Mongolia ( Mongolian : Ma, Ma, Ma, Ma, Ma, Ma, Ma, Ma, Ma. ^[24] Mongolia, short for Mongolia, is located in central Asia China and Russia In between, is the one surrounded by two countries Landlocked country . The capital and the country's largest city are Ulaanbaatar . Main nationality for The Khalkha Mongols About 80% of the country's population, in addition to Kazakh nationality And other ethnic minorities. The official language is Mongolian . Residents mainly believe in Tibetan Buddhism With an area of 1,566,500 square kilometers, the capital city of Ulaanbaatar, Population about 3.5 million (December 2023) ^[25] The country is divided into the capital and 21 provinces.

Mongolian history has been Xiongnu, an ancient nationality in China , Xianbei (a county in Shanxi Province) , meekly , Tujue, a nationality in ancient China , Qidan, an ancient nationality in China equimultiple nomad Rule. The year 1206 Genghis Khan Set up Great Mongolia . His grandson in 1271 Kublai Khan Set up Yuan Dynasty After death Mongols Retreat to the Mongolian steppes, but often at the border with Ming Dynasty There is a conflict. ^[1] From the 16th to the 17th century, Mongolia began to receive Tibetan Buddhism By the end of the 17th century, all of Mongolia was incorporated Qing Dynasty The sphere of domination. ^[1] On December 1, 1911, Outer Mongolia declared its independence. ^[21] But it was not recognized internationally until 1921 Soviet Russia Independence under the control of the Republic, joined in 1961 The United Nations Began to gain international recognition. ^[1] It was established in 1924 Mongolian People's Republic Be in The Soviet Union Under the sphere of influence, Upheaval in Eastern Europe After the eruption of Mongolia Democratic revolution And in 1992 promulgated a implementation Multi-party system new constitution , start towards Market economy Transition. ^[1]

With an area of 1,566,500 square kilometers, Mongolia is the 19th largest country in the world, second only to Mongolia Kazakhstan The world's second largest Landlocked country . ^[1] Mongolia Arable land Much of the country is covered by grasslands. There are mountains in the north and west, and the Gobi Desert in the south. About 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic. Mongolia 2022 Gross domestic product $15.7 billion, GDP growth of 4%.

They say

Does Mongolia really have a navy? 2021-08-30 19:41

It is appropriate for Mongolia to set up this border guard force in this waters and handle relevant contacts with the Chinese side. Compared with the Sukhbaatar's navy, which is only responsible for transporting oil, the water border guard force on Lake Bear may be more viable. ... details

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Chinese name: Mongolia
Foreign name: Manya manya (Mongolian)
Mongolia (English)
Abbreviated form: Mongolia
continent: Asia
capital: Ulaanbaatar
Major city: Erdent , Darhan , Choiba , City of Genghis Khan Etc. ^[23]
National Day: July 11th
National song: National Anthem of Mongolia
Country code: MNG
Official language: Mongolian
currency: Mongolian Tugrik (MNT) ^[2]
Time zone: UTC+8
Political system: A parliamentary republic
National leader: Uhena Huzhilsukh ^[13] (President) , Oyun Erden ^[22] (Prime Minister)

Population number: About 3.5 million ^[25] (December 2023)
Population density: 2.1 persons/km2 ^[12] (2020)
Major nationality: The Khalkha Mongols , Kazakh nationality
Major religion: Tibetan Buddhism
Land area: 1566500 km²
Water area ratio: 0.43%
Total GDP: $15.7 billion (2022)
Per capita GDP: $4,566.1 ^[18] (2021, international exchange rates)
International telephone area code: 976
International domain name abbreviation: .mn
Road access: Drive on the right
State structure form: Unitary system
Central bank: Bank of Mongolia
Gini coefficient: 32.3% (2016)
National bird: falcon
Leading institution: Mongolian National University , Mongolian University of Science and Technology

catalogue

▪Medical treatment
▪medium
▪communication
▪electricity
13diplomacy
▪Foreign policy
▪Relations with China
▪Relations with Russia
▪Relations with the United States
▪Relations with Europe
▪Relations with the UAE
14travel
▪National Museum of Mongolian History
▪Genghis Khan Scenic Area
▪Lake Kushugur
▪Erdeni Zhao
▪Ruins of Halhorin, capital of the Mongol Empire

Historical evolution

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EDITOR

Subject article: History of Mongolia

Ethnic origin

Subject article: Mongols

Before the rise of the Mongols, the Mongolian steppes were once Xiongnu, an ancient nationality in China , Xianbei (a county in Shanxi Province) , gentle, Tujue, a nationality in ancient China Etc. nomad The Tang Dynasty was also established here Anbukitsu Protectorate .

According to historians, the Mongols originated A surname Branch of Wu Shiwei .

About the 7th century AD, the Mongol ancestors lived in The Erguna River The area later moved west to the upper reaches of the Onen River to the Orhan Mountains (Great Kent Mountains) and The Kerulen River Around. By the 12th century AD, the Mongols had spread throughout the present Onon , The Kerulen River , Tula The upper reaches of the three rivers and the area east of Mount Kent, and divided Beg the face , Zadalan , Teciu Such tribes. In addition, in the Mongolian steppe and in the forested areas around Lake Baikal, there are Tartar , Duo Huoriti, Mi 'er Qi, Orbian, Klie, Naiman , Wangu Various Ministries. The nomads on the grassland were called "people with felts" and were mainly engaged in animal husbandry; The people who live in the forest are called "forest people" and are mainly engaged in fishing and hunting.

In the 11th century, a coalition was formed headed by Tatar. Therefore, "Tatar" or "Tartar" once became a common name for the various departments of the Mongolian steppes. In the Song, Liao and Jin dynasties, the Mongols in Mobei were called the Black Tartars and the Mongols in the south of the city were called the white Tartars.

At the beginning of the 13th century, Genghis Khan After the unification of the Mongols, they gradually merged into a new ethnic community, and "Mongols" changed from the name of a tribe to a national name.

Mongol Empire

See also: The Battle of Genghis Khan's three-way attack on gold , The Battle of the Western Xia Dynasty , Battle of the Cliffs , Yuan Dynasty

In 1206, Tiemuzhen, the leader of the Qiyan Department, was named Khan on the Onen River in Mongolia, with the title Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan continued to wage foreign wars and gradually annexed Jin Dynasty , The Western Xia Dynasty (206 B.C.) , Silliao , Khwarizm , Dali , the surrender Tibetan regime in ancient China He founded the Great Mongolia (Mongol Empire), which extended its power to West and North Asia, reaching as far as Eastern Europe and Egypt. With the exception of the Juche regime, the rest of the occupied territories were ruled by the sons of Genghis Khan, i.e Four khanates .

