call these peoples Germanic. There have been many studies done in the past archaeology To figure it out Stone Age And the ancient Germanic people of the Bronze Age. World War II The study was abandoned altogether.

Similar research is being revived today in a very careful academic context, with the goal of using archaeological and linguistic research to obtain an inherently non-contradictory picture of the whole. Follow this study of northern Europe The Bronze Age The people were almost certainly Germanic. The relationship between the so-called Tomahawks (2800 to 2200 BC) and the Germanic peoples is disputed.

The latest theory, based on the study of rivers and place names, places the Germanic peoples in the northern mountains of what is now central Germany. But most scholars are skeptical of the theory.

Scholars used to think that the Germanic language was born about 500 years ago Phonetic changes in Germanic languages Separated from other Western Indo-European languages. In this phonetic transition for example k becomes h through ch, or p becomes f, and t becomes th.

The new study suggests that this transition occurred much later, perhaps in the 1st century BC. The main evidence is this The Simbri The name of the ethnic group. Late 2nd century BC the Simbri and Teuton A threat north of Rome. The hometowns of these two peoples are what they are today Denmark . in Latin The name of the Middle Simbri is cimbri Instead of chimbri or himbri Later the names of the Germanic people in Latin Use ch to write, for example chatti . Therefore, most scholars today believe that this phonetic transfer did not begin or was not completed in the late 2nd century BC. Some of the early names that have survived suggest that this theory is correct.

This insight had very important consequences for Germanic linguistics. As a result, what is now known as the "pan-Germanic language" was formed in the 2nd to 1st century BC, when it split into a number of Germanic languages of its own. The earlier Germanic language was similar to the Indo-European language, and this older language has not survived, but its basic structure can be reconstructed.

The Germanic language	Language	Native speakers
	English (English)	360 million to 400 million people
	Deutsch	100 million people
	Nederlands (Dutch)	23 million
	Svenska (Swedish)	9.2 million
	Afrikaans (Afrikaans)	7.1 million
	Neddersassch (Low German)	6.7 million
	Dansk (Danish)	5.5 million
	Norsk (Norwegian)	Five million
	Yayang ִ hingshin (Yiddish)	1.5 million
	Scots (Lowland Scottish)	1.5 million
	Lemburgs (Limburg)	1.3 million
	Frysk (Frisian)	500,000
	Letzebuergesch (Luxembourgish)	400,000
	Islenska (Icelandic)	300,000
	Føroyskt (Faroese)	Seventy thousand

Form of political power

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EDITOR

Clan system

The Germans settled Central Europe After that, the clan organization was maintained. With the evolution of production and lifestyle, the continuous expansion of the group population, more complex affairs determine the need to establish a core power. The status and role of tribal chiefs, military chiefs and retainers increased significantly. They began to leave production, take possession of good land, and acquire more wealth. As a result, the phenomenon of inequality, such as the privileged figures and the distribution of rich and poor, who are high above the tribal members, gradually emerged. This foreshadows Germania Clan system Is heading for disintegration; The Roman conquest of the Germanic tribes greatly accelerated this process.

Clan system

In accordance with Julius Caesar There was no sign of despotism among the Germanic peoples described. The leaders of the clan groups are only responsible for mediating when disputes arise between the clan members, and this function of resolving disputes is limited to the exercise within the same clan and cannot go beyond the scope. There seems to have been no such thing as an arbitration body. In fact, in time of peace, they did not have a centralized authority that could give orders and exercise authority over the affairs of all the clans. In times of war, according to Caesar's writings, the Germanic peoples elected a number of joint commanders, who were collective leaders, and their power was limited to wartime.

By the time of Tarsitus, a new type of military chieftainship had emerged among the Germanic peoples. Only those members of the recognized so-called "royal family" are eligible for this position. These "royal families" existed, for example, among the Cherushi and Batavian peoples of the first century. It also appeared in the 6th century The Herulli (Heruli). Any member of these royal families is eligible to be elected military chief, but the position is not hereditary. These leaders, chosen from the royal family, were in charge of religious affairs and affairs Military command Hold office for life. But he could be deposed by the venerated Council, and his proposals to the samurai Council would be rejected. The extent of the role that such leaders can play is generally determined by their individual talents.

A primitive form was also produced among the Germanic peoples at the time of Tarsitus Judicial body . The samurai assembly elected a number of leading figures to serve as judges, who toured villages and tried private individuals Litigation case . Each judge carries a staff of 100 to carry out his or her decisions. If the judges found someone guilty, the person had to give up a certain number of horses or cows to pay for the crime, livestock The amount depends on the severity of the crime. But there are many cases, such as homicide, injury, theft, etc Adjournment of hearing Of the clan to which the party belongs Authority figure To judge, and those blood feuds between the clans may be passed down from generation to generation, can not be resolved. Even long after the Germans converted to Christianity, their rulers discovered how difficult it was to settle blood feuds between clans.

