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Ottoman Empire

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1299-1923 Empire in Western Asia and Europe
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Ottoman Empire (Ottoman Empire; The year 1299 [1-2] - 1923 [3] ), yes Turk A multi-ethnic empire created by the founding fathers Osman I Hence the name. Ruled by the Ottomans, who originated from Turkic nomads in Central Asia, [4] Muhammad II Time capital Constantinople . [5]
The Ottomans were originally one Tujue, a nationality in ancient China A small tribe, [6] Primordial population Central Asia , move to Asia Minor And later flourished. The Ottoman Empire was destroyed in 1453 The Byzantine Empire After, fixed capital Constantinople , [5] He presented himself as heir to the Eastern Roman Empire. So the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire inherited Eastern Roman Empire The culture of Islam and Islamic culture, so that the eastern and Western civilizations can be integrated in it. 16th century Suleiman the Great At the time of his reign, the Ottoman Empire was at its height. Its territory reached its highest peak in the 17th century. in Barbarossa Hayreddin Under his leadership, his navy gained greater control of the Mediterranean. [7] The Ottoman Empire was the only challenge from the 15th to the 19th centuries Europe state Islam Power, but in 1699, The Treaty of Karlowitz The signing marked a halt to the expansion of the empire, which was in decline by the early 19th century. [8] End up in World War I Be defeated by The Entente countries The Ottoman Empire was divided. [9] In 1922, Kemal Push back against European power. In 1923, Republic of Turkey Founded, the Ottoman Empire fell.
At its peak, the Ottoman Empire spanned three continents: Asia, Europe and Africa. [10] With the Balkans, The Middle East and North Africa Most of the territory of Sida The Strait of Gibraltar , arriving East Caspian Sea and The Persian Gulf North and today Austria And Slovenia, south and today Sudan with Yemen .
The Ottoman Empire was located at the intersection of East and West civilizations and controlled the land lines of communication between them for six centuries. [11] This outward expansion was accompanied by the third great spread of Islam in the world. He was the leader of the Islamic world from the 15th to the 19th centuries. During its existence, Islamization was practiced more than once modernize The reform has blurred the boundaries between eastern and Western civilizations.
Chinese name
Ottoman Empire
Foreign name
Ottoman Empire
Abbreviated form
Ottoman, Turkish [12]
capital
Serhuth, Bursa , Edirne , Constantinople ( Istanbul ) [13]
Major city
Bursa , Baghdad , Damascus , Cairo , Mecca Etc.
National song
"Hamid March", "Reshad March" and so on [14]
Country code
OTT
Official language
Ottoman ( Turkish )
currency
Akche
Time zone
UTC+2
Political system
Absolute monarchy
National leader
Osman I , Muhammad II , Suleiman I , Abdel Mejid I Etc.
Population number
About 23.8 million (1914)
Major nationality
Turk , Hellenic , Albanian , Bulgarians , Serbian , Romanians , Arab , Kurds Etc.
Major religion
Islam
Land area
5.5 million square kilometers (1683)
The first Sultan
Osman I (1281 -1326)
The last Sultan
Mohammed VI (1861-1926)
Time of existence
From 1299 to 1923

catalogue

  1. 1Country name
  2. 2history
  3. ▪Rise and expand
  4. ▪reinvigorate
  5. ▪Establish a new capital
  6. ▪Rise to the top
  7. ▪Asian-african expansion
  8. ▪Decay crisis
  9. ▪Internal chaos arises
  10. ▪Stagnation reform
  11. ▪Modern decline
  12. ▪Independent wave
  13. ▪Empire decline
  1. 3territory
  2. 4political
  3. ▪theocracy
  4. ▪monarch
  5. ▪personnel
  6. ▪judiciary
  7. 5Military affairs
  8. ▪Recruit troops
  9. ▪Land force
  10. ▪navy
  11. ▪Air force
  12. 6economy
  1. ▪agriculture
  2. ▪Foreign trade
  3. ▪currency
  4. 7culture
  5. ▪Language
  6. ▪MUSICIANS
  7. ▪religion
  8. ▪education
  9. 8Science and technology
  10. 9nation
  11. ▪Arab
  12. ▪Kurds
  1. ▪Hellenic
  2. 10diplomacy
  3. ▪With China
  4. ▪With Persia
  5. ▪With Russia
  6. 11society
  7. ▪structure
  8. ▪diet
  9. ▪population
  10. 12Sudan

Country name

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EDITOR
Flag of the Early Ottoman Empire (before 1453)
The Ottoman Empire was founded as a sultan Osman I The name of the country. The Ottoman Turkish name for "د organisation ل ت ع an ل ی ه ع ث م an ن ی ه", Latin transliteration of "Devlet -i ʿ Aliyye -i ʿ Os ̠ m ā niyye"; Turkish The name is "Osmanlji mparatorlu -"; English The name was OttomanTurks or TurkishEmpire; Arabic Name is "د َ organisation ْ ل َ ت ِ ع َ ل ِ ي ّ ه ٔ ع ُ ث م َ an ن ِ ی ّ ه an ل د organisation ل ة an ل ع ل ي ّ ة an ل ع ث م an ن ي ة ‎".
Chinese In terms of translation, according to the English name of "Ottoman Turkish Empire", referred to as "Ottoman Empire"; [15] In Taiwan, some books are transliterated as "Osman Empire" in the original text.
Since there was no "theta" sound in Ottoman Turkish, the "t" sound was used instead. As Ottoman power expanded into Eastern Europe, The Germans Further to "sai ث," (othman), falsely pronounced as ottoman, and changed to "Ottoman." Qing Dynasty This was used in the translation of the period, and the corresponding translation country name was "Ottoman". After the establishment of the Republic of China, the ancient translation name was adopted (based on the international language of the time, Latin "ottomano" as the translation standard), but the translation name "Osman" could be used when referring to the founding monarch of the same name; Other translations include "Osman", "Ottman", "Ottman" and "Ottman".

history

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EDITOR

Rise and expand

  • Empire building
Subject article: The rise of the Ottoman Empire
Map of Ottoman and Byzantine expansion
The Turks are a Turkic-speaking people, [16] Be original Seljuk What one is subordinate to Romani sultanate A small Turkic tribe subordinate to it. [17] This tribe is in Turkey Anatolia The peninsula was gradually settled early with the Byzantines Greece There are many ethnic integration and war. Through the Byzantine Empire and others Anatolia The migration and struggle of the Turkish people, the Turkish people are increasingly prosperous, and the modern Turkish people come from this. After the fall of the Romani Sultanate in 1308, it was located The Black Sea and Mediterranean Anatolia was divided into independent states, collectively known as AnatolianBeyliks (principalities of Anatolia).
The Turks originally lived there Amu Darya The river basin, in fact, is today Uzbekistan Khwarazm region, belonging to the Turkic Kai tribe, at that time Khwarizm Dynasty The subject of the emperor. Since ancient times, they have been nomadic and lived by water and grass. In the 13th century, Mongols Began to expand westward, forcing them to migrate. Initially they were attached to Seljuk The Turkmen The creation of the Romani Sultanate, [18] He was given a fiefdom on the banks of the Sacaria River near the Byzantine Empire. In 1290 the tribal chief El Togrur died after his son Osman I (1258-1326) succeeded his father as chief of the tribe. In 1299, Turkey took advantage of the secession of the Seljurome sultanate and formally declared its independence, [19] The name "Ghazi" laid the foundation of the Turkish state. [20]
1326, son of Uthman Orhan (reigned 1326-1360) took the throne, renamed himself Viceroy, established a permanent army, and annexed most of the Romani Sultanate. [19] In March 1331, he wounded the Byzantine emperor and captured the largest Byzantine city in Anatolia Nicaea And moved the capital here. In 1337, it was captured Nicomedia The capital is fixed Bursa . In 1338, it was taken again Yuskudar . [21]
  • Balkan expansion
Murad I of Europe expanded into the Balkans
In 1354, the Turkish Orhan led an army The Dardanelles occupied The Gallipoli Peninsula And take this as an attack Balkan Peninsula The bridgehead. [22] Orhan established the internal administrative organization of the state, the central establishment Divan , appoint Vizier (i.e. the minister), to send administrative and military chiefs and Caddy Mint a unified coin and become the true founder of the Turkish state.
1360 Ottoman monarch Murad I (reigned 1360-1389) succeeded to the throne Southeast Europe The expansion has made decisive progress. In 1362, he launched a large-scale military attack and captured the major cities of the Byzantine Empire Adriatic Castle And changed its name Edirne This is the capital. [23] In 1371, he defeated a number of Bulgarian and Serbian princes, then annexed them and rapidly expanded his army. In 1387, Murad I captured the central Macedonian city of Thessaloniki. Under intense pressure from the Ottoman army, more and more vassals surrendered. After 1381, the Byzantine emperors also remained subservient to the Ottoman principates in exchange for political assistance and national security. On the Anatolian side, the Ottoman principates also annexed the principates of Jeremiyan and Hamit. [95-96] In 1389 Kosovo Campaign Defeated Serbia, Bulgaria, Hungary The United Forces. This victory shook the rulers of Europe. The nations of Europe to save the Byzantines empire Reinforcements were sent. [24]
Ottoman monarchs Bayesette I In the following year (reigned 1389-1402), the armies of the Ottoman principality and the subservient Byzantine army, as well as the armies of Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania and other dependent states, formed an expeditionary force to wipe out the principality of Sarhan, Aiden, and Mente in Anatolia. In 1393, Ottoman forces conquered the Bulgarian capital of Tarnovo, and then invaded Wallachia, executing the Bulgarian king. Bulgaria was brought under Ottoman rule in 1396 and became an important part of Ottoman territory. In 1394 Bayezid laid siege to Constantinople in an attempt to strengthen his rule over the Balkans.
It's from 1396 Battle of Nicoburg In one fell swinger, they defeated Hungary, France , Germany Allied forces from other countries occupied most of the Balkans. Nearly 10,000 The Crusades Captured, all but 300 of the noble knights were redeemed at great expense, and almost all were killed. [25] Bayezid I went on to annex the principality of Karaman and eliminate the Mongol Kadi Burhanuddin regime centered on Sivas. From then on, Europeans watched helplessly as the Ottoman Empire expanded and the Byzantine Empire was in danger. But just then, the Central Asian Tujue, a nationality in ancient China people The Timurid Empire Became powerful and began to expand into Asia Minor. [26]