Proterozoic map (20 photos)

In 1271, Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, wrote the book The Book of Changes The meaning of "big Zai Qian Yuan" was changed to Dayuan Set the capital on the capital. The capital was moved in 1278 Yenching , say mostly . It was destroyed in 1279 The Southern Song Dynasty Unify China. After the Yuan Dynasty unified China, it continued to expand abroad, but it suffered repeated defeats when it launched expeditions against Japan and Southeast Asian countries, such as Yuan War , Yuan-vietnamese War , Yuanclaw War Let's wait. In the middle of the Yuan Dynasty, the imperial throne changed frequently, and the politics was not on the right track. In the later period, the political corruption, the interference of the powerful ministers, and the aggravation of national and class contradictions led to The peasant uprising at the end of the Yuan .

In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang, Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty, led an army to conquer the Great capital of the Yuan Dynasty. 元惠宗 The North continued to use the title of "Dawon", known as the North Yuan. The year 1402 Horic red The establishment of usurpation of power Tartar The Northern Yuan was destroyed.

After the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, Mongolia was divided into many subordinates, and later generations gradually formed three major parts according to the regions they lived in, that is, Mongolians distributed in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and the three northeastern provinces Mannan Mongolia That is, the Horqin Department; The Mongol region of present-day Mongolia was called Mobei Mongol, or Khalkha, Khalkha Mongolia ; Distributed in Xinjiang, Qinghai and Gansu regions of Mongolia called Mosimongolia The Ministry of Oirat, also known as Erut (Erut) Mongolia, known in Ming Dynasty Vala .

Ming and Qing Dynasties

Subject article: Northern Yuan Dynasty , Mongolia in the Qing Dynasty

Since the beginning of the founding of the Ming Dynasty, the war against Mongolia has been considered as the primary issue. Zhu Di During the period, military towns and buildings were set up Great Wall of the Ming Dynasty . Zhu Di launched five personal campaigns, drove the Mongol forces to the edge of the desert, consolidated the rule of the Central Plains, but did not fundamentally eliminate the Mongol threat to the northern border of the Ming Dynasty.

After the middle of the Ming Dynasty, different Mongol subordinates successively launched continuous invasion and harassment of the northwestern border of the Ming Dynasty, and in Jia Jing The year reached its climax. In 1449 (fourteen orthodox years), Vala tribal Also before Invading the border, Emperor Yingzong Zhu Qizhen Led the army personally, in the civil fort soldiers were defeated and captured, the Ming army suffered heavy casualties, known as the "civil fort change". In 1550 (the 29th year of Jiajing), to Altan Khan dominant Tartar People attacked the Ming Dynasty in a large scale, and marched into Beijing under the Anding Gate, which is known as the "Gengxu change", and then there was war and peace between the Ming Dynasty and the Mongolian tribes.

In the fifth year of Longqing of the Ming Dynasty (1571), the Ming government was forced by the severe situation against itself, and reached a "Longqing peace" with the right wing of Monan Mongolia, and the leader Altan Khan was named King of Shunyi . The right wing of Monnan Mongolian bowed to the Ming Dynasty, and the two sides began normal political exchanges and economic trade, which made the northwest border of the Ming Dynasty get a long time of peace. At the same time, the Ming government implemented the policy of "refusing tribute" to the left wing of Mongolia from strategic consideration according to the formation of the left and right wing pattern of Mongolian forces after the "Longqing and Peace Discussion". This policy measure intensified the invasion and harassment of the Mongol left wing in the Liaodong (present-day Liaoning area in Northeast China) border areas of the Ming Dynasty. During the Wanli period, the Ming government began to gradually change the policy of "refusing tribute" to the Mongol left wing, and realized mutual trade with them in a flexible way. At the same time, it made strategic fine-tuning of the policy of the Mongol right wing, in order to further consolidate the trade relationship with the Mongol right wing.

1624, Mongolia Horchin Department First to become Later Jin Dynasty The vassal state.

In 1636, Emperor Taiji conquered it Chahar department And change the country name to Qing. Then the Qing Dynasty subdued the Mongol departments and pacified them The Ministry of Dzunggar Rebellion. In 1771, uvubasid The rate of The Squire of Tulle At this time, except for Buryat and Kalmykia, which were ruled by Russia, the rest of Mongolia was included in the territory of the Qing Dynasty. Among them, Kulun Living Buddha's policy of subordinating to the Qing Dynasty and not to Tsarist Russia in 1660 affected the Mongolian political pattern for hundreds of years.

In 1733, Mobei Mongolia (modern Mongolia) by General Uryasutai Jurisdiction, for the provincial administrative region, that is, outer Mongolia. In 1761, it was Secretary of State for Cullen , Tushetu Khan Department with Chechen khanate The administration of civil affairs was transferred to the Secretary of State of Cullen; In the same year, Minister Counsellor Cobdo Run the Cobdo place. Since then, General Urya Sutai still supervised the two civil and military departments of the Syennoyan Department and the Zasaktu Khan Department Tang Nu Wu Liang Hai Affairs and control of the four departments of Khalkha, Tang Nu Wu Liang Hai and Kobdo Various Mongol soldiers.

Republic of China period

Subject article: Independence of outer Mongolia , Sino-soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance , Mongolian People's Republic

Claim "autonomy"

On December 28, 1911, Outer Mongolia Declaring "independence", Tsarist Russia presented itself as the protector of Mongolia. After the Qing Emperor abdicated, Beiyang government Negotiations with Russia continued, and on June 7, 1915, a treaty was signed. China-russia-mongolia Treaty It barely retained its sovereignty over Outer Mongolia in the legal sense.

Scenery of Mongolia (4 photos)

In the summer of 1919, the Mongolian feudal upper class headed by Zhebu Zundamba and the Chinese Beiyang government began negotiations on the cancellation of "autonomy". In November, the "self-rule" government of Outer Mongolia withdrew and petitioned for the restoration of the old system, and the Chinese government agreed to this request, declaring invalid the Sino-Russian documents concerning the self-rule of Outer Mongolia, appointing Jebuzundamba as Bogdo Khan, and sending the northwestern border guard Xu Shuzheng He led the army into Outer Mongolia and restored territorial sovereignty. Zhiwan War After the incident, the main force of the Xu Army was transferred from Mongolia back to the Guan to participate in the warlord melee, only in Kulun and its north on the Mongolian-Russian border shop (present-day Altenprague) retained a small force.

On February 3, 1921, Wingangrun's forces routed the Chinese garrison, occupied Kulun, and installed the 8th Chebuzundamba back on the throne of "Mongol Emperor" and established the so-called "autonomous government". On July 10, the constitutional monarchical government of Mongolia was formally established and declared independence in Kulun under the Emperor Jebuzundamba.

