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The Arctic Ocean

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One of the Earth's four oceans
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Arctic Ocean ( English The Arctic Ocean, also known as the Arctic Sea, is the Earth Four oceans One of the smallest, shallowest and coldest oceans in the world. roughly Arctic Circle Centered on the northernmost point of the earth, is Canada , the United States Alaska , Russia , Norse , Iceland and Greenland (Denmark) surround, have narrow The Bering Strait with Pacific Communicate with each other; pass Greenland sea And many straits with Atlantic Connected.
The Arctic Ocean is the widest ocean in the world and the only uninhabited ocean in the world. The area is only 14.5 million Square kilometer Less than 10 percent of the Pacific Ocean. It has a depth of 1,097 meters and a deepest of 5,527 meters. Ancient Greek He called it "the ocean facing Ursa Major." In 1845, Hungary Budapest Geographical society Named, translated as Arctic Ocean in Chinese. The name Arctic comes from Greek language "Means right on Ursa Major The ocean. August 25, 2012, in the Arctic Ocean Sea ice The area is the smallest ever observed. [28]
Chinese name
The Arctic Ocean
Foreign name
Arctic Ocean ( English )
alias
Arctic sea , Glacial ocean
Area product
14500000 km² [28]
North-south span
2082 km
East-west span
5,836 km
Coastline length
45,390 kilometers
Mean depth
1225 m
Maximum depth
5527 meters ( Greenland sea Northeast)
Mean annual precipitation
75-200 mm
Average sea temperature
-20℃－-40 ℃
Typical salinity
3.48% (34.8 psu)
Littoral state
Canada Russia, Norway, etc
Main body of water
The Barents Sea The Beaufort Sea Greenland sea
Main archipelago
Northern Isles Greenland Svalbard
Major resources
petroleum Natural gas phosphates algae
Main island
Novaya Zemlya, Baffin Island , Greenland · Northland Islands · Svalbard Islands, etc

catalogue

  1. 1Geographic information
  2. ▪summarize
  3. ▪area
  4. ▪position
  5. ▪Radius
  6. ▪profundity
  7. 2Geographical position
  1. 3Cause of change
  2. 4Trenches and basins
  3. 5Marine topography
  4. 6Marine climate
  5. ▪Ice sheet and glacier
  6. ▪aurora
  1. 7Hydrological characteristics
  2. 8Marine resources
  3. 9Coastal port
  4. 10Face a crisis
  5. 11Resource dispute
  1. 12Environmental issues
  2. 13Arctic rights and interests
  3. 14World record

Geographic information

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EDITOR

summarize

The Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean, the name Arctic comes from Greek language That means right Ursa Major The ocean. [2] In 1650, the German geographer B. Varenius First, it was divided into a separate ocean, called the Great Northern Ocean; The year 1845 London Geographical society Named the Arctic Ocean. [2] I changed it to the Arctic Ocean because it's in Four oceans The northernmost location, and because of the cold climate in the region, the ocean surface is covered with snow and ice all year round, so the name.

area

14.5 million square kilometers, roughly equivalent to Pacific 1/12 of the area. [2] [28] That's about 4.1% of the world's oceans, It is the smallest and shallowest of the four oceans on Earth. [2]

position

Roughly centered on the Arctic, between Canada, Alaska, Russia, Norway, Iceland and the United States Greenland (Dan) Between, be Asia , Europe, North America Surround. The Arctic Ocean spans 360° longitude, making it the widest ocean in the world.

Radius

in Asia With North America The Bering Strait Across the Pacific Ocean, between Europe and North America Iceland - The Faroe Sill and the Wivia Thomson Ridge Atlantic The boundary between the Denmark Strait and northeastern North America Smith Strait It connects with the Atlantic Ocean.