reinvigorate

Expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century
In 1402, in Battle of Ankara The Ottoman army suffered a crushing defeat Tamerlane Army, Prince Bayezet has been captured. Bayezid I was imprisoned, died soon after, and the Ottoman principality was dissolved. [95-96] This event temporarily saved the Byzantine Empire, allowing it to survive for a while. Because the four sons of Bayezet began to fight for the throne. The countries ruled by the Turks revolted and broke away from the Ottoman Empire, which had to be postponed Europe The expansion of... [27]
In 1413, Muhammad I came to power after years of chaotic succession struggles. Muhammad I (1413-1421) ended the division and recovered the territory lost to the Timurid Empire. [28] In 1421, Murad II ascended the throne and the Ottoman principality was once again united. In 1424, the Byzantine Empire again agreed to pay Gonagin to the Ottoman principality and ceded some of its territory. In 1425 Murad II's expedition to Anatolia led to the annexation of the Western Anatolian principality, which had been rebuilt with the support of the Timurid Empire.
In 1430, Murad II recaptured Thessaloniki, which had been occupied by the Byzantine Empire after the Battle of Ankara. In 1438, the Ottoman principality again invaded Serbia and captured the capital Smederevo. After that, it made another expedition to Albania, which was also included in the area of direct rule. From the banks of the Danube to Anatolia, Murad II largely restored the area reached by the expansion of his grandfather Bayezid. In 1440, the Ottoman army failed to attack the Danube fortress of Belgrade, which was under Hungarian control. [97]
In 1444, Murad II (reigned 1421-1451) in Battle of Varna The European Hungarian and Polish counterattacks were repulsed, and the Polish king Jagielonczyk and the Archbishop of Cesarini were killed. [29]

Establish a new capital

The history of Turkey between 1453 and 1683 can be broadly divided into two periods: a period of territorial, economic, and cultural expansion until 1566 and a period of relative military and political detente thereafter.
Mehmed II and his army entered Constantinople
Murad II died in 1451 and Mehmed II ascended the throne. [97] In the same year, Mehmed II led an army to build a fortress in the city of Anadoli Hisar, forming a siege of Constantinople. In April of the following year, Mehmed II himself besieged Constantinople with 200,000 troops and 300 warships. In 1453, at the age of 21 Muhammad II Less than two years after he took the throne, he led an army of 80,000 against the Byzantine capital Constantinople , [30] After 53 days of fighting, the Byzantine Empire was conquered on May 29, and the capital was moved there. Mehmed II renamed Constantinople Istanbul In Turkish, it means "go to the city". [31]
In the thirty years after the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed II led his army on 26 expeditions, almost continuously fighting, so he was known as "Fatih" (meaning conqueror). In the early years of Mehmed II's reign, he conquered Serbia, Greece (including Thrace, the Aegean, and the Peloponnese), and Bosnia in the Balkans; in Anatolia The Kingdom of Trabzon and the Principate of Karaman were destroyed. In the second half of his reign, Mehmed II also initiated a war against Uzun Hassan Aries Dynasty The Persian Empire founded by the Turkmen people and the war against Venice. Murad II built a new fleet and captured the Macedonian capital of Thessaloniki from Venice. He also hired Genoese to train sailors, expanded his fleet to 60 ships, took control of the Gulf of Enez and the northern Aegean islands, and completely pushed Venice out of the region. By 1470, the Ottoman Navy had 92 galleys, and a few years later it had more than 500 ships of all types. Mehmed II obliterated many of the semi-independent vassal states and areas controlled by the Italian city states and brought them under his direct jurisdiction, and in the newly conquered areas, the Ottoman Empire successively imposed tax surveys and introduced the Timar system. Mehmed II ruled directly over most of the territory that formed the Ottoman Empire until the 19th century. [98-100]
Artillery of the Ottoman Empire
Taking conquest as the basic state policy, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand westward and gradually occupied the territory of the Eastern European Christian world. To the east it fought with the Safavid dynasty of Islamic Persia and to the south it fought with the Mamluks of Egypt. Bayezid II (reigned 1481-1512) and his descendants Selim the First Continue the conquest of our ancestors. In the spring of 1516 Selim I launched the third Expedition, the Ottoman army advanced on Maradia, and officers from all over the Mamluks took refuge. On August 24, 1516, Selim I defeated the Mamluk army in the Battle of the Dabiq Steppe north of Aleppo, Syria, and successively captured Aleppo, Damascus, Jerusalem, and Gaza. In January 1517, Selim I captured Cairo in just three days, overthrew the Mamluk dynasty in Egypt, and captured the puppet caliph Mutawakil, a descendant of the Abbasid royal family under the control of the dynasty, from whom he took the position of caliph, and occupied most of Egypt and Syria. From then on, the Ottoman Sultan became the leader of Islamic orthodoxy, and Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, became the center of the Islamic world after Medina, Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo. [100-101]
From Selim I onwards, the Ottoman sultans proclaimed themselves "caliphs" of the Islamic world, but were not recognized by the Islamic world. To this end, Sharif, the hereditary ruler of Mecca, made a special trip to Cairo and presented Selim I with the key to the Holy City as a sign of submission. The imams of the mosques of the Empire began to add the content of prayers for Selim I in the "Hutubai" of the Friday prayers, calling him "the master of the two places (i.e. the territories of the Ottoman Empire in Asia and Europe)", "the Sultan of the two seas (i.e. the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean)", "the servant of the two holy Places (i.e. Mecca and Medina)" and "the victorious King". Syria, Hijaz, Palestine and Egypt under the control of the Mamluk Dynasty until the southern Nubia were all incorporated into the Ottoman territory, and the Ottoman Turkish Empire became a great empire spanning three continents, Europe, Asia and Africa. [101]
The Ottoman Empire's land expansion depended on its strong centralization, military innovation, and iron discipline, but the Ottoman navy also played an important role in its conquest, which was contested and secured in the hands of Italy and Portugal The Black Sea , Aegean Sea , Mediterranean , Red Sea and The Indian Ocean The long voyage route. As Turkey held the main overland trade route between Europe and Asia, the empire's economy flourished. The Ottoman Empire's monopoly on trade between Western Europe and Asia is often cited as the Queen of Spain Isabella I support Christopher Columbus The main reason for Western Airlines to look for Asian sea routes. [32]