In 1924, the Chinese government signed the Outline Agreement on the Settlement of Outstanding Cases with the Russian Government, which still stipulated that Outer Mongolia was part of China's territory and China enjoyed territorial sovereignty. In May, the eighth Zebuzundamba died of illness. A month later, Mongolia abolished the constitutional monarchy, established a republic, and established the Mongolian People's Republic.

Chiang Kai-shek Regime's "case of controlling the Soviet Union"

On August 14, 1945, National government Accept the terms and conditions of the Yalta Secret Agreement The Soviet Union Sign the" Sino-soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance " ^[17] The central government will decide whether Outer Mongolia will become independent based on the results of the referendum. On 20 October, the people of Outer Mongolia held a referendum under the supervision and control of the Mongolian authorities and the Soviet Union, and the results showed that 97.8% of the citizens voted in favor of independence. The National Government officially recognized Outer Mongolia's independence on January 5, 1946.

In 1952, Chiang Kai-shek Believing that the Soviet Union had violated the treaty by obstructing its efforts to regain sovereignty in Manchuria and by aiding the Chinese Communists in the civil war, he sued the Soviet Union at the United Nations. United Nations General Assembly By a vote of 25 to 9, with 24 abstentions, Resolution 505 was passed condemning the Soviet Union.

In 1953, Chiang Kai-shek abolished the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance and refused to recognize the independence of the Mongolian People's Republic. The Chiang Kai-shek regime had vetoed Mongolia's admission to the United Nations in 1955, but in order to prevent the People's Republic of China from joining the United Nations, under pressure from the United States and eleven member States of Francophone Africa, the Chiang Kai-shek regime stopped blocking Mongolia's admission to the United Nations in 1961.

The People's Republic of China

Subject article: Treaty on Friendly and cooperative relations between China and Mongolia

On October 16, 1949, the People's Republic of China and Mongolia established diplomatic relations and recognized the independent sovereign status of the Mongolian People's Republic.

In 1953, Khrushchev After coming to power, the People's Republic of China began to negotiate with the Soviet Union, trying to refuse to recognize the independent status of the Mongolian People's Republic, but the Soviet Union refused.

In 1960, Mongolia and the People's Republic of China signed the" China-mongolia Treaty of Friendship and mutual Assistance ". The Boundary Treaty was signed in 1962. In 1990, China and Mongolia issued a joint communique, which was revised in 1994. China-mongolia Treaty of Friendship and mutual Assistance "And signed the" Treaty on Friendly and cooperative relations between China and Mongolia ".

Mongolia was elected on 28 October 2015 United Nations Human Rights Council Member, serving from 2016 to 2018. ^[3] Elbegdorj He took office in June 2009 Presidents of Mongolia In 2012, the Mongolian Parliament passed a bill to abolish the death penalty. Mongolia officially became the successor Benin , Congo, Fiji , Latvia , Madagascar , Nauru, Suriname It became the eighth country in the world to abolish the death penalty in the last five years. ^[4]

On July 4, 2022 local time, Mongolian local media quoted the country's Ministry of Food, Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Light Industry as reporting that the World Organization for Animal Health has recently recognized Mongolia as free Bovine infectious pleuropneumonia The state shall issue a national certificate of absence of bovine pulmonary disease. ^[15]

Geographical environment

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Regional location

Located in Northeast Asia, Mongolia is the second largest landlocked country in the world, with a total land area of 1,566,500 square kilometers. It borders Russia in the north and China in the east, south and west. The border between China and Mongolia is 4,710 kilometers long. ^[16]

landform

Mongolia's geological structure is complex, the mountains are composed of volcanic rocks, the soil layer is thick, the bedrock is exposed, and the soil types are as follows Chestnut soil It is dominated by salt and salty soil, and there is frozen soil layer in the north. From north to south, it is generally six vegetation zones, namely alpine grassland, virgin forest grassland, grassland and Gobi desert.

The terrain of Mongolia gradually decreases from west to east, with the highest point being 4,653 meters above sea level (Nailamdal Peak) and the lowest point being 553 meters (Lake Huhe), with an average elevation of 1580 meters. Mountainous area of 777,000 square kilometers, accounting for half of the total area; The Gobi desert covers an area of 400,000 square kilometers, accounting for a quarter of the total area. The lake covers an area of 16,000 square kilometers, accounting for 1% of the total area.

The main mountain ranges in Mongolia are: the Altai Mountain is located in the west of Mongolia, with an average elevation of 3,000 meters, and runs northwest-southeast; Hangai Mountain Located in the middle of Mongolia, the average altitude of 3000 meters, northwest to southeast; Kent Hill (Mongolians respect as the Holy Mountain) is located in the eastern part of Mongolia, with an average elevation of 2000 meters, northeast to southwest.

Climatic characteristics

Mongolia is known as the "land of blue skies", with sunny weather two-thirds of the year and a typical continental temperate steppe climate. Mongolia winter long cold, dry climate, often snowstorms, is one of the Eurasian continent "cold wave" birthplace, the lowest temperature can reach -40 degrees Celsius (the lowest has reached -60 degrees Celsius); Summer is short dry hot, the highest temperature can reach 38 degrees Celsius (the highest has reached 45 degrees Celsius), the temperature difference in the morning and evening is large. The frost-free period is short, the average annual precipitation is 250 mm, and the climate is dry. The heating season in Mongolia is from September 15 to May 15. ^[16]

Hydrological distribution

Mongolia has 3,800 rivers with a total length of 67,000 kilometers, 3,500 lakes and more than 7,000 springs. Most of the rivers are distributed in the northern and central regions, mainly The Selenge River , The Orhun River , The Kerulen River and The Cobdo River More than 50; Lakes are mostly distributed in the northwest, mainly Lake Ubusu , Lake Kushugur , Kirghiz Lake And Lake Hala Usu.

Natural resources

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Mineral resources

Mongolia has vast territory and abundant mineral resources. At present, more than 80 kinds of minerals and more than 6,000 mineral points have been proved in Mongolia, and the reserves of coal, copper and gold are among the top in the world. At present, Mongolia has proven reserves of about 162 billion tons of coal, about 36 million tons of copper, about 2 billion tons of iron, about 200 million tons of phosphorus, about 3,000 tons of gold, and about 1.5 billion barrels of oil. The development of mineral resources in Mongolia is still in its infancy, and the domestic infrastructure such as water supply, power supply and roads is relatively backward. At present, some mineral resources are still in the transfer, exploration and construction stage. Large mineral deposits are Erdent copper mine, Aoyun Tolgoi copper mine, Tawen Tolgoi coal mine and so on. At present, there are mainly enterprises from Canada, China, Singapore and other countries to invest in mineral resources mining in Mongolia. ^[16]

Biological resources

Animals of Mongolia (4 photos)

As of 2012, Mongolia's vegetation consists of Siberian taiga in the north and Central Asian steppes and deserts in the south. There are 2251 species of higher seed plants in 103 families and 596 genera, 293 species of bryophytes in 40 families and 119 genera, 570 species of lichens in 30 families and 70 genera, 218 species of mushrooms in 12 families and 34 genera, and 574 species of medicinal plants in 52 families and 154 genera. Among them, the main plants are Mongolian thatch, Korjinsky thatch, Gorganov convolvula, Glubov conifer, Diversiform poplar , willow , Olefin , calamus , Achnatherum splendens , Amur niang Let's wait.