profundity

Average depth is about 1,200 meters, Nansen Sea basin The deepest point in the Arctic Ocean is 5,527 meters.
Arctic region Arctic Circle The area to the north is called arctic or Arctic region Including the Arctic Ocean coast of Asia, Europe, North America three continents and many islands in the Arctic Ocean. circumarctic Country and region There are Canada, Alaska, Russia, Norway, Iceland and Greenland (Denmark). [1]
There are dozens of different peoples in the Arctic, with the Inuit being the most widespread.
The Arctic Ocean is dominated by North Pole As the center of the surrounding area, is a vast body of water. The Arctic Ocean is also known as the Arctic Sea. Arctic Marine Gross volume That's 16.9 million Cubic kilometer The average depth is 1,296 meters, and the Litke Trench is 5,449 meters. The Arctic Ocean accounts for more than 60% of the Arctic region, and more than two-thirds of the sea surface is covered by huge ice blocks from one and a half to four meters thick throughout the year.
The Arctic Ocean
On account of Ocean current The sea ice on the surface of the Arctic Ocean is constantly drifting, cracking and melting, and the total amount of snow and ice in the Arctic region is only slightly greater The South Pole 1/10 of them, mostly concentrated in Greenland continental Ice sheet And the Arctic sea ice, other islands and surrounding land permanence The amount of snow and ice is only a small part.
Most of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice all year round, making it the only white ocean on Earth. The sea ice in the Central Arctic Ocean has lasted for 3 million years and is permanent. [3]
The Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean coastline is very tortuous, forming many shallow and wide Marginal sea And the Bay. Coastal type There are erosion coast, fiord Type coast, delta coast and lagoon coast. in Asia There are marginal seas along the continental coast The Barents Sea , Kara Sea , The Laptev Sea , East Siberian Sea and Chukchi Sea . Along the coast of North America The Beaufort Sea , Greenland sea . There are many islands in the Arctic Ocean, second only to the Pacific Ocean. The total area of the island is about 3.8 million square kilometers, and all belong to Continental island It is mostly distributed on the continental shelf. The main rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean are Ob River , The Yenisei River , Lena River , the Pechora River, The Magen River and Yukon . The only river in our country that flows into the Arctic Ocean is The Irtysh River The Irtysh River originates from our country Xinjiang Altai, Uygur autonomous region Kazakh nationality North of autonomous county [4] , classics Kazakhstan And Russia arrived in the Arctic Ocean. In the marginal seas around the Arctic Ocean, there are countless icebergs and floating ice, although the volume is generally less than the Antarctic iceberg, but the shape is strange, and sometimes there will be very large icebergs. Icebergs drift south along the current, some from the Arctic sea to North Atlantic . Because the drifting route is not fixed, it brings great harm to the ships sailing in the North Atlantic. The Arctic Ocean has a permanent ice cap.
Near the North Pole, nearly half a year Polar night (October - March of the next year), at this time, there is a dazzling aurora in the high altitude, generally banded, arc, curtain or radial, common near 70° north latitude. The rest of the year is Polar day .
Due to the cold climate and ice cover, the scale of the Arctic Ocean survey was small, until the 1930s, floating scientific stations were established on the ice, and some more systematic investigations were carried out. [5] The year 1937 The Soviet Union Ice aircraft were used to land at the North Pole and the North Pole 1 Floating Science Station was established in the Arctic Ocean. In the 1940s, the United States, Canada and other countries conducted 20 flights from the air Polar ice It landed and built eight oceanographic stations and one scientific research station. During the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958), in addition to flight activities, a number of continuous observation floating stations were added and used Nuclear-powered submarine The conditions under the ice sheet were investigated.
Marine geologists have long believed that the formation of the Arctic Ocean, it and The northern hemisphere The ancient land of Laua The breakdown and disintegration have a lot to do with it. The process of ocean floor expansion begins with Paleozoic Era Late, but mainly realized in the new generation. It is centered on the North Pole of the Earth and passes through Eurasian plate and North American plate The spreading movement of the ocean floor created the Arctic Ocean Sea basin . The "Arctic Ocean central Ridge" found at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean is the junction of the Eurasian plate and the North American plate, that is, the center line of the crust of the ice floor. On the bottom of the ocean Simultaneous discovery The Lomonosov Ridge and Mendeleev Ridge (that is, the old mid-ocean ridge), two ridges parallel to the central ridge of the Arctic Ocean but not expanding, have now closed and stopped expanding, indicating the Arctic Ocean Sea floor spreading The movement has been carried out more than once. Twenty million years ago, the Arctic Ocean was at best a giant Fresh water lake Lake water through a Narrow passage Into the Atlantic Ocean. Then, 18.2 million years ago, as the Earth's tectonic plates moved, the narrow channels gradually became wider channels, and water from the Atlantic began to flow into the Arctic Circle, slowly forming the Arctic Ocean. This is Sweden Scientists analyzed data collected from the Arctic Ocean floor in 2004 precipitate After drawing the above conclusions.
The Arctic Ocean
Sweden Stockholm University Martin Jackson et al. published a report saying that they came from the central Arctic Ocean close to the North Pole The Lomonosov Ridge Sediment 428 metres thick was collected, with a section of sediment 5.6 metres thick of particular significance. The sediment, which formed between 18.2 million and 17.5 million years ago, is divided into three sections of different colors. The bottom layer of the sediment is black and contains a lot of organic matter that has not decomposed, indicating that there was not enough oxygen at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean to degrade. Jackson said that beginning 18.2 million years ago, the Ferm Strait (sandwiched between Greenland and the Atlantic Ocean), which connects the Arctic and Atlantic oceans Svalbard "We suspect that fresh water flowed out of the Arctic surface, while heavier water flowed in from below," and that oxygen-deprived water led to the formation of black sediment.
As the Ferm Strait expands, water begins to flow from the surface into the Arctic Ocean. It absorbs oxygen before sinking to the bottom. Oxygen and Marine life begin to appear on the bottom, and the corresponding sediment turns gray. Eventually, all the fresh water in the Arctic Ocean was replaced by seawater, which began to appear on the seabed Iron oxide , Manganous oxide And Marine fossils.
Sweden Scientists say they are not sure exactly when the Arctic Ocean formed, but it probably took about 750,000 years. [6]

Geographical position

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The Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is located around the North Pole and is roughly centered around the North Pole Eurasia and North America Surrounded by. Although it is the smallest, shallowest and coldest ocean in the world, it is of great strategic importance. it Maritime transport For example, the Arctic Sea route was the European part of the Soviet Union The Far East A shortcut to regional connections, from Murmansk to the East Vladivostok ( Vladivostok The navigation distance between them is 10,400 km, and taking this route is better than taking a detour Suez Canal It's more than 13,700 kilometers closer than the warp Cape of Good Hope The route will be shortened by more than 20,000 kilometers.
The biggest shipping disadvantage of the Arctic Ocean is this Navigable period With the exception of the southern Barents Sea, which is ice-free throughout the year, the northern coasts of Russia, the United States and Canada are navigable only 50% or one-third of the time of the year. Even during the short navigation period, it must rely on icebreaker Open the way, and with limited capacity, Tonnage of ship A ship is 4,000-5,000 tons.
The Arctic Ocean
Through the air route over the Arctic Ocean, the first successful flight in 1957, it is East Asia , North America, Western Europe And the shortest air passage between Northern Europe, from Japan Tokyo the Alaska And the North Pole Denmark capital Copenhagen The air route is 2,700 kilometers shorter than the original range. [7] In addition, the huge ice caps, Iceland, icebergs and floating ice are not conducive to the movement of ships, but the activities of submarines are very favorable, such as the shelter of the ice can make the submarine escape from the aircraft and Reconnaissance satellite The surveillance of; Drifting ice impedes tracking by listening devices; The noise caused by the squeezing between the ice and the ice and the scouring between the ice and the water makes the ship sonar The device is interfered with. More and more Soviet and American Nuclear submarine Cruising under the ice of the Arctic Ocean, a story about this Strategic position Important, the second also took advantage of the favorable conditions here. In short, the Arctic Ocean is strategically important, World War II After its importance became more prominent, many countries have stepped up their activities in this region, especially the United States and the Soviet Union in the Arctic Ocean coastal areas to establish a lot of targets, including Nuclear weapon Including military bases.
The Arctic Ocean is landlocked and almost half closed. pass Norwegian sea , Greenland sea and Baffin Bay Connected with the Atlantic Ocean, and with a narrow The Bering Strait Communicate the Pacific.
On the basis of Physical geography The Arctic Ocean is divided into two parts: the Arctic sea area and the Nordic Sea area. The main part of the Arctic Ocean, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea , Chukchi Sea, The Beaufort Sea And Canada Arctic archipelago Each strait belongs to the Arctic sea area; Greenland sea , Norwegian sea , The Barents Sea and White Sea It belongs to the Nordic Sea region. [8] The area north of the Arctic Circle is called the Arctic Place or the Arctic region, including the coasts of the Arctic Ocean. North America Many islands in the northern part of the three continents and the Arctic Ocean.
The Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean shelf is well developed, with a maximum width of more than 1,200 kilometers. The summit is generally 1000-200 meters from the water surface, and the individual summit is only more than 900 meters from the water surface, and there are violent volcanoes and volcanoes Seismic activity It divides the Arctic into the Canadian Basin, Makarov Sea basin (The Mendeleev Ridge divides the basin into the Canadian and Makarov basins) and the Nansen Basin. The depth of the sea basin is between 4000-5000 meters. There are many more in the central Arctic Knoll And the depression. Greenland and Svalbard It runs east to west Submarine plateau It is the boundary between the Arctic sea area and the Northern European Sea area. The northeastern part of the Nordic Sea area is the continental shelf, and the southwest is the deep water area Greenland sea The deepest is more than 5,500 meters.