Rise to the top

The Ottoman Empire prospered under a number of able monarchs. Selim the First During his reign, he focused on building the domestic economy and expanding eastward and southward in 1514 Battle of Chaldylland He defeated Ismail I [2] Under the rule of Persia Safavid dynasty , [33] Have obtained Azerbaijan Parts of...
Suleiman I
In 1517, the Ottoman Empire destroyed Egypt The Mamluks And its navy expanded to include Red Sea . [34] Since then, the Ottoman Empire and Portuguese empire Became the most dominant power in the region. subsequent Suleiman I Did not stop the pace of conquest. In 1521, the Turks fell Belgrade ; It was taken in 1522 Rhode Island . [35] It's from 1526 Battle of Mohach The Ottoman Empire defeated the Hungarian monarchy. Then conquered Kingdom of Hungary Ottoman Hungary was established in Hungary and Central Europe. [36] In 1526, the Ottoman Empire took over The First Battle of Mohachi It won and was launched in 1529 Siege of Vienna , [37] But they were forced to retreat by the onset of winter. In 1532, the Ottomans attacked Vienna again with more than a quarter of a million men, but were repulsed at Keseg, south of Vienna.
In 1543, the Ottomans continued their advance, The House of Habsburg The ruler of Ferdinand the First In 1547, the Ottoman suzerainty over Hungary was officially recognized. [38] Under Suleiman I, Transylvania , Wallachia And the volatile Moldova became vassals of the Ottomans and had to pay tribute to them. To the east, Osman is Persians snatch Baghdad Be in control Mesopotamia The Persian Gulf.
At the end of Suleiman I's reign, the Ottoman Empire had a total population of 15 million. Under Selim I and Suleiman I, the Ottomans had a powerful navy that controlled much of the eastern Mediterranean. Commander of the Ottoman Navy Barbarossa Hayreddin Under Suleiman I, he led the Ottoman navy to numerous defeats against Christian navies, including the conquest of Spain Tunisia and Algeria . [7] Ottoman naval assistance Moslem and Jew In Spain Inquisition The period fled Spain and escorted them to the Ottoman Empire.
It was captured by the Ottoman Navy in 1543 Holy Roman Empire Of Nice, [39] This is by the King of France Francois the First Made possible. France and the Ottomans, united by their rivalry with the Habsburgs in Central and Southern Europe, formed a powerful alliance of the time, a military and economic alliance in which the Ottomans allowed France to trade within the empire without taxation. In fact, the Ottomans were a very important and accepted political body in Europe at that time, the Ottomans and the Ottomans France , Kingdom of England and Dutch Republic Forge a military alliance and confront The Spanish Habsburg Dynasty , Italy and Duchy of Austria . [39]
As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval power was challenged by rising Western European powers, particularly in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, The Strait of Malacca and The Moluccas The region was threatened by Portugal, the two sides were losing power, and Turkey had the upper hand during this period in Southeast Asia State of Aceh , The Sultanate of Malacca All became Ottoman territory. [40] With the Ottomans blocking the sea routes to the south and east, European countries had to find alternative routes. On land, the Ottoman Empire was preoccupied with the Austrian war and the Persian war, and the resources, logistics, and communications needed to sustain the war were too far away to sustain the navy.
Under Suleiman I, the Ottoman Empire had a vast territory (about 4.5 million square kilometers) and a population of 14 million, compared with 5 million in Spain and 2.5 million in England. Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, had a population of more than 500,000 at its peak (1600), larger than any European city.
Ottoman expansion into Western Asia and Africa

Asian-african expansion

Ottoman Empire Islamic state In 1520, the Turkish pirate Hayreddin, nicknamed Barbarossa (not Red Beard, the pirate Barbarossa is named after the king of the Holy Roman Empire), who conquered Algeria while claiming to be the king of Turkey. From 1533 onwards, the Turkish central government sent local bureaucrats to Algeria, the Belebeyi. In 1534, the Turks made their first attempt to conquer the borders of Algeria Tunisia They even took Tunisia, but the next year it fell back to the Spanish, but soon the Turks defeated the Spaniards and took over the country completely. The Turks seized Tripoli (present-day Libya) around 1551. [41]
Turkish expansion also extended to the Arabian Peninsula, which was occupied by the Turks in 1547 Yemen It was taken in 1550 Bahrain In 1557 Oman Muscat Defeat the Portuguese and take control of Oman. Soon the Turks conquered the Red Sea coast Eritrea With Somalia. Then, Mosul Turkishness Iraq A new starting point for advancement. The centuries-old struggle between Turkey and Persia over Iraq ended in a Turkish victory. After Iraq, the Turks conquered Hassa on the Persian Gulf coast. [41] Thus, in just a few hundred years, almost all the Islamic countries were conquered by Turkey, only Morocco and Oman It remained independent of Turkey and existed as a vassal state. For the next 300 to 400 years, these Arab states suffered under Turkish military oppression. Until the 19th and 20th centuries, it was replaced by heavier oppression in European countries. [41]
Islamic countries are dependent on Turkey to varying degrees. North Africa Maghreb The region of Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli (present-day Libya), formally outlying provinces of Turkey, had in fact become independent from the Turkish government during the 17th and 18th centuries. Yemen became independent before the mid-17th century. On the southern shore of the Persian Gulf, Portuguese After losing almost all of its colonies in military confrontations, it returned as a merchant in the late 16th century, repeatedly pushing out the Turks in trade, and re-establishing some strongpoints until it was expelled by the Persian Safi dynasty in the early 17th century. Even in Turkey the rulers -- Pasha In Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Iraq, the authority of Turkey's central government is often challenged by local bureaucrats. Sometimes the Pasha plotted against the Sultan, sometimes the local Arab feudalists rose up against the Turkish Pasha, and powerful popular uprisings arose, shaking the entire Ottoman Empire. [41]

Decay crisis

After Suleiman's death, Turkey's territorial expansion gradually slowed down. The growth of Western European maritime power and the development of sea routes from Europe to Asia and the New World undermined Turkey's economic development. What used to be an effective military and bureaucratic system has been mutated by Sudan's misgovernance. Despite these difficulties, the Empire remained the main expansionist power in Europe until 1683 Battle of Vienna The Battle of Vienna marked the end of Turkey's continued expansion in Europe. [42] European countries began to deal with Turkey's control of overland trade routes.
Western European countries circumvented Turkey's trade monopoly and established their sea routes to Asia. The influx of silver from the New World led to the devaluation and inflation of the Turkish currency, which had serious negative effects on all levels of Turkish society. Selim the Second temporal The Big Vizier Sokolu Muhammad Pasha began the development of the Suez and Volga Seaway to save the economy, but these plans were later cancelled. In 1571, after the burning of Moscow on the plains of Eastern Europe, the Turks supported it Crimea Khan Daulat Gray I, plans to conquer Tsarist Russia. The following year, the Crimean Army was defeated at the Battle of Morodi. Of the time Crimean Khanate It was undoubtedly a powerful power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.
Battle of Lepanto
In southern Europe, Philip the Second Led by a Catholic league challenging the Turkish navy in the Mediterranean, they were in Battle of Lepanto The defeat of the Turkish fleet dealt a blow to the invincibility of the Turkish Navy. The battle was the largest naval battle of early modern history, and the victory at Lepanto triggered uprisings against Ottoman rule in Greece and Algiers. [43] Modern historians believe that the Battle of Lepanto was more symbolic than military. Within six months of the Turkish naval defeat, a new fleet of about 250 ships, eight of them equipped with modern three-masted armaments, was built. At the docks of Constantinople, ships were built every day at the height of shipbuilding. Türkiye The Big Vizier In discussion with the Venetian minister, he said: "When we took Cyprus, we removed one of your armies, and your defeat of our fleet only peeled off the crust of the bread." The remarkable resilience of the Turkish navy allowed Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing Turkey to expand and consolidate its position in North Africa.
The Habsburg boundaries did not change much, only a number of small battles for individual fortresses. This was due to the development in Europe of the Star-shaped fortress, a type of low fortress built by the Austrians on the border, which could only be breached after a long siege. The Turks could do nothing about this fortress, and the artillery used by the Empire had become ineffective. This also reflected its geographical limitations, as Vienna was the furthest point of the Turkish army, which marched from Constantinople during the war season from early spring to late autumn. In addition, the Turks had to deploy troops on the front line, on the one hand to guard against the Austrians, and on the other hand to counter the Persians Shiah Muslim Safavid dynasty .
On the battlefield, Turkey was gradually overtaken by continental European military technology, and the growth of religious and intellectual conservatives stifled Turkish military innovation. The Revolution in military affairs in Europe changed strategy and armaments in ways that were frightening in the past Sipahi The cavalry threat diminished. In the long war against the Habsburgs, the Empire needed a large number of infantry armed with firearms, so the relaxation of the recruitment policy, which greatly increased the number of new Turkish troops, but it caused problems such as discipline and the quality of soldiers, and the government even had to deal with the mutiny of soldiers.
The spear and musket and linear tactics developed in Europe to promote the musket were fatal to the Turkish army. The Turkish army recruited a number of irregular snipers to fight the war, and after demobilization some snipers became bandits during the Djellari Rebellion Anatolia It fell into anarchy in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. By 1600, the population of the Ottoman Empire had reached 30 million, and demands for land shortages were putting pressure on the government.

Internal chaos arises

Feminist period in Sudan (1648-1656) was a period when the Turkish harem had a great deal of influence over politics, with the queen mother exercising power on behalf of her son, which was not unprecedented. [12] Sultan Hurem In the early 1530s, she succeeded Sultan Rubanieu as Empress Dowager, and was described by the Venetian Bailouandrea Geridi as "a woman of great kindness, courage, and intelligence". Due to the inability of Ibrahim I to govern the country and the youth of 1646 Muhammad IV The most famous women of this period were Sultan Qassem and her daughter-in-law Duhen Hatij, who was murdered in 1651 by his enemies because of his regency. [44]
The Ottoman Empire then entered the Kopulus Period (1656-1703), during which the empire was ruled by members of the Kopulus family The Big Vizier . On 15 September 1656, at the age of 80, Copulus Muhammad Pasha received assurances from Duhen Hatijie that the imperial harem would not interfere with his administration. Kopulul Muhammad Pasha was a radical conservative enforsor who restored central power and the imperial military, and his son and successor, Kopulul Faqir Ahmad, followed his father's line. The fruits of the Kopulus' revival can be seen in the recapture Transylvania Conquered Crete in 1669 and expanded into southern Ukraine in 1676, capturing Kotin, Kamenets Podolsky And Podolia.
Battle of Vienna in 1683
In May 1683, the Ottoman Empire's newly revitalized military power was destroyed, and Karla Mustafa Pasha attacked again Vienna The Turkish army was taken by the Polish king John III Led by Habsburg, German and Polish forces, the siege was defeated, and about 20,000 people were killed during the siege. [45]
" The Treaty of Karlowitz It ended the Great Turkish War and required the Turkish army to cede for the first time the territory it controlled in Europe, including Ottoman Hungary. [46] Since then, Turkey has been unable to pursue an expansionist policy toward Europe and has had to take a defensive stance on the European front. With the Treaty of Karlowitz as its main symbol, the Ottoman Empire declined in the early 19th century. During this period, only two monarchs were able to exercise effective political and military rule over the empire. Murad IV Recapture Yerevan (Erevan) And in Baghdad, central power is again valued.
Mustafa II In 1695-1696 the Habsburgs counterattacked Hungary, but in Sanda was taken Prince Eugen Defeat.