Wild animal There are about 60 species of mammals, more than 50 species of fish and 90 species of birds. Animals are mainly marmot , Wild ass , bronco , antlers, Gobi bear , Wild camel , antelope , ibex A surname argali , black-tailed yellow sheep, Musk deer , The leopard , beaver , otter , The sable , secret mouse, griffin A surname Pelican , Snow cock , Pheasant , Soap carving , Owl , owl , woodpecker Let's wait.

Administrative division

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regionalization

The administrative divisions of Mongolia are as follows: Capital Ulaanbaatar And 21 provinces, respectively After Hang Ai province , Bayan Ouleguet Province , Bayanhungar Province , The Province of Bourcan , Gobi Altai Province , East Gobi Province , Dornod , Central Gobi Province , Zabhan Province , Former Hang Ai Province , South Gobi Province , Sukhbaatar Province , Selenge Province , Central province , Ubusu Province , Kobdor Province , Kushugur Province , Hentiy , Orhun Province , Darhanul Province and Gobi Sumuber Province . There are 331 counties and 1,681 villages in China. ^[16]

Subdivisions of Mongolia

Major city

The capital of Mongolia is Ulaanbaatar, the largest city in the country. The resident population is approximately 1.5 million (2022). The average temperature is 1.6℃. Ulaanbaatar is located in north-central Mongolia, Tula Side with Central province , Hentiy , Selenge Province Bordering more than 10 counties. Ulaanbaatar City is an ancient capital with nearly four hundred years of history, and has been called "Kulun" and "Great Kulun" in history. Ulaanbaatar is the political, economic, cultural, educational and scientific center of Mongolia, and nearly half of the country's population lives in the city. Ulaanbaatar City has the Capital Citizens' Congress (city Council) and the capital city government, the city has a total of nine administrative districts.

Other major cities in Mongolia are Erdent City, Darhan City, etc. Erden City is the second largest city in Mongolia, the main industry is mining industry. ^[16]

National symbol

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Country name

Mongolia, short for Mongolia, Mongolian (Manas, manas, manas), the country's name is interpreted as the fire that never goes out.

flag

Flag of Mongolia

Flag of Mongolia Rectangular in shape, the ratio of length to width is 2:1, with two red and one blue as the background, and the red part near the flagpole has a yellow" Soyombu The flame in Soyongbu is "the seed of auspicence and prosperity", the three tongues of fire symbolize the past, present and future, and the sun and moon are traditional symbols of the Mongolian people. The combination of fire, sun and moon indicates the prosperity of the country, the central Yin-yang diagram symbolizes the harmony of the country, the two triangles below are equivalent to arrows, the downward triangle means to defend the home by force, the two rectangles on the bottom of the Yin-yang diagram have the meaning of upholding justice and loyalty, the left and right rectangles are a city wall, suggesting that the unity of the whole people is stronger than the wall. In addition, the red in the background represents progress and prosperity, and the "eternal blue sky" is replaced by blue.

National anthem

National anthem of Mongolia For М о н f о л У л с ы н Т ө р и й н Д л а л "Mongolian national anthem".

National emblem

Coat of arms of Mongolia

National emblem of Mongolia Opened in 1992, it is round, the outer ring "ten thousand words do not end" pattern, and the top is three treasures. In the middle is the wind horse carrying Soyombu. Below are Green hills, Falun, Hada and Rosette.

population

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Mongolia is sparsely populated and has one of the lowest population densities in the world, with a population density of about 2 people per square kilometer. In recent years, Mongolia's population has grown rapidly, with a total population of about 3.4 million as of January 2023, an increase of 1.8% year-on-year. According to the National Bureau of Statistics of Mongolia, in 2020, the working-age population between 15 and 64 years old in Mongolia accounted for 63.8% of the total population. Mongolia's population distribution is relatively uneven, with nearly half of the country's population living in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar. The population of Ulaanbaatar in 2020 is nearly 1.5 million. Other major population centers in Mongolia include Darhan and Erdent. ^[16] As of July 2023, the population is about 3.458 million. The Khalkha Mongols About 80% of Mongolia's population, in addition to Kazakh nationality Durbe and other ethnic minorities.

political

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constitution

The current constitution was adopted in January 1992 and entered into force on 12 February 1992. The Constitution states that Mongolia is an independent and autonomous republic; Regards the establishment of a humane civil democratic society in this country as a noble goal; Prohibiting the stationing of foreign military forces in and through the territory of Mongolia without the promulgation of a law; The State recognizes all forms of public and private ownership; The state respects religion, religion upholds the state, and citizens enjoy freedom of religious belief; China pursues a foreign policy of peace in accordance with universally recognized norms and principles of international law. According to the Constitution, the country was renamed "Mongolia" and adopted a parliamentary system.

congress

A propaganda poster for the Mongolian People's Party parliamentary candidate

nation The Great Hural It is the highest organ of state power and exercises legislative power. The State Great Hural may propose to discuss any question of domestic and foreign policy and to resolve the following issues within its special powers: ratification, updating and amendment of laws; Determining the basis of domestic and foreign policies; Announce the date of the election of the President and the State Great Hural and its members; To decide on and replace the Standing Committee of the State Great Hural; Promulgate the law by which the President is elected and recognizes his powers; Remove the president from office; To appoint and remove the Prime Minister and members of the Government; To determine the composition and competence of the National Security Council; Decide on pardons, etc. The State Great Hural is a unicameral parliament whose members are elected directly or indirectly by the citizens of Mongolia by secret ballot for a four-year term. The current State Great Hural was formed in June 2020 with 76 seats, with 62 seats from the People's Party, 11 seats from the Democratic Party and 3 seats from other parties. The Chairman of the State Great Hural is GOMBOJAV ZANDANSHATAR (People's Party), who took office in July 2020.