Cause of change

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terrestrial The northern hemisphere Protruding outwards, The southern Hemisphere Concave, the North Pole is 19 meters above the sphere, the South Pole is 26 meters below the sphere, the difference between the north and South poles is 45 meters, and the Earth is approximately a "pear" shape from the direction of the equator. The North Pole above the surface is the Arctic Ocean covered by water, while the South Pole below the surface is land. Antarctica The highest peak of Vinson Peak It is 4897 meters above sea level. [9] Proof Arctic Ocean Sea level Nearly 5,000 meters above the South Pole. The earth rotates due to seleno And the sun's gravity creates tides. Water on the earth's surface protrudes high in the direction of gravity. Water juts out higher at the North Pole than at the South Pole, suggesting that gravity exists toward the North Pole. in Earth-moon system , Solar system In, through Earth rotation The water at the North Pole continues to bulge, indicating that the gravity in the direction of the Earth's North Pole is independent of the Earth-Moon system and the solar system. Besides orbiting the sun, the earth also orbits Milky Way galaxy the Galactic center Orbiting, Period of revolution For 250 million years.
terrestrial Axis of the earth with Galactic plane The Angle is 27°24 '. On account of Tilt of earth's axis The Earth's axis is tilted at Ecliptic plane On the Earth, its Angle is 66°34 ' Equatorial plane The Angle from the ecliptic plane is 23°26 '), The earth goes round the sun During the summer solstice, the northern hemisphere of the Earth is close to the sun and is strongly attracted by the sun. At the winter solstice, The southern Hemisphere The gravitational pull of the Sun is strong, causing the outer sphere of the Earth to rotate. Similarly, because the Earth's axis is tilted at Galactic circle When the plane orbits the galactic center, at the summer solstice position of the galactic plane, the Earth's North Pole receives a strong gravitational pull of the galactic center, forming the Earth's North Pole water protruding higher than the South Pole. At the winter solstice position of the galactic plane, the Earth's South Pole is affected Galactic center Gravity is strong, and the water that formed the Earth at the South Pole bulges higher than at the North Pole.
When the Earth is in the position of equinoxes (spring and autumn equinoxes) on the galactic plane, the water at the Earth's equator is pulled higher by the combined gravity of the galactic center, sun and moon. Earth water This change is global Sea-land transition Its period is determined by the period of the Earth's orbit around the galactic center. The period of global sea and land changes in the Arctic and Antarctic is 250 million years, and the period of global sea and land changes in other regions is 125 million years. Ocean progression of global sea and land changes regression The direction is north-south. Under the influence of the land, the direction of the sea will change. Global sea and land changes in ocean depth, based on the present Antarctic and Arctic seas of the Earth Horizontal plane And the spherical difference, up to 5000 meters. At present, the distance from the Sun to the galactic center is about the distance, and the Sun's orbit around the galactic center is about the same. Therefore, the cycle of global sea and land changes is also about the same. The Angle between the Earth's axis and the galactic plane is 27°24 'from sphere The celestial sphere is a man-made sphere centered on the Earth. In the Milky Way galaxy, the galactic center is the center, the sun orbits the galactic center, and the earth also orbits the galactic center with the sun. Therefore, the Angle between the Earth's axis and the galactic plane, 27°24 ', is the reference figure.

Trenches and basins

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The Litke Trench is 5449 meters deep and is located in Spitz Bergen North of the islands;
Frama Oceanic trench It is 5,335 m deep, northeast of the Litke Trench;
The Nansen Basin is 5449 meters deep;
Makarov Sea basin A depth of 4,123 meters;
The Canadian Basin is 3,879 metres deep and is located The Mendeleev Ridge East.