Stagnation reform

During the end of the Ottoman Empire, many of the Ottoman Balkan possessions fell Austrian Empire Egypt, which was nominally under Turkish rule, Tripolitania (present-day Libya), Tunisia and Algeria It gained de facto independence and later became a colony of Britain, France and Italy. In the 18th century, the Ottoman central government granted varying degrees of regional autonomy to local rulers and leaders.
War between the Ottoman Empire and Austria from 1716 to 1718
It grew in eastern Europe between the 17th and 19th centuries Tsarist Russia A series of wars for territory, possessions and hegemony broke out with the Ottoman Empire, which had risen in western Asia and then expanded into southeastern Europe and northern Africa. Historians see Turkey's long stagnation as an era of failed reform. Turkey undertook scientific and educational reforms during this period, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul University of Science and Technology. Science and technology in Turkey were developed in the Middle Ages, when Turkish scholars combined Islamic philosophy and mathematics with Chinese knowledge of gunpowder and magnetic compasses. During this period, science was less influential than before, and some writers' unions denounced the printing press as "the invention of the devil." western Movable type printing In 1450 by Johannes Gutenberg Invented in 1493 by the Spanish Sephardic Jews Introduced to the Ottomans, Sephardic Jews emigrated to the Ottoman Empire after escaping from the Spanish Inquisition.
The tulip period was dominated by monarchs Ahmed III Named after a favorite flower, the tulip also symbolized the peaceful reign of his presidency. [47] The Empire's policy towards Europe changed at this time, and in 1712 the Ottoman Empire took control The Third Russo-Turkish War After his victory and the signing of the Treaty of Passalowitz, the region was at peace from 1718 to 1730. [48] The Ottoman Empire fortified its Balkan border towns to guard against European expansion. Some initial reforms were implemented, such as lowering taxes in an attempt to improve the empire's image, and private investment and entrepreneurship began to emerge.
Turkey's military reform in Selim the Third Beginning in his reign (1789-1807), he was the first monarch to attempt to modernize the military along European lines. [49] However, these reforms were blocked by reactionary elements, both by religious leaders and by the New Turkish Army, the New Turkish Army at the time Yeniseri Out of control and out of effect, their discontent with poverty and opposition to change triggered the mutiny. [50] Selim III's reforms ended in the death of his successor Mahmoud II A spectacular and bloody massacre of the New Turkish army in 1826 suppressed the mutiny. However, the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century was not simply in a period of stagnation of expansion and development, but also in a period of adaptation to new things and new institutions, which was a stage of transition from military expansion to modern reform of the Ottoman Empire.

Modern decline

The fall of the Ottoman Empire is considered by historians to be a period of imperial modernization. The Empire lost a lot of territory on the front line, the weakness of the central government led to instability, the Empire in Tanzimet The period attempted to reform and reorganize the empire. [51] During the Tanzimet period, Turkey had to deal with foreign invasions, and the empire was unable to support itself, so it began to ally with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, and Britain. In 1853-1855 Crimean War Turkey allied with Britain, France and other countries to resist Russia. [52]
Mahmoud II
A series of constitutional reforms under Tanzimet included the establishment of a modern army, reform of the banking system, and the replacement of trade unions with modern factories. [53] In 1856, the Hart-Al Humayun Decree guaranteed equal status to all citizens of the Ottoman Empire, regardless of race or creed, and extended the provisions of the Hart-Al Sharif Decree of 1839. For example, the Armenian National Constitution of 1863 was a statute approved by Divan, consisting of 150 articles drafted by Armenian intellectuals and the newly established Armenian National Assembly. One is called Canning - Er Eshathy (Translated as "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish) The period of reform culminated in the Constitution, which was established by neo-Ottomans Published on November 23, 1876, it established the concepts of liberty and equality for all citizens. This was the "first constitution" of the Ottoman Empire. [54] The constitutional period was short, but its ideas (Ottomanization) were influential among the reformist New Turks, who had been educated in Western universities and believed that a constitutional monarchy would solve the problems of social instability in the empire. [55]
A military coup deposed the Turkish monarch in 1876 Abdel Aziz , Murad V Due to mental problems, Murad V was deposed within a few months of taking office. On December 23, 1876, as expected, he took the throne Abdulhamid II Declare into effect Constitutional monarchy However, the constitutional parliament ran for only two years before it was banned by the monarch, but not abolished, and was later reconvened under pressure, although the effectiveness of Canning-E 'Eshathy was reduced to a minimum.
The Ottoman Empire in 1848

Independent wave

Subject article: The division of the Ottoman Empire
In the 19th century, nationalism The rise of the Empire swept through many countries, including the Ottoman Empire. The growth of national consciousness and civic nationalism led to the introduction of Western nationalism into the Ottoman Empire, which had to deal with nationalism both at home and abroad. There are many revolutionary parties in the country. The rise of nationalism had a profound impact on the empire in the 19th century and on the state policy of the empire in the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned the state policies of the time, with some believing that the ethnic conflict originated from outside and had nothing to do with administration. The Empire had not achieved much at that time, and its ability to deal with nationalism was questionable.
In 1798 it was Napoleon I Egypt was recaptured by Ottoman and British forces in 1801, and was occupied by British forces in 1882 under the pretext of policing; Egypt and Sudan remained legally Ottoman provinces in North Africa until 1914. In 1829, with the intervention of Britain, France and Russia, Greece in the 1830s Greek War of Independence After declaring independence. [56] The reforms failed to restrain the Danube and the Grand Duchy Greater Serbianism The rise of the two places has been in a semi-independent state. In 1875, Serbia, Montenegro , Wallachia and Moldova Declare independence from the empire. [57]
From 1877 to 1878 Russo-turkish War The independence of Serbia, Romania, Montenegro and Bulgaria was formally established. [58] Bosnian quilt Austro-hungarian Empire The rest of the Balkans remained under Ottoman control. [59] In the midst of this wave of decolonization, the Serbian-born Jew Guda Alkaleh preached in Palestine Establish a Jewish state. Turks in Russo-turkish War Defeat, the Ottoman Empire to Cyprus In exchange for British support at the Berlin Conference.
in World War I The Ottoman Empire joined Allied countries Britain immediately annexed Egypt and Sudan. Between 1830 and 1912, the Ottoman Empire lost all of its provinces in North Africa, namely Algeria (occupied by France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881), and Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912). The Empire's failure to repay its debt to European banks led to the creation of the Ottoman Public Debt Agency, the Ottoman Public Debt Management. At the end of the 19th century, the Empire was not fully occupied by Western powers due to the concept of the balance of power, and Austria and Russia both wanted to use the decline of Turkey to increase their influence and expand their territory, but Britain tried to restrain them, fearing that Russia would dominate the eastern Mediterranean.
The loss of Ottoman possessions in Africa

Empire decline

Subject article: Turkish revolution , World War I
After the Turkish Revolution (1908) and the Sultan's proclamation of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the restoration of Parliament, the Ottoman Empire entered the second constitutional period, which played an important role in the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
The Ottoman Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
During this period, government affairs were controlled by the United Progressive Committee. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was annexed by the Ottoman Empire in 1908 amid internal struggles Bosnia and Herzegovina . In 1911 Italian-turkish War In the middle, the Ottoman Empire was defeated and lost Tripoli and Cyrenaica . With the rise of nationalism in Southeast Europe, Balkan League Declared war on the Ottoman Empire in late 1912 Balkan wars In the lost except East Thrace and Edirne Outside the Balkan territories. [60]
German-controlled Baghdad railway It became a source of international tension and was one of the causes of the First World War. Turkey is in pursuit. Goben Breslau and the invasion of the Middle East front officially entered the war. In the early years of the war, the Ottoman Empire achieved several important victories, such as Gallipoli The Siege of Kata. The Ottoman Empire also suffered many setbacks, such as in Battle of the Caucasus Defeated by Russia.
1916 Arab uprising The good situation of the Ottoman Empire on the Middle East front was reversed, so that the second largest Muslim group of the empire, the Arabs, broke away from the empire. [61] Interior Minister Mehmet Talat spoke to Turkey at home Armenian Set up Fifth column May have expressed concern and ordered an arrest Armenia The leaders, demanding the implementation of the Tesil Law, began mass deportations and massacres of Armenians, forcibly bringing thousands to the country Syrian desert In the camp, the event spiraled into genocide. An estimated 1.5 million Armenians died during the war as a result of starvation, lack of water, exposure to the sun, and looting by thieves, known as the Armenian Genocide. The Armenians responded with a war of resistance in the city of Van and the establishment of the Government of Western Armenia. The Turkish government blames Armenians for the attack Anatolia In collusion with the invading Russian army in the west, there were Armenian volunteers in the Russian army.
By 1918, Yemen and medina It is Turkey that is responsible for Arabian Peninsula The last remaining territory. [60] After the Armistice of Mudlos was signed, Turkey was forced to surrender Yemen and Medina, and in 1917 Russian revolution After the Turks took it Georgia , Armenia and Azerbaijan They all have to be handed over together.
Kemal
" The Treaty of Sevres The Treaty established the division of the Ottoman Empire. [62] At that time, 40 new states had been established on Ottoman soil (including the controversial Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus ). After the war, the number of peasants in Anatolia was only 40% of what it had been before the war, and Turkey suffered heavy casualties in World War I. Occupy Istanbul and occupy Izmir Inspired the formation of the Turkish National Movement, the National Movement in Mustafa Kemal Ataturk Under the leadership of Turkish War of Independence Win.
On November 1, 1922, the sultanate was abolished, the last monarch Mohammed VI He left Turkey on 17 November. In 1923, the newly established Turkish Grand National Assembly signed a decree Treaty of Lausanne It is internationally recognized.
On 29 October 1923, the Grand National Assembly proclaimed Republic of Turkey Established. [63] On 3 March 1924, the caliphate was abolished. The Ottoman royal family was declared persona non grata and expelled from the country. Only 50 years later, in 1974, did the Grand National Assembly grant Turkish citizenship to descendants of the Ottoman royal family.