On June 25, 2020, preliminary results of the 8th Mongolian State Great Hural (Parliament) election showed that the Mongolian People's Party won 62 out of 76 seats and the Democratic Party won 11 seats. You and our alliance ( Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party , Mongolian Civic Will Green Party, Mongolian Traditional Unity Party ) Won 1 seat, League of the Right People Voters Won 1 seat, Democratic Party of the United States Former party chairman and former Prime minister Noroub Altankhuyag Elected as an independent candidate.

government

The highest executive organ of state power, the members of the government are appointed by the National Great Hural. The current government consists of the People's Party. The Prime Minister is LUWSANNAMSRAI OYUN-ERDENE and consists of 16 members of the government, including the Deputy Prime Minister, the Chief of staff and ministers.

judiciary

The courts exercise judicial power and are composed of the Supreme Court and various local courts. Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Gonzorig, assumed office in June 2020. The procuratorial organs are composed of the General Procuratorial Office and local procuratorial offices at various levels. In May 2019, Zagresai Khan was appointed as the State Attorney General.

Political party

Subject article: Mongolian People's Party , Mongolian Democratic Party , Mongolian citizens will Republican Party

Implement a multi-party system. As of August 2021, there are 32 political parties. The main ones are:

(1) Mongolian People's Party. Founded on March 1, 1921, it was renamed the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party in March 1925, and the 22nd National Congress of the Party held in February 1997 determined the nature of the party as a "national democratic nature of the centre-left party." The theoretical basis is "democratic socialist thought". In October 2007, the party held the 25th National Congress and passed the amendment to the Party Constitution, which decided to retain the provision of "Party chairman concurrently Prime Minister" in the Party Constitution. In November 2010, the 26th National Congress was held, and the party was reinstated as the People's Party, and a 31-member leadership committee was elected. It has about 220,000 party members. In April 2021, the Mongolian People's Party merged with the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, the third largest party in Mongolia. The current chairman is Robsanamulai Oyunerden.

(2) The Democratic Party. It was formed on December 6, 2000 by the merger of the Mongolian National Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party, the Democratic Revival Party, the Religious Democratic Party and the Democratic Party. Its party membership is about 180,000. The purpose of the Party is to attach importance to human development, human rights and freedoms, and to assume corresponding social responsibilities according to the size of individual abilities. The party's goal was to consolidate Mongolian political independence; Establish a rational and strong economic system; Building open societies; Establish good governance; We will closely integrate social development with the progress of the international community. The Party's National Congress meets every four years. The National Policy Council (equivalent to the Central Committee) is responsible for day-to-day work.

dignitaries

Uhena Huzhilsukh

The PRESIDENT: Uhena Huzhilsukh . He was born in June 1968. Graduated in 1989 Mongolian National Defense University Political science major. He was a member of the Mongolian Democratic Socialist Youth League and the Leadership Committee of the People's Party. He was General Secretary of the Mongolian People's Party from 2008 to 2012. He was a member of Parliament three times and deputy Prime Minister twice. He became Prime Minister in 2017 and Chairman of the People's Party in the same year. He was re-elected Prime Minister in 2020, resigned in January 2021, and was elected president in June.

Chairman of the State Great Hural: Kambuzab Zandenshatar. Born in 1970 Bayanhungar Province . Graduated in 1992 Irkutsk Major in economics, Municipal College of National Economics. He served as Deputy Minister of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Minister of Foreign Affairs and General secretary of the People's Party of Mongolia. He was elected member of the State Great Hural three times in 2004, 2008 and 2016. In October 2017, he became the Director of the General Office of the Mongolian Government. He was re-elected chairman of the State Great Hural in July 2020.

Prime Minister: Robsanamulai Oyunerden. Male, born in 1980. He graduated from Bell University in 2001, majoring in journalism, and graduated from the United States in 2015 Harvard University Master of Science in Public Administration. He was chairman of the Mongolian Social Democratic Youth League and secretary of the Mongolian People's Party. He served as Mongolian lawmaker from 2016 to 2020, Minister of Mongolia and Chief of Government Office from 2019 to 2020, and on July 8, 2020, he served as Mongolian lawmaker and Chief of Government Office. He was appointed Prime Minister of Mongolia in January 2021.

economy

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EDITOR

summarize

The main industries include mining, agriculture and animal husbandry, transportation and service industries. The national economy is highly dependent on foreign countries. It has long practiced planned economy. The transition to a market economy began in 1991. In July 1997, the Government adopted the "Privatization Programme of State Assets for 1997-2000", which aims to give the private sector a dominant role in the national economy.

Underground resources are abundant. It has been proved that there are more than 80 kinds of minerals such as copper, molybdenum, gold, silver, uranium, lead, zinc, rare earth, iron, fluorite, phosphorus, coal and petroleum. The forest cover rate of the country is about 8%.

Economic Index for 2022
Message	exponent
Gross Domestic product (GDP)	68.9 trillion Tugrik (2023)
GDP growth rate	7% (2023)
Currency name	TUGRUG
Exchange rate	$1 = 3397 Tugrik (April 2024)
Reference materials: ^[25]

Animal husbandry

Animal husbandry is the traditional industry of Mongolia, the foundation of the national economy, and the main source of raw materials for processing industry and daily necessities in Mongolia. Mongolia is sparsely populated, winter lasts a long time, animal husbandry production is still based on natural stocking, it is still difficult to achieve large-scale, modern production at this stage, affected by natural climate and livestock. By the end of 2022, the livestock population will be about 70 million.

Livestock stock in Mongolia at the end of 2020
Livestock type	Quantity (unit: 10,000)	Year-on-year increase or decrease (%)	Percentage of total stock (%)
The horse	410	2.9	6.1
The cow	470	0.5	7
Camel	47.29	0.1	0.7
Sheep	3000	6.9	44.7
Goat	2770	5.3	41.2 ^[16]

agriculture

Agriculture (mainly plantation) is not a pillar industry of Mongolia's national economy, but it is related to the national economy and people's livelihood, and has always been attached importance by the government. More than 60,000 people are employed in agriculture, and the output value accounts for about a quarter of the total output value of agriculture and animal husbandry. Mongolia's main crops are wheat, barley, potatoes, cabbage, radish, onion, garlic, rape and so on. In 2020, the total output of cultivated grain in Mongolia is 614,000 tons. 182,000 tons of potatoes; 121,000 tons of vegetables; 293,000 tons of feed crops.

Industrial and mining industry

In 2020, Mongolia achieved a total industrial output value of 16.5 trillion figure, down 6.7% year-on-year. Among them, the mining output value of 11.6 trillion figure, accounting for 70.3% of the total industrial value; The output value of processing and manufacturing industry is 3.5 trillion figure, accounting for 21.2% of the total industrial value; The output value of hydropower heating supply and other industries is 1.2 trillion figure, accounting for 7.2% of the total industrial value.