Marine topography

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The Arctic Ocean is the smallest, shallowest, coldest, and most zigzag of the four oceans. The total area is 14.75 million square kilometers, accounting for 4.1% of the total ocean area, and the volume is 17 million cubic kilometers, accounting for 1.24% of the total ocean volume.
The Arctic Ocean is almost half horizontal closure the Mediterranean The coast is very tortuous and broken. The number and area of the islands is second only to that of the Pacific Ocean Largest island in the world Greenland [10] (2,175,600 square kilometers), Canada Arctic archipelago (1.3 million square kilometers) Yes Second in the world The Big Islands.
The Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is the shallowest ocean with a broad continental shelf, with an average depth of 1,225 meters (1,117 meters) and a maximum depth of 5,527 meters. Spitsbergen North, below the Litke Trench at 82°23 'N and 19°31' E), with a water depth of less than 200 meters, an area of about 4.4 million Km², accounting for about 35.8% of the total area; Only 15% of the area has water depths greater than 3,000 meters (of which only 2.17% are above 4,000 meters).
The Arctic Ocean Submarine landform The outstanding feature is that the continental shelf is very broad, especially Eurasia The north is the widest, generally 400-500 kilometers, and the widest is nearly 1700 kilometers (50-150 meters deep). Alaska The continental shelf to the north is relatively narrow, only 20-30 km. Most of these continental shelves were originally part of the land, Quaternary glacial period Then it sank into the shallow sea. The Arctic Ocean floor is also characterized by a series of undulating ridges, basins, trough and Oceanic trench Staggered distribution.
In the middle of the Arctic Ocean lies a chain of seamount mountains -- The Lomonosov Ridge , since New Siberian Islands North Pole to Ellesmere Island It is 1,800 kilometers long, 60-200 kilometers wide, 3,000 meters above the ocean floor, and about 1,000 meters from the sea surface. The ocean floor mountain slope is large and steep, there are Volcanic eruption Is a structural fracture Folded mountain Mountains by Sedimentary rock and Metamorphic rock Make up. The ridge divides the entire Arctic Ocean into two parts, facing North America as the Canadian Basin, facing Eurasia Nansen Basin, two parts in the current, Sea water movement There are obvious differences in direction and water temperature. There's one west of the Canadian Basin The Mendeleev Ridge 1,500 kilometers long, Relative altitude Small, gentle slope. Outside the Nansen Basin, there is a central ridge of the Arctic Ocean, which is an extension of the North Atlantic Ridge, and is the seafloor spreading center of the Arctic Ocean, and the boundary between the North American plate and the Eurasian plate, also known as the Central Ridge The Nansen Ridge The Garkley Ridge, or Otto Smit Ridge, consists of several parallel ridges running from the Lapteff Sea through the northern tip of Greenland to Iceland to the north Atlantic ridge . In short, the topography of the Arctic Ocean floor is not well understood, but it is known that the Arctic Ocean, which is mostly covered with ice, is not land, nor is it an archipelago, nor is it a complete deep basin. There are also many sea hummocks and depressions in the central Arctic Ocean.

Marine climate

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The Arctic Ocean has a cold climate, and most of the ocean surface is frozen all year round. [11] The coldest month in the Arctic sea Mean air temperature It can reach -20 to -40 ° C, the lowest is close to -70 ° C, and the warm season is mostly below 8 ° C; Annual mean precipitation Only 75~200 mm, Greenland sea can reach 500 mm; Violent storms are common in the cold season. Nordic Sea area reception The North Atlantic Current Influence, water temperature, high temperature, more precipitation, Ice condition Relatively light; Warm season often Sea fog In some months, there is fog every day, even for several days and nights. In the Arctic sea, the water temperature from the surface to the depth of 100 to 225 meters is about -1 to -1.7℃. In the coastal zone, the water temperature varies greatly throughout the year, from -1.5 to 8℃. In the Northern European Sea, the surface temperature ranges from 2 to 12 ° C throughout the year. In addition, in the Arctic Ocean water depth of 100~250 meters to 600~900 meters, there is a warm water layer from the North Atlantic Current, the water temperature is 0~1℃.
Polar bear
The Arctic Ocean is one of the most hostile regions in the world, and because it is located in the northernmost part of the earth, it has a unique day and night each year Polar night The phenomenon appears. From October to March each year, the winter half year is "long night"; From April to September, the summer half of the year is "long day". After a "day" and a "night", it is a year. Whenever the long night comes, nature only the beautiful moonlight and colorful aurora, bring light and comfort to people. In that boundless Ice field On, bursts of colorful aurora, like a sudden rise of holiday fireworks, a light up half of the sky; Sometimes he danced like a ribbon in the sky, sometimes like a curtain of flowers hanging in the sky, and sometimes like searchlight As straight into the sky. But the beauty of the aurora can't hide the Arctic's harsh climate. Here, thousands of miles of ice, year-round snow, cold weather, icebergs, the sea ice here, about 3 million years of history.
In winter, more than 80% of the sea surface is frozen, and even in summer, more than half of the sea surface is occupied by ice. But even in this freezing atmosphere, seaweed Still full of life, seal , walrus Often found in icy water; doughty Polar bear A master fisherman, the cunning Arctic fox often follows, trying to share the bones and meat without effort. Groups of fish, snow fish, long fat and strong; Good at building houses out of ice and snow An Eskimo People, leading a heroic hunting life. In the Arctic, indigenous people, The Inuit Generations have lived and resided here for at least 4,000 years. For a long time they had lived a life without words, without money, but free and self-sufficient. With the passage of time, the Inuit have come to embrace modern civilization and life has changed dramatically. [12]
The Arctic Ocean current system is a branch of the North Atlantic Current Norwegian warm current , The Spitsbergen Stream , North Point warm Current and East Greenland cold current Equal composition. The Arctic current enters the Atlantic Ocean, where Geostrophic deflection force Under the action of the water deflected to the right, along Greenland south called the East Greenland Cold current, along The Labrador Peninsula To the south The Labrador cold snap .

Ice sheet and glacier

Arctic glacier
The biggest feature of the Arctic Ocean hydrology is that there is a perennial ice sheet, which accounts for about 2/3 of the total area. The rest of the sea surface is distributed from east to west drifting icebergs and floes, only the Barents Sea area under the influence of the North Cape warm current is not frozen all year round. Most of the islands of the Arctic Ocean are covered with glaciers and ice sheets, and the coastal areas of the Arctic Ocean are mostly permafrost, Permafrost layer Hundreds of meters thick.
Arctic icebergs are fresh water ice falling off the glaciers on the islands of the Arctic Ocean, generally hundreds of meters long and wide, up to tens of meters high, mostly pyramid or dome-shaped, diverse in shape, there will be particularly huge icebergs appear, up to several kilometers long and wide, up to several hundred meters, like floating islands, such a huge iceberg in the Arctic Ocean is very rare. After the Arctic icebergs fall into the sea, some of them will drift into the Atlantic Ocean with the ocean currents flowing south from the Arctic Ocean, posing a huge threat to maritime shipping. Tens of thousands of icebergs are born in the Arctic Ocean every year, and hundreds of them drift to the sea Newfoundland To the south, 40 degrees north latitude The nearby sea. The furthest south drift of an Arctic iceberg ever recorded has even reached tropical waters near 20 degrees north latitude.

aurora

aurora
in North Pole Nearby, nearly half a year is the night without day (October - March of the next year), when the high altitude has a dazzling aurora appears, generally in a band, arc, curtain or radial, near 70° north latitude common. The other half of the year is nightless day.