territory

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EDITOR
The founder of the Ottoman state, Uthman, inherited a small fiefdom in the northwest corner of the Anatolian plateau, centered on the present-day Turkish city of Eskisheir, north of Seruat, on the border of the Seljuk Turkic Kingdom. Between 1300 and 1320, the Ottoman territories reached as far south as Eskisehir, and as far west and north as Mount Ulu, near the Sea of Marmara. Orhan, Osman's son, occupied Nicaea, Nicomedia in 1337, and in 1338-45, the Turks completed the conquest of Asia Minor. At this time the territory of the Ottoman State included the whole of northwest Asia Minor from the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea. Orhan also expanded eastward during his rule, controlling areas near Ankara. Murad led his army to capture the Adriatic Fort and invade the Macedonian plain. In 1384 Sofia was captured and soon all of Bulgaria was under his control. The Ottoman Turks also conquered parts of Macedonia and Serbia in the Balkans.
In Asia, Murad I captured Ankara and nearly doubled the size of the former Ottoman territory in Anatolia. Bayezid then led an army across the Danube, invaded Thessaly, and occupied parts of Macedonia and Bulgaria. In 1396 Bayezid conquered Thessaly and Konya and invaded Hungary. [94] In 1446 he invaded Greece and captured Corinth. Albania, Greece, Romania and Serbia were all part of the Ottoman Empire. [93]
Between 1459 and 1475, Mehmet II conquered the Serbian city of Dipotat, then occupied the Duchy of Athens, the Duchy of the Peloponnese; Conquer the Greek kingdom of Trabzon (on the southern shore of the Black Sea) and conquer Bosnia. The seizure of the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea; With the annexation of Crimea, the Black Sea became the inner lake of the Ottoman Empire.
Between 1478 and 1481, Mehmet II conquered Albania, brought Albania and Herzegovina under the Empire's control, and conquered most of Greece and the Peloponnese. By the time of Sherim I, he had captured Azerbaijan and Kurdistan from the Persians and conquered the northern Mesopotamia. In 1516, he captured Damascus and conquered Syria. The conquest of Egypt in 1517 extended the Ottoman Empire to the Red Sea, the Eastern Mediterranean, and North Africa (as far as Algeria).
From 1566 to 1683, the Ottoman Empire conquered the southwestern coast of the Arabian Peninsula to Yemen. It controls the Caucasus to the east and the southern shore of the Persian Gulf to the southeast. The Ottoman Empire reached its maximum size in 1683. At this time, the Empire's territory included Turkey, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, and Lebanon in present-day West Asia, Israel, the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia, western Yemen, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan; In Europe, Romania, Bulgaria, the Federation of Yugoslavia, Macedonia, Greece, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, Albania, Hungary, Moldova, Crimea in southern Ukraine and nearby areas; In Africa, Egypt, northern Sudan, northern Libya, northern Algeria, Tunisia, and in the Mediterranean, Crete, Cyprus, etc. It covers an area of 5.3 million square kilometers. [93]
Ottoman Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries
At the height of the Ottoman Empire, the country was divided into 31 provinces and 250 counties, all of which were owned by the land Sudan Head empire Central government All, granted to the military landlord class on the condition of military service.

political

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EDITOR

theocracy

Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire practiced a combination of military and political government The Sharia regime The color, yes Islam One of the political systems recognized by the law. State power must be in the spirit of Sharia, head of state (i.e., caliph, Sutan, emir, etc.) It must also be governed by Sharia law.
In defense of Islam The sanctity, purity, and continuity of righteousness were later proposed by jurists in a more systematic way caliph The doctrine stipulates a series of principles regarding the qualifications, functions, and methods of formation of the caliph, and holds that the caliph, as a "servant of Allah," must respect the Islamic Sharia law and can only exercise his power within the limited scope permitted by the Sharia. These powers are mainly administrative and legislative powers, including promulgation of government decrees, formulation of administrative regulations, determination of the state's administrative structure, appointment and removal of officials. However, all these administrative legislation are theoretically regarded as an application and supplement to Sharia, and cannot be contrary to the spirit of Sharia. Historically, feudal monarchs often used this as a basis for promulgating administrative regulations, such as the famous Statutes of the Ottoman Empire. In modern times, decrees and regulations have often been issued on this basis to limit the power of Sharia courts Judicial power And revise the entity of the sharia by means of administrative legislation. [64]
Flag of the Ottoman Empire

monarch

Subject article: State organs of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire adopted a monarchy, with sultans following the principle of hereditary succession of the Ottoman family. The sultan of Istanbul stood above his subjects, acting as their master and protector, the object of their loyalty. The sultan was regarded as a shepherd, and his subjects, called Raias, were the sheep that obeyed him. The Ottoman Sultan was a symbol of the Ottoman Empire without the Ottoman family, there would have been no Ottoman Empire. However, the Middle East under the Ottoman Empire was not the so-called Eastern hydraulic society that Karl Weitef described, and the Sultan of Istanbul was not an absolute monarch with absolute power. [65]
The size and durability of the Ottoman imperial family was unprecedented in the Islamic world. The Ottoman family was ethnically of Turkish origin, but because the imperial family intermarried with people of different races, the Ottoman family was not dominated by pure Turks.
In 1876, the Ottoman Empire held its first Imperial parliament
Islam The highest rank among caliph (Successor of the Prophet Muhammad) It was also adopted by the Ottoman Sultans as the Caliph of the Ottoman Empire, in addition to three orthodox caliphs over the years. The Ottoman Sultan was the sole regent of the empire and could be seen as the embodiment of the government, although the sultan would not fully exercise his powers. The Imperial Harem was an important organ of power in the Ottoman court, headed by the Empress Dowager, the Sultan. She has absolute power in the harem, a high position. At times, the Empress Dowager would intervene and use her influence to weaken the sultan's power. From the beginning of the 16th century to the 17th century, the Empress Dowager of Sudan held the power of the country, known as the Sudan Feminist period. The successor Sultan is chosen from among the sons of the previous Sultan.
Outbreak in 1908 The Young Turks Revolution After the Ottoman Empire became a constitutional monarchy, the Sultan did not Real power A parliament was established, with representatives elected by the provinces, who formed the government of the Ottoman Empire.

personnel

though Sudan The sultan's political and administrative powers would be divided. State affairs were governed by the Council of Dewan (renamed Portes after the 17th century), composed of advisers and ministers. When the Ottoman Empire was still under Belik, the Diwan consisted of Turkic aristocratic leaders, who later gave way to military officers and regional cadres (such as religious and political advisers). Beginning in 1320, the Sultan appointed the Great Vizier to exercise power on behalf of the Sultan. The Grand Vizier acted largely independently, with virtually unlimited powers to appoint, dismiss, and supervise. At the end of the 16th century, the Sultan ceased to participate in government, and the Great Vizier effectively became head of state. For many times in Ottoman history, regional governors were able to act independently, even against the wishes of the rulers.
Fast-expanding empires are governed by loyal, savvy people, whether they be Albanian , The Fanar , Armenian , Serbian , Bosnians , Hungarians Or any other race. The Empire used Greeks, Muslims and Jews regardless of their religious background to reform the administrative system.

judiciary

The Ottoman judicial system was only willing to adopt most of the Sharia law that did not conflict with the legitimacy of the regime, organizing a regional legal system. The Empire had three court systems, one for Muslims and one for non-Muslims, the other for religious communities governed by Jews and Christians, and the other for trade courts. The whole system is regulated by the Caron Code, which is supplemented by laws that do not belong to any denomination The Sharia law The "inadequacies" of... [66] The categories of these courts were not entirely specialized; for example, the Muslim Courts, the main court of the Empire, dealt with trade disputes between litigants of different religious backgrounds. Even though influence could be exerted through regional rulers, the Ottoman Empire tended not to interfere with the legal systems of non-Muslim religions. The Sharia laws of Islam are assembled The Koran , hadith Prophet Muhammad Speech) It was formed by a Muslim council and operated by a system called Qiyas. These systems are taught in law schools, mainly in Constantinople and Bursa.
Tanzimet's reforms had a radical effect on the legal system. In 1877, the civil Code was codified in the Code of Magira. Later, the Megira Code included commercial law, criminal law and civil procedure law. [67]