monarchy

Only one Germanic king is known to have established his personal despotic rule over his people. The man's name was Maroboduus. Around A.D. he led The Marcomanni Leave them in Main Watershed homes, moved to Bohemia Settle down. Based in Bohemia, he conquered scattered territories Elbe with The Vistula River Among the many Germanic groups, including the Semnons, Lombardy And the Lugii. In 17 AD, however, the Cherusians, in concert with some Marcomanni, attacked Marobodus, overthrew him, and deported him to the Roman Empire. It is recorded that none of the chiefs of all the other peoples who attempted to establish a monarchy in this period did not end in failure.

monarchy The formal establishment of the Germanic world began after they became Allies of the Roman Empire and settled within the Empire. East Goth The leader is in Italy Established a kingdom, Visigoth The leaders established kingdoms in Gaul and Spain, and the Vandal leaders in Africa The chiefs of nations who established kingdoms, and so on, became the first Germanic Kings. During this period, other famous Germanic Kings such as Athanaric and Alaric were crowned. Alaric ), they may be due to residence Roman Empire Beyond the borders, or because the people had not made a covenant with Rome to guard the frontiers of the Empire, and their people had not settled in the provinces of the Roman Empire as Allies, their personal authority seemed no less than that of the leaders of Tarsitus.

The states built

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EDITOR

Between the 4th and 6th centuries AD, successive groups of Germanic people (also Slavs , Huns The migration to the territory of the Roman Empire is known as the Great Migration of peoples. The Great Migration of the Germanic peoples took place in France, Italy, northern Africa, Spain and Britain Many short-lived kingdoms were established. These kingdoms are ephemeral phenomena. In their new hometown they mingled with the natives of the past.

The Visigothic Kingdom

In the early 5th century, The Visigoths In the leader Alaric Led by the north of Italy, and in 410 with the cooperation of tens of thousands of rebellious slaves captured the capital of Rome, the Great three days of robbery. In 419, the Visigoths entered Gaul Southern and Spanish, founded with Toulus as the center The Visigothic Kingdom .

The Vandal Kingdom

Driven by the wave of national migration, the original Oder lateral The Vandals , via Pannonia (now Hungary ), Gaul and Spain entered North Africa . In 439, the Vandals revolted against slaves, coloni Under the support of the siege Carthage City, establishment The Vandal Kingdom . In 455, the Vandals crossed the sea to invade Rome, burning, killing and looting, and ever since." Vandalism "Became synonymous with barbarism. In 534, the Vandal kingdom was Byzantine Destroyed.

Kingdom of Burgundy

In the middle of the 5th century, a Burgundian state appeared in southeastern Gaul. The Burgundians Originally from the mouth of the Oder River, he reached Worms in the early 5th century and then moved south Rhone It was founded in 457 Lyon Centered on the Kingdom of Burgundy. At the beginning of the 6th century, the kingdom of Burgundy was Frankish kingdom Perish.

Kingdom of England

Lived in the mid-5th century Jutland And what is now northern Germany Anglo The Saxons and Jutes crossed the sea into Britain and established many small kingdoms. section Britain They settled in the Amorik Peninsula in the northwest of Gaul, which later became known as Bretagne. 829, King of Wessex Egbert United the kingdoms, known as England.

The Ostrogoth Kingdom

The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 was a shock to the Byzantines. They instigated those who were deeply influenced by Rome East Goth The king Theodoric He led an army into Italy and captured Ravenna in 493, establishing himself in northern and central Italy The Ostrogoth Kingdom . In 553, the Ostrogoths were destroyed by the Byzantines.

Frankish kingdom

In 486, King Clovis of the Franks was defeated Roman army in Soisson Took over most of Gaul and established The Merovingians With Paris as its capital, the local Gaul-Roman nobility, Church of Rome , coloni, slaves and diaspora Free peasant Still in existence, gradually integrated with the Franks. In 751, the Minister of the Palace Pepin (Shorty) usurped the throne, The Merovingians Perish. The son of Pepin Charley When he was in power, he expanded outward on a larger scale, and in 800 AD Charles was crowned emperor, becoming Empire of Charlemagne . In 843, the interior was divided into three parts, which later became France, Germany and Italy.

Kingdom of Lombardy

The Germans

It was founded in 568 by the Lombards who invaded northern Italy Kingdom of Lombardy Is the final act of the Great migration of peoples. The Lombards originally lived at the mouth of the Elbe river, but later moved Pannonia . They took it under the leadership of their leader, Albaine Po The river basin established the Lombard Kingdom centered on Ravenna, which was henceforth known as Lombardy. The Lombards ruthlessly suppressed the resistance of the Roman nobility, calling it a punishment from God. After Albaine's death, the kingdom of Lombardy declined and was destroyed by the Franks in 774.

In the newly established Germanic kingdoms, many Roman nobles were killed and their lands confiscated, but some retained their power and formed new ones with the new Germanic nobles Feudal Lord Class. At the same time, the status of slaves and coloni was improved, and the number of small farmers increased due to the existence of rural communes. Later, the slaves disappeared completely, and the coloni and the small peasants who went bankrupt due to the burden of military service formed a new serf class. The process of feudalization was completed, and this process was fully illustrated by the study of the Frankish kingdom.

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