Hydrological characteristics

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The Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is located Arctic Circle The solar radiant heat obtained throughout the year is very small; Above it, because winter is a stable area of high pressure, Cloud cover Very little; Plus the ocean is wide open Ice sheet These factors combine to make it the coldest ocean in the world. The temperature is very low all the year round and not much Snowstorm . In the cold season (November to April of the following year), the average temperature ranges from minus 30° to minus 40 ° C, with a minimum of -59 ° C; The average temperature in the warm season (July-August) is less than 6℃. average Annual precipitation Only 75-200 mm, mainly snow. Therefore, the biggest feature of the Arctic Ocean hydrology is that the water temperature is low, and most of the sea water is below 0 ° C, so there are large areas of ice sheets and floes that do not melt all the year round.
In the cold season, the Arctic Ocean is a white, the ice cover area is the largest in March, up to 11.4 million square kilometers, accounting for 87% of the total area of the Arctic Ocean, and can extend to the Arctic Circle The Bering Sea , The Sea of Okhotsk , Labrador Peninsula and the coast of Newfoundland; In the warm season from July to September, most of the snow and ice on the shore melt, and the surrounding "icebergs" and floating ice float everywhere, but the central part of the Arctic Ocean is still covered by ice sheets. The September ice sheet area is the smallest, about 7 million square kilometers, accounting for 53.4% of the total area of the Arctic Ocean, but not a continuous ice sheet, but by the area of one to dozens of square kilometers of the size of the ice bundle, 2.5 meters to 5 meters thick, the surface is flat or wavy, more solid. In addition to the ice sheet, the Arctic Ocean is also formed by the continental shelf ice on the polar islands into the sea Iceland Or an iceberg. Iceland has a slow flow rate, flat surface, large area (up to 600-700km ²), and a thickness of 30-35 meters; Icebergs are found around the edges of Iceland and are small in size.
The Arctic Ocean has a unique circulation system, roughly bounded by the Lomonosov Ridge and to the east by the Lomonosov Ridge clockwise Circulation, to the west anticlockwise Circulation, there is also a small counterclockwise circulation in the Laptev Sea. From the nature of the sea current, mainly cold current, warm current only in the Barents Sea has Spitsbergen warm current, North Point warm Current From the southwestern tip of Greenland West Greenland Warm Current and The Bering Sea Warm current, the area of influence is very small. In addition to the North Atlantic warm current, the water flowing into the Arctic Ocean, there are some rivers in Asia, Europe and North America, which increase the amount of water in the Arctic Ocean, raise the water level, and flow out to the Greenland Sea, Baffin Bay and Bering Sea in the form of ocean currents East Greenland cold current , The Labrador cold snap And the Kuril Current, a balanced exchange of water with the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Of the inflow, 90.1% came from the Atlantic Ocean and only 8.1% from the Pacific Ocean; of the outflow, the Atlantic Ocean accounted for 98.27% and the Pacific Ocean accounted for only 1.35%. Due to the low temperature and weak evaporation in the Arctic Ocean, there are a large number of rivers flowing into the surrounding continent, so Salinity of sea water Small, with an average salinity of 30-32 ‰, yes Four oceans The lowest salinity ocean. Western Norse Sea area The Barents Sea And Greenland Sea) slightly higher, 34.5-35 ‰, coastal areas are 33‰; The eastern Arctic sea area is relatively low, with an average of 28-32 ‰, and the coastal sea area is the lowest, only 25‰.

Marine resources

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Although the Arctic Ocean is a world of ice and snow, the climate is cold, and there are long Polar night It is not conducive to the growth of plants and animals, but it is not the barren land where there is no grass and biological extinction as people imagine. Of course, compared with other oceans, the variety and quantity of life is relatively poor. The plants on the island are mainly lichen and lichen Some of the southern islands are hardy herb and underbush ; Animals that live on islands, floes, and icebergs Polar bear The most famous, known as the symbol of the Arctic, and others walrus , the seal, Snow Hare , Arctic fox , Reindeer and Whale Let's wait. Due to the low temperature and water temperature, plankton Less, so the species and number of fish are also less, only The Barents Sea and Greenland sea Because it is at the intersection of cold and warm currents, there are more fish and abundant fish Herring , codfish It is one of the world's famous fishing grounds.
The Arctic Ocean
In summer Siberia littoral Birds Many, forming a unique "bird market". It is worth noting that the Arctic Ocean waters Mineral resources It is a treasure trove of untapped resources on Earth, especially in the Barents Sea, Kara Sea , The Beaufort Sea Canada's northern islands and the Strait are rich in oil and gas reserves, estimated at more than 10 billion tons of oil. Spits Bergen The coal reserves of about 8 billion tons, thick coal seam, good quality, shallow burial, The Soviet Union and Norse Joint mining has been carried out with an annual output of more than 1 million tons of coal; Greenland's Mamoric Mountain iron ore reserves of more than 2 billion tons, a high-quality ore. In addition, the Arctic Ocean is also rich in chromite Copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, vanadium, uranium, thorium, cryolite And other mineral resources, but most of them have not been exploited. mineral Continental shelf Rich in oil and natural gas, coastal areas and coastal islands have coal, iron, phosphates Peat and non-ferrous metals. Such as The Pechora River River basin, Svalbard with Greenland The coal fields above, Kola peninsula On the phosphate, Alaska Oil and gold and so on.
The Arctic Ocean is also quite rich in Marine life, with the most near the land and less as you go deeper into the Arctic Ocean. Adjacent to Atlantic The periphery is vast Fishing area , all over luxuriant algae ( Green algae , Brown algae and Red algae ). There are white bears, walruses, seals, whales, herring, cod and so on. tundra Multi fur valuable snow rabbit, Arctic fox. In addition to Reindeer Polar dogs, etc.