Military affairs

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EDITOR

Recruit troops

The first military organization of the Ottoman Empire was organized by Ottoman I in the tribes of western Anatolia at the end of the 13th century. As the empire grew, the military system became more complex, with a complex system of recruitment and fiefdom. In order to meet the military needs, a militia system must be established among the local people, and this is Gerbent (meaning "road guard") The Guards.
The vassal armies played an irreplaceable role in the Ottoman conquest: from the second half of the 14th century to the early 15th century, they even constituted the main force of the Ottoman army. By the mid-15th century, the Turks were in the south Balkan region Direct and effective administrative military rule was forcibly established, and the local Christian princes, in the face of European crusader waves, raised several rebellions, and already made the Sultan unreliable. Many of the sons of the feudal lords served in the Muteferica Cavalry Regiment in Istanbul, which also drew on the descendants of Turkish nobles and formed the Kapikulu army. Mutefirika lived on payroll, had a uniform and received an orthodox Islamic court education, and served as hostages.
Of the eastern Anatolian Highlands Kurd Man is the autonomous vassal closest to the heart of empire. They were originally with Persia The Safavid Dynasty An alliance was formed against the Ottoman Turks, but after the defeat of Ismael by Selim I at the Battle of Kaldiran (1514), the Kurdish tribal elders turned to the Ottoman Empire. After this, the Empire established a special Hukumet Sanjak, administered by the hereditary Bey, and the army of Yeniseri stationed in the central town. The Kurds were fierce, nomads who would accompany Yeniseri when called upon by the sultan to carry out important missions. For example, during a campaign in 1596, Kurdish cavalry from Diyar Bakir (the capital of the Kurdish region in present-day eastern Turkey) served as the rear of the Ottoman army. [68]
other Middle East The vassal autonomous regime also Lebanon The Maronite Christians and Druze Muslims, while the Mamluks were Egyptian and Iraqi, coastal and Arabian Gulf Eritrea They were semi-autonomous, and in the center of each town there was the Yeniseri camp, a symbol of Ottoman sovereignty. In addition to military service, the natural resources of these vassal areas were extremely important to the Ottoman Empire, such as Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia supplying timber, muskets, horses, tin, and ropes; Kurdistan Iraq and Lebanon provided bitumen, sulphur and nitrates. [69]

Land force

Ottoman Army
The main elements of the Ottoman army were the Turkish New Army, Sipahi , Atkins and marching band. The Ottoman army was the most advanced combat army in the world at the time and was the first to use muskets and guns cannon The army. Under siege Constantinople At the time, the Ottomans began to use the falcon, which was a short wide cannon. The high-speed, highly mobile light cavalry used bows and arrows, short swords and rode on Turkmen horses Arabian horse Strong and disciplined in battle without heavy armour Heavy cavalry The men and women are heavily armored, and they launch a powerful attack on the enemy when it is most crucial.
Its combat mode vs Mongol Empire Similar, such as pretending to retreat, encircling the enemy in crescent formation, and launch an assault. In the middle of the 17th century and after the Great Turkish War, the performance of the Ottoman army declined. In the 18th century, the Ottoman army did not achieve much in the war against Austria, and was forced to retreat and lose territory in the north by the Russian army. [70]
The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century began with the military. In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II abolished the New Turkish Army and established a modern army, named the New Order. The Ottoman Army was the first organization to hire foreign experts and send officers to study in Western Europe. Those who were relatively young and newly trained returned to Turkey and started the Young Turks Movement. [70]

navy

Ottoman naval fleet in the Golden Horn
The Turkish navy contributed significantly to the empire's expansion in Europe, conquering North Africa in 1517, including Algeria and Egypt. After the fall of Algeria and Greece, Turkey's maritime power and control over overseas areas weakened. The Turkish monarch Abdel Aziz attempted to rebuild a powerful navy, the largest after the British and French. The shipyard in Barrow, England, built the first Ottoman ship in 1886 submarine . [70]
However, the Ottoman Empire's collapsing economy failed to support its navy. Sultan Abdul Hamid II distrusted the navy, believing that a large, expensive navy was needed Russo-turkish War It was useless, so it locked most of the ships in Golden Horn The ship decayed over the next three decades. [70]
After the Young Turks Revolution of 1908, the United Progressive Committee wanted to develop a strong naval force. The Turkish Naval Fund was established to collect public donations for the purchase of ships.

Air force

The Ottoman Air Force
The Turkish Air Force was founded in June 1909 as the world's first flying combat organization. On July 3, 1912, the Turkish Air Force Academy was established to train pilots and air force officers. The establishment of the Air Force Academy accelerated the process of expanding the Air Force and filled it with more personnel.
In May 1913, the Air Force Academy launched the world's first dedicated reconnaissance training program and established its first reconnaissance division.
In June 1914, a new Naval Aviation Academy was established. At the outbreak of the First World War, the modernization process came to a sudden halt, and the Turkish Air Force participated in the war on the front lines, as far west as the West Galicia East and Caucasus, south Yemen .

economy

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EDITOR

agriculture

The Ottoman Empire was a typical agrarian society, with the vast majority of the population living in the countryside. The self-sufficient agricultural production formed the basis of the economic life of the Ottoman Empire, and the land was undoubtedly the primary source of wealth, and the small peasant economy dominated for a long time. As for nomadic economic activities, they are mainly distributed in the plateau, mountain and desert areas on the edge of the settled world; Most nomads follow the traditional blood organization. [71] Farmers generally follow the fallow and rotation farming techniques, adopt the traditional way of family farming, simple farming tools, backward technology, extensive management, self-sufficiency. The typical crops of traditional agriculture in the Ottoman Empire were grain crops. Winter wheat constitutes the most important food crop, sown in autumn and harvested in spring. [72]
Village leaders and tribal elders control the distribution of water and the use of arable land, and exercise the duties of collecting taxes and arbitrating disputes within certain limits, constituting an intermediate link between the state and the peasants. As the author of the land, farmers are attached to the village leaders and tribal elders, and under the protection of the village communities and tribes. The sharing system is a long-standing form of renting in the Middle East, in which landlords and farmers divide their crops according to five factors: land, water, labor, tools and seeds. Farmers mainly pay land rent in kind, while bearing a certain amount of labor, money land rent is still rare. The land system of state ownership, as well as the common ownership of land by village communities and tribes, excludes the individual rights of farmers to control the land. [72]

Foreign trade

Once established, the Ottoman Empire controlled the Asia Minor Passage along the East-West trade route. In each of these capitals, the Ottoman Empire dramatically reformed the local economy, making it a new political and economic center. Because merchants and workers were especially important to the creation of the metropolis, Mehmet II and his successor Bayeset II encouraged Jews from all over Europe to emigrate to Istanbul and other cities, such as Saronica.
As the Ottoman Empire grew, it exported goat hair, leather goods and hides, as well as carpets. Because Ottoman carpets were so popular in Europe, Latin merchants often bought Ottoman-produced carpets from Antalya in the south and Balat in the west of Asia Minor for sale in Europe. Mineral products were also one of the important commodities in the Ottoman Empire's foreign trade. Asia Minor has silver, iron, copper, salt and lapis lazuli deposits. Sinop was famous for its copper production in the Middle Ages. Lead was exported to the West and Egypt; Copper was also sold to the Genoese. Gold and silver were also traded, of course. As well as exporting metals, the Ottoman Empire also imported metals, such as iron and tin, which were necessary for the casting of guns. [4]
Alum occupies a unique position in the foreign trade of the Ottoman Empire. Until the discovery of alum deposits south of Rome in the second half of the 15th century, Asia Minor was the main source of alum needed in the West. Among the goods traded, horses were the most valuable livestock assets of the Ottomans and other Turks. Horses in the Ottoman Empire were very good, and this was inseparable from the good pastures of the Anatolian highlands. [4]

currency

18th century coorus silver and soaplot silver coins
Borrowing from the monetary system of the Arab Empire and the Ilkhanate (present-day Iran), the Ottomans used silver and copper coins to collect taxes, and the Akche was the basis of Ottoman money from the beginning of the Empire until the 15th century. The use of silver coins became increasingly widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire, from cities to villages and from government administrations to steppe nomads. The reform of the form of taxation (from the physical kind to the collection of silver coins), and the demand for luxury goods by the nobility, made silver coins the most coveted "commodity" of the Ottoman sultans. In the late reign of Muhammad II, due to military warmongering, war spending was huge, and the Ottoman Empire's finances began to struggle to make ends meet, and money from the people's pockets naturally became the "best choice", so the base metal content in Ike silver coins increased significantly. The credibility of the Ike was damaged, and some regions began to abandon the Ike, including the Balkans, Egypt, Persia, the Crimean Peninsula, and the Maghreb (coastal areas of modern Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya), and began minting their own silver coins. [73]
In 1690, after silver, the Ottoman Empire began to learn from the West, established an imperial mint, and began minting a silver coin called Kurus, which was fixed as six times the weight of the Dirham silver coin commonly used by Muslims in the Arabian Peninsula at that time, weighing about 19.2 grams, containing 60% silver and 40% copper. It was equivalent in face value to 30 paras and 90 ecks - yes, the ecks had by this time been reduced to the smallest monetary unit.
In the 19th century, with the transmission effect of the Industrial revolution in Western Europe, the Ottoman Empire tried to learn from Western European countries and vigorously developed the banking and paper money system. In 1840, the Ottoman Empire issued banknotes in denominations of 1000, 500, 250, 100 and 50 kuru. [73]