Mining industry is an important pillar industry of Mongolia's economic development. In 2020, the mining output value is 11.6 trillion figure, down 8.4% year-on-year, accounting for 71.6% of the total industrial value; Mongolia's mineral exports accounted for more than 70% of the total exports, and accompanied by an increasing trend year by year. Mongolia's economic foundation is poor, the industrial foundation is weak, economic growth is over-dependent on mining, and subject to the impact of international raw material price fluctuations. More than 80% of foreign investment is invested in the mining sector, with the international mineral products, especially coal prices are low, Mongolia's foreign trade exports and foreign investment in the short term lack of growth momentum. Mongolia is rich in mineral resources, and some large mineral reserves are in a leading position in the world. Due to the lack of professional teams and backward technical equipment in geological exploration in Mongolia, the overall level of geological exploration is low. Mongolia's relatively backward infrastructure and lack of hydropower resources have also restricted the development of the mining industry to a large extent.

Mongolia is rich in mineral resources, and some large mineral reserves are in a leading position in the world. At present, the large and medium-sized mines in Mongolia that have been mined and exported mainly include: Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold mine (OT mine), Tawen Tolgoi Coal mine (TT mine), Erdente copper and molybdenum mine, Narin Suhaite coal mine, Baganol coal mine, Tumulting Aobo zinc mine, Tamzag oil field, etc.

Mongolia's industry started relatively late, in addition to mining and fuel power industry, light industry and food processing industry with livestock products as the main raw materials occupy a certain position in Mongolia's industrial sector, in addition to some basic mineral processing industry. In 2020, the output value of the processing and manufacturing industry is 3.5 trillion, a year-on-year decrease of 6.1%, accounting for 21.2% of the total industrial output value. ^[16]

Building industry

In recent years, the government is gradually increasing investment in infrastructure construction such as roads, and infrastructure construction is in a relatively rapid development stage. However, in 2020, due to the impact of the novel coronavirus pandemic, some construction projects have been suspended or postponed. Since May 2020, the China-Mongolia border port Green Channel has been opened, and construction projects have been resumed in an orderly manner after Chinese engineers and technicians came to Mongolia.

In recent years, the number of residents in Ulaanbaatar city, the capital of Mongolia, has increased sharply, and the population has approached half of the country, the rigid demand for urban housing has increased rapidly, the housing construction and sales market has gradually risen, the demand for building materials has become prosperous, and the production of building materials has increased significantly. However, due to the impact of the new coronavirus epidemic, the construction and sales of real estate projects in Mongolia in 2020 are not optimistic. ^[16]

tourism

Mongolia has a small population, a vast territory and a well-maintained natural landscape. It is one of the few countries in the world that retain a nomadic culture and has broad prospects for tourism development. The tourist season is from June to August each year.

Finance and finance

Mongolia's domestic financial market is small. In 2023, Mongolia's fiscal revenue is 24.3 trillion and its expenditure is 22.5 trillion. Mongolia's money supply was 37.6 trillion chart, up 7.9% year on year. 2023, Mongolia's commercial loan balance 27.4 trillion figure; Non-performing loans reached $2 trillion, and overdue loans reached $1.3 trillion. ^[25]

The Central Bank of Mongolia is Bank of Mongolia The four largest commercial banks in Mongolia are Khan Bank, Golomt Bank, Trade Development Bank and Khas Bank.

There are 15 non-life insurance companies and 1 life insurance company in the Mongolian insurance market, and the larger insurance companies are MIG Insurance Company, Bodi Insurance Company, Ard Insurance Company, Tenger Insurance Company and Soyombo Insurance Company.

The development of the Mongolian stock market is still in the initial stage of development, and the Mongolian Stock Exchange is the only stock exchange market in Mongolia, established in 1991. For the whole year of 2020, the total trading volume of Mongolia's national stock market was 53.9 billion Tu, a decrease of 66.6%. The number of securities transactions totaled 350 million, down 22.2% from the previous year. The top 10 listed companies on the Mongolian Stock Exchange are APU, TAVAN TOGGOL, BERKH UUL, SHIVEE OVOO, SHARIIN GOL, BAGANUUR, GOBI, UB BANK and SUU Corporation. ^[16]

foreign trade

Implement an open economic policy. In recent years, it has actively developed economic and trade cooperation with Western developed countries and Asian countries. In 2023, Mongolia's total foreign trade volume is 24.4 billion US dollars, of which imports are 9.3 billion US dollars and exports are 15.2 billion US dollars. Exports are mainly mineral products, textiles and livestock products, among which coal exports account for a large proportion of exports. The main trading partners are China, Russia, the European Union, Canada, the United States, Japan, South Korea and so on. ^[25]

Mongolia's foreign trade structure is relatively simple, mineral products accounted for more than 70% of Mongolia's total exports. Mongolia's main export commodities are mineral products, textiles, raw hides, cooked hides, animal hair and its products, pearls, precious stones, precious metals, cultural articles, etc. The development of domestic manufacturing industry in Mongolia is still in its infancy, and in addition to livestock products, other kinds of living and production materials are dependent on imports. The main commodities imported by Mongolia are mechanical and electrical goods and spare parts, energy products, road, air and water transport vehicles and their parts, textiles, chemical and chemical products, plant products and food, steel products and their products.

Foreign capital

In 2011, Mongolia attracted $4.62 billion in foreign direct investment, but since then, due to the introduction of relevant laws restricting foreign investment, foreign investment has plummeted to $240 million in 2016. Bank of Mongolia statistics show that in 2020, Mongolia absorbed foreign investment of 759 million US dollars, mainly concentrated in construction, mining heavy industry and other industries. China is Mongolia's largest trading partner and main source of investment, accounting for nearly 30% of Mongolia's total foreign direct investment. In addition to China, Singapore, the Netherlands, South Korea, Canada, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, Luxembourg and other countries are also major sources of investment in Mongolia. However, due to the continuous decline in the international mineral product market prices and the poor investment environment in Mongolia, the scale of foreign investment in Mongolia has decreased since 2013, and the growth of the number of newly registered foreign companies has slowed down. The main investment areas of foreign companies in Mongolia are geological and mineral exploration and exploitation (including oil), real estate development, trade, catering and other industries.