Coastal port

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( Counterclockwise direction , since Iceland Start)
LyðveldiðIsland (Iceland)🇮🇸 : Isafieux ( Icelandic : Isafjorður), Borganes (Icelandic: Borgarnes), Reykjavik (Icelandic: Reykjavik), Keflavik (Icelandic: Keflavik), Selfoss (Icelandic: Selfoss), Akureyri (Icelandic: Akureyri), Serizo Crocur (Icelandic: Sau-ðarkrokur)
Norway (Norge)🇳🇴 : Board ( Norwegian language : Bodø), Narvik (Norwegian: Narvik), Tromsø (Norwegian: Tromso), Alta (In Norwegian: Alta ), Wadse (Norwegian: Vadso), Longyearbyen (Norwegian: Longyearbyen)
Russia (theP)🇷🇺 : Murmansk (Russian: "a surname"), Kandaraksha (Russian: A. officials; Finnish : Kantalahti; In Norwegian: Kandalaksja; The Karelian language : Kannanlak? i), North Dvinsk (Russian: C. Severodvinsk (English: Severodvinsk), Arkhangsk (Russian: "Ekasu"); Arkhangelsk, Dikson, Pevek (Russian: p. English: Pevek)
The United States (America) Alaska ) 🇺🇸 : Barrow (English: Barrow), Kaktovik (English: Kaktovik)
Canada (Canada)🇨🇦 : Resolut (English: Resolute), Arctic Bay City Arctic Bay, Iqaluit (English: Iqaluit), Town of Cambridge Bay (English: Cambridge Bay)

Face a crisis

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EDITOR
It is estimated that on September 21, 2005, in the Arctic Ocean Sea ice The area is about 5,309,500 Square kilometer For oneself Satellite monitoring Smallest area since then. Studies have shown that Arctic region Temperatures are rising at twice the rate of the rest of the world.
The Arctic Ocean
Observations and analysis by the relevant Japanese institutions found that Siberia Due to factors such as low pressure generated offshore, Arctic sea ice has shrunk to its lowest extent since satellite observations began in 1978 Minimum value . Experts predict that the extent of sea ice will shrink further and this situation may last until mid-September. Ocean of Japan Research and development Institutions and other newly announced Analysis result The Arctic sea ice extent has been shrinking since July. After entering August, it was formed and stalled off the coast of Siberia, Russia Low atmospheric pressure Affect other areas Warm air Transported to the Arctic, it accelerated the process of shrinking sea ice extent. On August 15, the total extent of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean shrank to 5.307 million square kilometers, the smallest amount ever observed.
Experts believe that there are several other reasons for this phenomenon: 1. The newly formed weak and easily melted ice along the Arctic coast has spread across the 80th parallel and into the Arctic Ocean, which has accelerated the shrinking of the Arctic sea ice extent; 2. An increase in the release of sea ice from the Arctic Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean leads to a decrease in the extent of sea ice inside the Arctic Ocean. [13]
On August 25, 2012, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency It was announced that the extent of Arctic sea ice had fallen to 4.21 million square kilometers as of 24, the lowest value in the history of observation. The previous low was 4.25 million square kilometers in September 2007.
The Aerospace Research Agency is based in Japan Water cycle alteration Observation satellite This conclusion is based on images taken by the Water Drop. Arctic sea ice falls to its annual minimum extent every mid-September, and researchers had thought 2012 would also set a new record in September, but that date has been significantly advanced. Before long, Arctic sea ice is likely to fall below 4 million square kilometers.
In September 2011, researchers observed the second-smallest amount of Arctic sea ice on record, about 4.5 million square kilometers, but it has since returned to 1990s levels due to a very cold winter. Since August 2012, the extent of Arctic sea ice has declined dramatically, a period when the rate of loss would normally slow, equivalent to 100,000 square kilometers per day. [14]
The famous British Marine expert, University of Cambridge When Professor Peter Widham published his research, he claimed that by the summer of 2015 Arctic sea ice Will completely melt, which will be right Polar bear , walrus Such creatures cause devastating damage to their natural habitats.
Professor Widham said sea ice in the Arctic Ocean is shrinking rapidly and could disappear completely in as little as four years. Although sea ice will return every winter, in the absence of sea ice in the summer, animals such as polar bears and walruses will lose their natural hunting grounds, which will seriously threaten their survival and may eventually lead to the extinction of the species.
Northern Russia, Canada, and Greenland Ice mass It will be repeated with the change of seasons, and has reached a minimum of about 4 million Square kilometer . The relevant agencies use a variety of Trust net The model tracks the rate of shrinkage in areas covered by sea ice, United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Prediction of Data display The shrinking rate of global sea ice will accelerate Gain wealth But it believes that the sea ice will still be there by 2030.
But the United States Naval research institute expert Maslawski's calculation is that the Arctic sea ice will disappear Velocity ratio The United Nations The prediction is faster. This theory caused a lot of controversy, but Widham This calculation is considered more convincing. Widham said, "Although his model is the most extreme, it's also the best model. It is able to show the rate of ice loss, which is so fast that we may see it soon Ice mass Down to zero. For 2015, that's a very serious prediction I've made."
The sea ice still reappears in winter. But Widham is concerned that during the ice-free summer, human shipping operations in the Arctic will be as bad as Petroleum exploration There will be a huge increase in behaviour, which will pose a serious threat to local species. During the winter, polar bears and walruses hibernate on land, but in the spring they move to the ice to hunt. Widham said, "Everyone is aware of the serious problem, the survival of the polar bear. They either became extinct or returned to land to hunt. Terrestrial habitat and Cross breeding It could also lead to the disappearance of the polar bear species." [15]
U.S. researchers say the area covered by ice in the Arctic Ocean has fallen below five million square kilometers for the third time since the 2010 melting season. If this situation is not effectively contained, the sea may be completely "ice-free" by September 2030.
In an annual report, the US National Snow and Ice Data Center said that after the spring and summer "melting season" in the Arctic Ocean, ice cover shrank to 4.76 million square kilometers, only the third time on record that it has fallen below 5 million square kilometers, and the previous two times in the past four years. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration In a separate report, the Arctic Ocean covered an average of 6 million square kilometers of ice in August, more than it did between 1979 and 2000 Mean value A 22% reduction.
According to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Arctic Ocean ice covered 4.13 million square kilometers in September 2007, the lowest amount since 1979. [16]
Mark Serrez, director of the National Snow and Ice Data Center, said on September 15, 2010, that although the new ice coverage is not the lowest in history, the accelerated trend of ice loss is worrying, "we are still rushing down, and there is no sign of improvement." With more ice melting in the spring and summer and less ice production in the fall and winter, the area covered by Arctic sea ice is losing about 11 percent per decade, Serrez said. "We think that by 2030 or so, if you go to the Arctic Ocean on September 1, you might not see any ice, you might just see a blue ocean." 'he said. [17]

Resource dispute

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Mineral deposits, natural gas, fish and summer shipping routes also appear in the Arctic sea. America , Russia, Canada , Denmark , Norse Both have territorial claims in many parts of the Arctic Ocean, and countries have repeatedly claimed the Arctic Right of control A dispute arises. However, no country can prove that its continental shelf extends to the Arctic, which under international law does not belong to any country.
August 2, 2007 Russia The Arctic Ocean exploration team midget Will be fitted with Flag of Russia To the bottom of the Arctic Ocean to claim sovereignty. [18]
August 11, 2007 Canada Claims will be in Building two in the Arctic Military installation To assert Canadian sovereignty in the Arctic. [19] The next day, Denmark A team of scientists has been sent on a month-long mission to the Arctic ice to find evidence of Denmark's claim to the region.