culture

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EDITOR

Language

Ottoman Turkish language
Ottoman Turkish is Turkish The variant, deeply Farsi and Arabic The impact of... Turkish, Persian, and Arabic were all influential languages to the Ottoman Empire, and one of the reasons for valuing Arabic, for example, was because it was The Koran The written language. The Ottoman bureaucracy, especially the Ottoman court, communicated in a Turkish language in the later years, using Arabic and Persian loanwords. Even though the basic grammar is Turkish, the use of Arabic or Persian loanwords in Ottoman Turkish is incomprehensible to those who are not proficient in Arabic and Persian.
In the two centuries before the fall of the Empire, French and English became popular languages, especially in the Christian communities of the Levant, where the elite showed their upper class status by learning French and using European products. Under the Ottoman Empire, the use of Turkish steadily increased, but Arabic and Persian remained. Later, Persian was used only as a literary language, and Arabic was used purely for religious ceremonies, and there were many Persian poets. [74]

MUSICIANS

Ottoman classical music (see entry Music of Turkey ) was an important part of elite Ottoman education, some in the Ottoman Empire Sudan Is a skilled musician and composer, such as Selim the Third . [75] Ottoman classical music is mainly composed of Arabic music , Music of Persia And Byzantine music. Structurally, Ottoman classical music is based on a rhythmic and melodic system called Usur Mukamm Organized, Usur is similar to the West beat Muqam closely resembles the West mode . In terms of Musical Instruments, Anatolian, Central Asian (Bagramar, Saz, Camancha) and Arabic instruments ( Ude , Tambur , Canon , Nail ) mainly, later appeared Western instruments ( VIOLIN , PIANO ).
Due to the geographical and cultural differences between the capital and the rest of the Ottoman Empire, two distinct musical styles emerged: Ottoman classical music and folk music. A variety of different folk music emerged in the region, among which the region gave birth to famous musical styles such as Balka-Thracian folk music, Northeastern folk music, Aegean Sea Folk music, Central Turkish folk music and Caucasian Folk music. Some of the most distinctive styles are army music, Gypsy music, Belly dance And Turkish folk music.

religion

Portrayal of Ottoman culture
The Ottoman Empire allows it Christian and Jew (what the Qur 'an calls a "man of the Book") keeping his faith and not embracing polytheism The Sharia law The same. The Ottoman Empire would levy a Jizya tax (protection tax) on non-Muslims. in Millett system Next, non-Muslims and Moslem They were all subjects of the Empire, but were not bound or regulated by Islamic faith or law. The Orthodox Milet, for example, is bound by the Corpus civilis, which dates back to The Byzantine Empire It lasted nine hundred years. As the largest non-Muslim ethnic group in the Empire, the Orthodox Milets enjoyed political and commercial privileges, but were subject to higher taxes than the Muslims.
The Ottoman Empire and Constantinople Orthodox Church Church relations were generally peaceful, although there were occasional repressive policies against the Greek Church. The organization of the church remained the same, acting alone under close supervision, except for the outbreak of the Church in 1821-1831 Greek War of Independence And the rise of the constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century. Other Orthodox churches, such as the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Church until 1870, when Abdel Aziz established a Bulgarian bishop and was restored Bulgaria The autonomy of the Church. [76]

education

The Imperial School's strong educational system was able to weed out incompetent Sudanese descendants and train political talent for successors. The Imperial School operates in a two-track fashion. Islamic schools trained intellectuals and state officials in the Muslim tradition, giving the children of poor families the opportunity to rise in social status and income. There is also a Christian boarding school, Endron, which enrolls 3,000 Christian boys each year between the ages of 7 and 14 in a process known as Demisherme (Dev irme), excluding orphans, only children, married people, children of business and industry, Jews, Russians, and children of priests. [77]

Science and technology

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EDITOR
Ottoman architecture was influenced by Persian, Byzantine and Islamic Arabic architecture. Ottoman architecture is a continuation of pre-Islamic Sassanid architecture, such as the domes on square buildings, a common type in Sassanid architecture, which became the core of Ottoman architecture. Ottoman architecture was still in the exploratory phase at the time of the rise of the Empire and in the classical period of Ottoman architecture at the time of empire expansion.
During the Tulip period, Ottoman architecture was influenced by highly decorated styles in Western Europe, such as Baroque , rococo , and Imperial style . The concept of Ottoman architecture revolves around masjid Mosques are an integral part of social and urban planning. In addition to mosques, other examples of Ottoman architecture include soup kitchens, seminaries, hospitals, Turkish baths, and mausoleums.
Examples of Ottoman classical architecture, in addition Istanbul and Edirne It can also be found in mosques, Bridges, water springs and schools in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algeria, the Balkans and Hungary. The development of Ottoman decorative arts was influenced by the masses because of the many nationalities of the empire. The court artisans had a variety of artistic influences on the empire, such as tradition Byzantine art Mixed Chinese art. [78]

nation

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EDITOR

Arab

Ottoman rule quickly spread to Arab countries and regions, first conquering Syria and Egypt. At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire brought much of the Arab world under its rule. The Ottomans exercised indirect rule over the Arabs, except for the maintenance of peace, collection of taxes, and administration of justice, all other aspects were administered by the elders of their respective sects, and the prominent scholars of various regions still played a guiding role in the masses. The Ottoman Empire maintained the Arab way of life of the past, and was institutionally a continuation of the Arab Empire, so it remained a traditional Islamic state, and Hanafi sharia was the official legislative and judicial norm of the Ottoman Empire. [79]

Kurds

The Kurdistan region, where the Kurds lived for a long time, was strategically important on the border between the Ottoman Empire and the Persian Empire. With the rise of the Ottoman Empire, the main conflict with the Persian Empire occurred in the Kurdistan region. In the 16th century, the two major empires realized the geopolitical importance of the Kurdistan region and began to compete for the Kurdistan region, and the Western powers subsequently joined the competition for Kurdistan, and Kurdistan became the main place for great powers to compete. After the Battle of Chadran in 1514, the Ottoman Empire and the Kurds concluded the Ottoman-Kurdish Compact, and the Ottoman Empire officially began to control Kurdistan and the Kurds.
The Ottoman Empire superimposed its own administrative system on the Kurdish tribal structure, granting greater autonomy to the head of the Kurdish tribal alliance, the emir, while demanding a minimum of loyalty from the Kurds - lower taxes, but assuming the task of defending the border in times of crisis, in effect exercising indirect rule over the Kurds. In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire changed its control policy in the Kurdistan region, strengthening the central authority and weakening the power of the Kurdish emir and the Kurdish tribal leaders. [80]

Hellenic

The Greeks were always the largest ethnic minority group in the Ottoman Empire. Even after the declaration of Greek independence, the Greeks remained the largest minority in the Ottoman provinces. They were scattered across a wide area from Greece to Asia Minor and even Bulgaria. The Greeks, with their advantages in population, religion, language, and navigation, became an important part of the Ottoman merchants. The Greeks once extended their commercial network to the major cities of Western Europe: London, Paris, Marseille, Leipzig, and Vienna. At the same time, starting from the 17th century, with the development of capitalist industry and commerce, the economy of Western Europe entered a period of rapid development, and Greek merchants, who were Christians with European merchants, got new opportunities for development. The Greeks, with their superior maritime skills, then dominated the port trade of the Ottoman Empire. [81]

diplomacy

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EDITOR

With China

Early Ming Dynasty, due to the land across central and western South Asia The Timurid Empire At both ends of the Silk Road, exchanges between the Ming Dynasty and the Ottoman Empire were hindered. It was not until the fall of the Timurid Empire in the 16th century that the Ottoman Empire began to send official tributes to the Ming Dynasty. The Ottoman Empire at that time was called by the Ming Dynasty Lulme According to the "Ming History" records, in the third year of Jiajing (1524), the fifth year of Jiajing (1526), the 22nd year of Jiajing (1543), the 27th year of Jiajing (1548), and the 33rd year of Jiajing (1554), Lu fans had sent ambassadors five times, with a maximum number of more than 90 people. These visits were made during the reign of Suleiman I (1520-1566), following the Ottoman annexation of Egypt and the conquest of Tabriz and Baghdad. The thousands of precious porcelain pieces in the palace of Istanbul are probably the result of friendly exchanges and the testimony of the friendship between China and Turkey. [82]