According to the The United Nations According to the World Investment Report 2021 released by UNCTAD, in 2020, Mongolia will attract foreign investment flows of 1.7 billion US dollars, down 29.6% year on year; By the end of 2020, Mongolia's foreign investment stock stood at $24.2 billion. ^[16]

Foreign aid

On the basis of World Bank In 2020, Mongolia received $314 million in foreign aid. According to the official website of Mongolia's Ministry of Finance, during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, countries and international organizations have provided Mongolia with a number of grants of assistance. This includes $2.5 million from the Asian Development Bank, €50.8 million from the European Union, $1 million from the World Bank, $2.6 million from the United Nations, $1.5 million from Germany, $9.3 million from Japan (agreed funds, funds not yet available), and $2.5 million from the United States Agency for International Development. According to the Ministry of Finance of Mongolia, during the epidemic in 2020, the Chinese government has provided three batches of anti-epidemic supplies worth a total of 700,000 US dollars to the Mongolian government, including 13,000 nucleic acid testing reagents, 495,000 medical surgical masks, 105,000 N95 medical protective masks, and 1,000 disposable medical protective suits. ^[16]

culture

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EDITOR

Language

The official language of Mongolia is Khalkha Mongolian, spoken by 95% of the local population. The text is in Slavic Mongolian. ^[16]

On March 18, 2020, the government of Mongolia officially adopted the National Outline of the Mongolian Script, which decided to fully restore the use of Uighur Mongolian, commonly known as the tradition, from 2025 Mongolian . For historical reasons, Mongolia was abandoned in 1946 Uighur Mongolian To start using Slavic alphabet Based on the creation of the new Mongolian language, that is Cyrillic Mongolian . Since 2010, Mongolia has expanded the use of traditional Mongolian.

religion

The inhabitants of Mongolia mainly believe lamaism According to the Law on Relations between the State and Temples, Lamaism is the state religion. Some residents believe in it Christianity and Islam Let's wait.

diet

Mongolian food culture is influenced by Russia, before entering the restaurant, you need to take off your coat in front of the door to show politeness, do not make a loud noise during the meal, men need to pull a chair for women first, and dishes are more Westernized.

custom

Mongolians do not want others to touch their heads and hats; To hand things to others with the right hand, to show respect; Formal meeting or dining with guests should be dressed neatly, men should wear a suit and tie, women should wear makeup and jewelry; The host does not have to leave the house when the guest is seen off.

Festivals

January 1: New Year's Day; The first and second days of the Tibetan calendar: White Moon Festival (Spring Festival); March 8: Women's Day; March 18: Armed Forces Day; June 1: Mother and Child Day; July 11-13: National Day Nadam Fair ; November 26: Founding Day of the Republic. Every Saturday and Sunday are closed. Added in 2012 Genghis Khan The birthday is the Mongolian "Glory Day". Mongolian residents attach importance to festivals, in addition to legal holidays, Western Valentine's Day, Christmas and other holidays will also be held during the corresponding celebrations, a strong festive atmosphere. ^[16]

Military affairs

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EDITOR

Military strength

Subject article: Mongolian People's Army , Mongolian Air Force , Mongolian navy

Mongolian People's Army

The Armed forces of Mongolia are composed of two systems, the Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Public Security. Under the Ministry of National Defense are combat units, communications units, aviation units, provincial military offices, and two garrison military academies in Ulaanbaatar and Darhan. The Ministry of Public Security has jurisdiction over border troops and provincial public security bureaus. The ground forces have more than 650 fighting vehicles, about 100 self-propelled guns, more than 800 infantry fighting vehicles and armored personnel carriers, 450 mobile anti-aircraft weapons, more than 1,000 artillery and mortars and other military equipment. The air force has mig-21 fighters, Mi-24 attack helicopters and so on.

The Mongolian People's Army was created on March 18, 1921. The president is also commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The civilian defense minister system was introduced in 1996. The General Staff of the Armed Forces is independent of the Ministry of National Defense. In 1997, the organizational structure of the armed forces was adjusted from the division-regiment system to the brigade-battalion system. Since 1998, alternative, contractual and compensatory military service systems have been added. In 1992, the service period was changed to one year. The total force is about 14,000.

The rank of the Mongolian People's Army is divided into 4 levels and 11 levels, namely marshal, General 4 levels (general, general, lieutenant general, Major General), field officer 3 levels (colonel, lieutenant colonel, major), Lieutenant officer 3 levels (captain, captain, lieutenant). The rank of warrant officer consists of Warrant Officer I, Warrant Officer II and Warrant Officer III. The ranks of the soldiers are divided into two grades, sergeant and private, sergeant set up staff sergeant, sergeant, corporal; The soldiers shall be first class soldiers and private soldiers.

Military cooperation

In addition to maintaining traditional military exchanges with Russia, Mongolia also attaches importance to cooperation with the United States, India, North Atlantic Treaty Organization And other countries (or military entities) for border defense cooperation.

In 2003, Mongolia and the United States held the first" Khan quest "Bilateral military exercises. Since 2006, the Khan Quest exercise has been expanded into a multinational exercise.

In 2005, the Mongolian People's Army participated in the NATO war Kosovo The peacekeeping mission.

On August 15, 2009, the "Khan Exploration-2009" multinational peacekeeping military exercise kicked off at the Mongolian Armed Forces Training Center, 65 kilometers west of Ulaanbaatar, involving more than 700 soldiers from Mongolia, the United States, India, South Korea and Cambodia.

On March 29, 2010, NATO officially declared Mongolia the 45th Alliance Afghanistan On April 23, Mongolia was also invited to participate in the NATO foreign Ministers' summit.

In 2012, Mongolia sent peacekeeping troops there South Sudan Performing UN peacekeeping missions. ^[5]

In March 2012, Mongolia established a "global partnership" with NATO. In November, Mongolia joined the OSCE, becoming its 57th member state.

traffic

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EDITOR

highroad

Mongolia's domestic roads are mainly divided into three categories: national roads (including roads connecting the capital and provincial capitals, between provincial capitals, national border ports and central residential areas), local roads, and units' own roads.

By 2020, Mongolia's total road length is about 119,000 km, of which 11,000 km are paved roads. Mongolia has a number of border ports with China and Russia respectively, and road links and customs clearance are relatively convenient. At present, there are 13 road ports between China and Mongolia. ^[16]

railway

There are only two railways in Mongolia, one for Ulaanbaatar Railway and the other for Self Choiba North to the Mongolian-Russian border port railway, the total mileage of the two railways is 1811 kilometers. The existing railways in Mongolia all use the Russian standard 1520mm wide gauge tracks, which cannot be directly connected with the 1435mm standard gauge railways in China, and need to be replaced. ^[16]

Air freight

Subject article: Genghis Khan International Airport

The main Mongolian Airlines include Mongolian Airlines, Air Mongolia, Hunnu Air, etc., currently operate domestic routes from the capital Ulaanbaatar to Erdent, Choba Mountain, Oyu Tolgoi, Kobudo and other provincial capitals and major cities. And Ulaanbaatar to Beijing, Hohhot, Hong Kong, Thailand, Japan, South Korea, Russia and other international routes.