Environmental issues

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Arctic Ocean ice is gradually decreasing over the years in the North Pole Ozone layer As well as seasonality The hole. The loss of Arctic sea ice will make the earth albedo Down, maybe in Global warming There is a positive feedback effect. The study found that the Arctic Ocean could be completely empty by 2040 floe [20] , yes Human history This is the first time this has happened.
Rising temperatures in the Arctic Ocean could cause massive amounts of meltwater to enter the Arctic Ocean, potentially damaging global ecosystems Thermohaline circulation May cause Global climate The serious impact of... [21]
If the Arctic sea ice decreases and Sea level rise To a certain extent, the effects of cyclones over water (e.g., the 2012 Arctic Cyclone) can become greater, and seawater may also damage riverbank vegetation (e.g The Magen River the delta ), Storm surge It will be more intense.
Other environmental issues and the Arctic Ocean Radioactive contamination Be concerned with, for example Russia karahian Radioactive waste and Cold war Shih Yat Novaya Zemlya Nuclear tests, etc. In addition, In the summer of 2012 Shell oil Plan on Chukchi Sea And Beaufort explored oil [22] , environmental groups to protect nearby residents and Wild animal And the Arctic Ocean Oil spill The incident was litigated.

Arctic rights and interests

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Scientific investigation
On August 2, 2007, a Russian Arctic expedition successfully dived two ships near the North Pole microsubmarine And will side titanium Metal flags are planted on the seabed below the North Pole to demonstrate Russia's sovereignty over the waters. [23]
The Arctic Ocean
Russian Duma Deputy Chairman Chilingarov, head of the Arctic expedition, informed the ship by radio that his submarine "Peace - 1" had successfully arrived at a depth of 4,261 meters Sea bed "The descent was very gentle and we were surrounded by a faint yellowish landscape," he said. "We didn't find any living material on the seabed."
Russia Submarine diving After that, divers planted a 1-meter-high titanium flag on the seabed below the North Pole, and placed a capsule-like container containing information on the seabed to prove to future generations Russia's ability to explore and develop the Arctic. In addition, divers also collected some soil samples and seabed environment samples on the seabed, and filmed the seabed environment videotape .
The material will be brought back to Russia for further study, and Russian scientists hope it will prove that the seabed beneath the North Pole is connected to the Russian ocean shelf. The Russian foreign minister Lavrov "The fact that the Russian submarine chose to dive at the North Pole not only demonstrates Russia's ability to develop and explore the Arctic, but also proves that the waters around the Arctic are Russia's territorial territory," he said.
The return of the submarine is more difficult than the dive
The biggest challenge of this mission is the submarine Return procedure , very soon St. Petersburg One bit Arctic expedition "The submarine is carrying a limited supply of oxygen and could be in danger if it gets stuck in ice on its return, or if it is unable to find its way down," the expert said. It is reported that the submarine will stay on the seabed for about one hour and then quickly return.
The Russian team is under American surveillance
After Russian divers successfully descended to the North Pole on Tuesday and planted a titanium flag on the ocean floor, United States Coast Guard The United States will send a research ship to the Arctic Ocean on Saturday.
It is reported that the United States has four polar research ships, this will be sent to the "Healy" research ship, American officials said that a new route in the Arctic Ocean, Scientific research institution Rich resources have also been found here, so "the United States must more aggressively explore the Arctic to protect our interests here."
According to Russian media reports, the team's movements are being closely monitored by a US spy plane. [24]
Whole course of dive
On the 1st, after the Russian Arctic expedition arrived at the North Pole, it began to prepare for the submarine dive, and the staff dug out a diving channel 25 meters long and 10 meters wide near the North Pole overnight.
The Russian submarine did not go down as planned on October 2, but was delayed by about an hour and a half.
2 at 12:08 PM ( Beijing time At 16:08), the head of the Russian expedition, Chilingarov, personally took charge, and "Peace - 1" began to dive. Descend to 300 meters on the "Peace-1" submarine Deep hour "Peace-2" begins the dive.
At 4:08 p.m., the "Peace - 1" submarine reached the bottom of the depth of 4,261 meters. 27 minutes later, the "Peace - 2" submarine reached the bottom of the depth of 4,302 meters. [24]
The Arctic Ocean has the shortest great arc route connecting Asia, Europe and North America. As the ice in the Arctic continues to melt, new sea lanes are gradually opening up, making it possible to conduct large-scale operations Energy development Become possible. It is estimated that there are more than 100 million tons of undiscovered oil reserves in the Arctic Natural gas reserves One third of the world's reserves. [25] Arctic coastal states are in a state of flux. On 22 August 2011, Denmark published its Arctic strategy, announcing that it would submit an application to the United Nations to extend its continental shelf by 200 nautical miles by December 2014. On the 23rd, Prime Ministers of Canada Mr Harper is back in the Arctic for another tour of the region, with the main aim of asking International community To show its determination to uphold its sovereignty. [26]
Polar Bear military exercise
A Canadian warship is about to set sail for the Arctic
Harper cut short his visit following the crash of a Canadian civilian charter plane in the Arctic's Resolute Bay on Aug. 20, 2011. He said before the trip that the northern region of Canada "is a fundamental part of the national identity, yes. Government agenda The cornerstone of ". The Canadian government will focus on infrastructure construction and economic development there, such as port construction, navigation facilities and maritime disaster rescue facilities. The Canadian government has decided to invest 150 million Canadian dollars (1 Canadian dollar about 1.02 US dollars) to build a road from the interior to the Arctic Ocean coast.
Meanwhile, a man named Polar Bear Military exercise It is being held in the Arctic region of Canada, with a total of 1,100 participants, the largest ever. The Canadian air Force is not just going out Transport aircraft , Reconnaissance aircraft And CF-18 bumblebee Fighter jets and, for the first time, drones in the Arctic. add Secretary of defense McKay said that the Polar Bear operation has two main purposes, one is to demonstrate the sovereignty of the Canadian government over the Arctic region, and the other is to show the willingness to cooperate.