With Persia

Diplomatic incident with Persia
A given year
details
1532-1555
A war broke out between Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire and Tahmasp I of the Persian Safavid dynasty. The war was triggered by territorial disputes between the two countries, especially those formerly belonging to the Ottoman Empire Bitlis Bej [The governor] decided to seek protection from Persia. In addition, the Safavid dynasty Tahmasp I The governor of Baghdad, a supporter of Suleiman I, was assassinated. [83] Diplomatically, the Safavid dynasty has been engaged The Habsburg monarchy They discussed the creation of a Habsburg-Persian alliance to attack the Ottoman Empire. In 1553, Suleiman I made his third campaign against the Safavid dynasty and suffered his first defeat, but he was able to recover Erzurum . The Peace of Amasya in 1555 established the territory acquired by the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman I must return Tabriz, but he can control it Baghdad , Mesopotamia Downstream area, The Euphrates River and The Tigris River Estuaries and parts of the Gulf Coast. [84]
From 1578 to 1590
The Safavid Mohammed Kodabanda and Abbasus the First With the Ottoman Empire Murad III War broke out again. To conquer Azerbaijan and Caucasian The Ottoman Empire went to war. [85] The Ottomans took it in 1578 Tbilisi It fell again in 1585 Kars and Tabriz , Georgia Became a client state of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire could actually rule Azerbaijan and the Caucasus, straight through Caspian Sea . [86] The Treaty of Istanbul signed by Persia on March 21, 1590, recognized the territory acquired by the Ottoman Empire and promised to stop the occupation of the territory of the Ottoman Empire Shiah The churchmen launched a propaganda war and stopped the persecution in Persia Sunnite A believer. [87] The Ottoman-Safafian war temporarily diverted the Ottoman Empire's attention away from Europe. The Ottoman Empire had allied itself with France and supported it Netherlander Trouble, this is Protestantism An event supported by Islam.
1603-1618
A third war broke out between the Safavid dynasty of Abbasid I and the Ottoman Empire of Ahmad I. The war broke out in 1603 and ended in a major Safavid victory in 1618. Shah Abbas I commissioned the Englishman RobertShirley and his minister Aravir Khan to modernize the army. The Safavid dynasty fought a war against the Ottomans in 1603 and won a victory in 1604, forcing the Ottomans to return previously seized lands, including Baghdad. [88] The Safavid dynasty won again in 1605 and expanded its power beyond the Euphrates River, forcing the cession of Sirfan and Kurdistan in 1611. After a lull in fighting in 1614, when it resumed, Abbasus defeated the Ottoman-Tatar forces near the city of Sultanieh in 1618, and the two sides signed a treaty that was quite favorable to Persia and ended the war. [89]

With Russia

Beginning in the 17th century, Russia fought a series of wars with Turkey in order to expand into the Black Sea Strait and the Balkans. The initial war was mainly between Russia and Turkey, and the war zones were concentrated in the Balkans, the Crimea, the Caucasus and other places. After the 19th century, some European countries intervened. There were many wars between Russia and Turkey, ten of which were important. During the Russo-Turkish War, Russia expanded its territory, extending its southern border to the Black Sea, its western border to the Prut River, and its eastern border across the Caucasus Mountains. The war between Russia and Turkey lasted 241 years on and off, with an average of less than 19 years, and was the longest series of wars in European history. [90]
Diagram of Tsarist Russia's occupation of Ottoman territory and possessions

society

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EDITOR

structure

The social structure of the Ottoman Empire was the Milite, which integrated a diverse population. The Milats were religious organizations that could establish their own communities under Ottoman rule and preserve their religious laws, traditions, and language under the protection of the Sultan. The Millett system was the key to the long-term stability of the empire. As early as the reign of Mehmed II, the Fanar had enjoyed many rights, which the Empire welcomed Jew As a result, the Empire had a relatively high tolerance of ethnic differences and was able to eliminate racial segregation; however, the Millett system did not have the capacity for assimilation, making it a weakness after the rise of nationalism. The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire proved the failure of Ottomanization and the policies of the first and second constitutional periods. [91]

diet

Ottoman cuisine refers to the capital Istanbul This country of diverse cultures has created a cuisine that all its people can enjoy. The chefs in the imperial kitchens of the palace created a variety of dishes by experimenting with different ingredients, which flowed into the people and passed through The month of Ramadan It gets around. Today, Ottoman cuisine can be seen in Balkan Peninsula , Anatolia and Middle East It is a "legacy of the Ottoman way of life". The cuisine was based on regional variations and interacted with each other, but at times assimilated under the refinement of the capital's inhabitants. [92]
A large number of traditions and cultures were absorbed by the Ottomans and displayed in new forms, integrating them into the ethnic and religious communities of different parts of the Ottoman Empire, resulting in a new and unique Ottoman cultural identity.

population

Demographics of the Ottoman Empire (1899)
district
Turkish
Area (km^2)
Population (people)
Density (person /km^2)
capital
Istanbul
İ stanbul
3，300
90，034
27
province
(Vilayets)
Hijaz
Hicaz
391，720
3，500，000
9
Yemen
Yemen
260，132
5，000，000
19
Basra
Basra
87，120
380，630
4
Baghdad
Ba ğ dat
139，960
720，555
5
Mosul
Musul
136，736
448，288
3
Aleppo
Halep
117，248
921，345
8
Syria
Suriye
99，808
701，134
7
Beirut
Beyrut
24，752
623，505
25
Tripoli
Trablusgarp
330，200
800，000
2
-
Hüdavendigar
91，412
1，458，079
16
Konya
Konya
158，944
1，022，844
6
Ankara
Ankara
98，416
1，018，727
10
Aydin
Aydin
89，696
1，534，229
17
Adana
Adana
71，600
398，764
6
Castamonu
Kastamonu
73，312
968，884
13
Sihuas
Sivas
98，880
980，982
10
Diyarbakir
Diyarbekir
64，504
564，671
9
Bitlis
Bitlis
27，688
488，642
18
Erzurum
Erzurum
80，368
687，322
9
Trabzon
Trabzon
37，894
1，164，827
31
Aegean Islands
Cezayir-iBahr-iSefid
6，372
387，318
61
Crete
Girit
12，800
270，000
16
Edirne
Edirne
64，356
986，446
15
Thessalonica
Selanik
47，712
1，040，218
22
Kosovo
Kosova
44，192
954，634
17
Ioannina
Yanya
31，176
517，274
17
Special administrative region
(Sancaks)
Jerusalem
Kudus/Kudus -u Ş erif
15，136
264，317
17
Benghazi
Bingazi
227，300
500，000
2
Suhr
Zor
122，096
151，260
1
Izmit
Izmit
14，784
228，529
15
-
Kale-iSultaniye/Biga
11，520
144，157
13
-
C; atalca
1，900
61236
32
Mount Lebanon
Cebel - iLubnan
4，696
100000
21
total
3272354
32276854
10
Note: Egypt, Tunisia, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, Samos and other vassal states are not included.

Sudan

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EDITOR
Sultans of the Ottoman Empire
List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire
Serial number
Chinese name
Foreign name
Time in place
remark
1
Osman I
OsmanI
1280-1324.
2
Orhan
Orkhan
1324-1359.
3
Murad I
MuratI
1360-1389.
4
Bayesette I
BayezidI
1389-1402.
Macrovacancy stage
Interregnum
1402-1413.
5
Muhammad I
MehmetI
1413-1421.
6
Murad II
MuratII
1421-1444.
7
Muhammad II
MehmetII
1444-1446.
6
Murad II
MuratII
1446-1451.
resetting
7
Muhammad II
MehmetII
1451-1481.
resetting
8
Bayezet II
BayezidII
1481-1512.
9
Selim the First
SelimI
1512-1520.
1517 scale caliph
10
Suleiman I
SüleymanI
1520-1566.
11
Selim the Second
SelimII
1566-1574.
12
Murad III
MuratIII
1574-1595.
13
Muhammad III
MehmetIII
1595-1603.
14
Ahmed I
AhmetdI
1603-1617.
15
Mustafa the First
MustafaI
1617-1618.
16
Osman II
OsmanII
1618-1622.
15
Mustafa the First
MustafaI
1622-1623.
resetting
17
Murad IV
MuratIV
1623-1640.
18
Ibrahim the First
IbrahimI
1640-1648.
19
Muhammad IV
MehmetIV
1648-1687.
20
Suleiman II
SüleymanII
1687-1691.
21
Ahmed II
AhmetdII
1691-1695.
22
Mustafa II
MustafaII
1695-1703.
23
Ahmed III
AhmetdIII
1703-1730.
24
Mahmoud the First
MahmudI
1730-1754.
25
Osman III
OsmanIII
1754-1757.
26
Mustafa the Third
MustafaIII
1757-1774.
27
Abdul Hamid the First
Abdal-HamidI
1774-1789.
28
Selim the Third
SelimIII
1789-1807.
29
Mustafa IV
MustafaIV
1807-1808.
30
Mahmoud II
MahmudII
1808-1839.
31
Abdel Mejid I
Abdal-Mejid
1839-1861.
32
Abdel Aziz
Abdal-Aziz
1861-1876.
33
Murad V
MuratV
1876
34
Abdul Hamid II
Abdal-HamidII
1876-1909.
35
Mohammed V
MehmetV
1909-1918.
36
Mohammed VI
MehmetVI
1918-1922.
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