University of Prince Edward Island Political science professor Mackennan said that in addition to Hans Isle Apart from the dispute with Denmark, no other country is competing with Canada for sovereignty over the area. The dispute between Hans Island and Denmark can also be resolved through diplomatic channels, so the military exercise there is only a political show for domestic viewing.
Territorial claim
On the issue of the ownership of the Arctic, Russia "struck" the first. August 2008, Russia National security The meeting adopted Russia's national policy on the Arctic until 2020. Members of the Russian Security Council met in western Siberia near the Arctic Ocean Nenets Autonomous Region To convene a special meeting on Arctic issues.
Russia values the Arctic for two main reasons Weigh and consider . First, as President Medvedev has pointed out, the Arctic is crucial for Russia in the 21st century Strategic resources Base. The second is the thawing of the Arctic Ocean, creating a new sea Transport route Will be formed. It's expected to pass through this route in 2012 Volume of freight traffic It is likely to exceed 5 million tons, and this volume is expected to increase tenfold in the next few years. Through the north Sea route It takes 2,440 nautical miles and 10 days to transport goods compared to the Suez Canal Transit time On average, each ship saves about 800 tons of fuel.
Russia also plans to strengthen by 2015 Highway construction Make the sutra from St. Petersburg Petrozavodsk , Murmansk, Pechenga Until the road meets the Norwegian border International standard And ultimately with Europe Highway network Join together.
According to the American journal The Christian Science Monitor According to the report, the Russian research ship "Akademik Fyodorov" has completed the mapping of the Arctic seabed, confirming that "the Siberian continental shelf is connected to the Arctic submarine ridge." Russia is expected to submit a report to the United Nations within months claiming more than 980,000 square kilometers of the Arctic as its own.
Expert on Russian studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Jiang Yi Two years ago, Russia tried to prove it The Lomonosov Ridge It is a natural extension of the Siberian continental shelf, but it has not been approved by the United Nations, and it is unlikely to be approved by the United Nations this time. On the one hand, a map of the Arctic seabed submitted by Russia accuracy Still in doubt; On the other hand, although the United Nations has not issued a legal regulation similar to the Antarctic Convention, many member states have reached a consensus: the Arctic, like the Antarctic, is the common wealth of all mankind, and does not support any country or any country Interest group Divide and occupy it.
"Freedom of maritime navigation" card
According to US media reports, two US nuclear-powered submarines" Connecticut "And" New Hampshire The ship completed an ice exercise in the Arctic Ocean, which the U.S. military said was aimed at improving naval operations in the Arctic region Combat capability .
The United States has always looked after its Arctic interests, Obama administration The 2010 National Security Strategy describes the United States as "an Arctic State with broad and important interests in the Arctic." The U.S. military claims it passed Missile defense And early warning, Strategic deterrence , sea and air deployment to ensure in the Arctic region National interest Freedom of navigation at sea is a priority. U.S. Department of Defense Said the current United States in the Arctic region Military deployment To meet defense needs until 2030.
On issues related to the Arctic, the United States and Canada have a long-standing relationship Strategic cooperation There is also strategic competition. The U.S. and Canadian defense departments will work "in a complementary manner" to ensure mutual interests in the Arctic, the Pentagon said. Canada, on the other hand, insists on the connection between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans Northwest passage They have sovereign rights and must seek their consent before using the waterway. The United States sees it as potentially open water, which its warships automatically own waylay .
Great Arctic 'coterie'
The latest issue of the Russian magazine International Life published an article titled "The Cold War around the Arctic." The article reveals that some countries bordering the Arctic Ocean intend to carve up the Arctic in as small a circle as possible, and do not want to engage in a wider discussion. Some analysts point out that Norway, Denmark The United States, Canada and Russia want to deal with issues of Arctic territory and rights and interests through "internal consultation and external exclusion," and to conduct Arctic governance. Arctic Council The seventh session Meeting of foreign ministers The Nuuk Declaration publicly stated that only by recognizing the sovereignty of the Arctic Council member States over the Arctic Right of jurisdiction Only other countries can become members of the Council Observer .
At the same time, relevant countries have made some progress in managing the Arctic through cooperation. Foreign ministers signed the Arctic Council's first formal agreement since its establishment 15 years ago. Arctic search and rescue agreement The agreement sets out plans for the search and rescue areas and responsibilities of each member State in the Arctic.
United States Congress By the end of the 2030s, there will be ice-free summers in the Arctic, and competition for resources and shipping lanes will become more intense, according to a report by researchers on "changes in the Arctic Region." According to a report by the Swedish Defense Institute, the future of the Arctic region will be characterized by a number of states asserting their sovereignty and the international community striving for multilateral cooperation. [27] The entire Arctic region is a floating ocean covered by the Arctic Ocean (60% of the total area), which is surrounded by Asia, Europe and northern North America permanently Frozen soil region . The total area is 21 million square kilometers, accounting for about 1/25 of the total area of the Earth. For most Chinese, except for polar bears and Inuit, the Arctic is probably just a frozen chaos. However, with Arctic glacier The rapid melting of the Arctic, once forgotten by people began to become the focus of the world's attention. What's more, the eventual melting of the Arctic ice cap will open up new shipping lanes, Suez Canal , The Strait of Malacca The shipping lanes are infested with pirates, Safety factor Low, and congestion phenomenon is serious, shipping costs are very high; Arctic route There is no such problem, and ships are not subject to tonnage restrictions compared to the Suez Canal.

World record

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The smallest ocean in the world: According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) NOAA The Arctic Ocean covers an area of 15.558,000 square kilometers, yes Five oceans The smallest of them all. ( Guinness World Records )
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