Located southwest of the capital city of Ulaanbaatar, Genghis Khan International Airport is now the largest airport in Mongolia. At present, Mongolia has started the construction of a new international airport, which is located in Sergeleng County, Central Province, about 50 kilometers away from Ulaanbaatar City. ^[16]

society

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EDITOR

Science and education

Mongolian students

Mongolia's industrial base is relatively weak, and its scientific and technological development lags behind. The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology of Mongolia has jurisdiction over a number of universities, and at the same time inspects and guides the work of provincial and municipal education bureaus, educational units and educational research units throughout the country.

Implement the state system of universal and free general education. There are nearly 800 full-time general education schools and 63 professional training centers throughout the country. There are 113 colleges and universities in the country, including 16 national colleges and universities, mainly including national universities, universities of science and technology, universities of education, and 92 private colleges and universities, mainly including Ihzasak University, Ihzasak University, and Ihzasak University. Otgen Tengger University Let's wait. 5 Branch schools of foreign universities. According to the intergovernmental agreement on cooperation in culture, education and science, Mongolia has exchanged students with more than 50 countries. ^[16]

Medical treatment

Since January 1994, Mongolia has implemented the Medical Insurance Law. There are mandatory and voluntary forms of health insurance, and citizens can buy multiple policies. Compulsory medical insurance is the responsibility of the social insurance institution and covers all citizens of Mongolia; Voluntary insurance mainly covers foreign citizens and stateless persons. At present, the coverage of medical insurance in Mongolia basically covers the whole people.

According to the data of the National Bureau of Statistics of Mongolia, in 2020, the proportion of health care in Mongolia's fiscal expenditure will be 5.6%, and the per capita health care expenditure will be 244,000 yuan. In 2020, the average life expectancy of Mongolian citizens is 70.19 years, of which the average life expectancy of Mongolian women is 75.78 years and the average life expectancy of men is 66.11 years.

Respiratory diseases are now one of the leading diseases in Mongolia. Apart from seasonal influenza in winter, no other epidemic diseases are currently occurring in Mongolia. ^[16]

medium

According to Mongolian statistics, there are about 126 newspapers, 92 magazines, 76 radio stations, 150 TV stations and more than 30 online media in public circulation nationwide. The main newspapers are "Daily", "Century News", "Today", "Pravda", "Mongolian News" and so on. These newspapers have the largest circulation in Mongolia. Except for Pravda, which is the official newspaper of the Mongolian People's Party, the rest are free publications. In addition, there are "Soyunbo" (military newspaper), "Ulaanbaatar Times", "People's Rights" and so on.

Mongolian news agency The official news agency, founded in 1921. Commune with Xinhua News Agency , Reuters , Ria Novosti , TASS There is a partnership.

National Public Radio: The only non-private radio station in Mongolia and the most influential news organization in Mongolia. Radio stations cover the whole country.

In addition, there are TV9, TV5, TV25, Ulaanbaatar TV, "Eagle", C1, TV8, NTV, Education, USB and other large private TV stations.

communication

The development of the telecommunications industry in Mongolia is very uneven, in the capital and several major cities, fixed and mobile phones, broadband and related services are relatively widespread, but in remote areas, many local communication networks are still not covered.

In 2020, the revenue of Mongolia's communications sector exceeded 1.39 trillion graph, an increase of 15% year-on-year, which is the fastest growing industry in Mongolia. There are 160,000 fixed-line telephones, 748,000 cable TV users, 4.36 million mobile phone users, and 450,000 permanent Internet users. Mobile Internet has become the growth point of Mongolia's mobile industry and gradually plays an important role in driving domestic economic development.

The main telecommunications providers in Mongolia include Mobicom, Gmobile, Skytel, Unitel and MongoliaTelecom. ^[16]

electricity

Although Mongolia is rich in coal resources, the domestic power infrastructure construction and supporting facilities are relatively backward, and many generator sets are still built in the former Soviet Union. At present, Mongolia is not yet able to meet the domestic electricity self-sufficiency, domestic electricity supply reaches 80%, the remaining 20% of electricity needs to be imported from China and Russia. Mongolia's installed power capacity is 1.1 million kilowatts.

In the national electricity supply, coal power accounted for 85%, wind power accounted for 5%, diesel power accounted for 7%, hydroelectric power accounted for 2%, renewable energy accounted for 0.62%, of which domestic electricity supply accounted for 80%, imported electricity accounted for 20%. ^[16]

diplomacy

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EDITOR

Foreign policy

The Mongolian Honor Guard (2 photos)

The Foreign Policy Concept of Mongolia adopted by the Mongolian State Great Hural in 1994 stipulates that Mongolia pursues an open and non-aligned foreign policy, emphasizes that "the establishment of friendly relations with Russia and China is the primary task of Mongolia's foreign policy," and advocates "balanced exchanges and the development of extensive good-neighborly cooperation" with China and Russia. At the same time, it attaches importance to developing friendly relations and cooperation with Western developed countries such as the United States, Japan, Germany, Asia-Pacific countries, developing countries and international organizations. In 2011, the Mongolian State Great Hural adopted the new Foreign Policy Concept, which expanded the "open and non-aligned foreign policy" to a "peace-loving, open, independent and multi-pivot foreign policy", emphasizing the unity and continuity of foreign policy. It made clear that the top priority of its foreign policy is to develop friendly relations with its two big neighbors, Russia and China, and included the "third neighbor" policy in its vision to develop relations with the United States, Japan, the European Union, India, the Republic of Korea, Turkey and other Western countries and alliances. In 2004, Mongolia became the first observer state of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In March 2012, Mongolia established a "global partnership" with NATO. In November, Mongolia joined the OSCE as its 57th member state.

Relations with China

On October 16, 1949, Mongolia and the People's Republic of China established diplomatic relations. In 1960, the two sides signed the" China-mongolia Treaty of Friendship and mutual Assistance ". The Boundary Treaty was signed in 1962.

In 1990, China and Mongolia issued a joint communique, which was revised in 1994. China-mongolia Treaty of Friendship and mutual Assistance On this basis, the Treaty of Friendly and Cooperative Relations between China and Mongolia was signed. In December 1998, Bagabandi During the president's state visit to China, the two sides issued the China-Mongolia Joint Statement, which sets out the guidelines for the development of bilateral relations in the 21st century. In July 1999, Jiang Zemin The President paid a state visit to Mongolia.

Diplomatic activities of Mongolia (2 photos)

In June 2003, Hu Jintao President Xi paid a state visit to Mongolia during which the two countries announced the establishment of a good-neighborly partnership of mutual trust. In July 2004, President Bagabandi paid a state visit to China and the two countries issued a joint statement. In November 2005, Enkhbayar The president is on a state visit to China. In June 2008, Xi Jinping The Vice President paid an official visit to Mongolia. ^[6] In April 2009, Sanji Bayar The premier is on a working visit to China. In April 2010, Prime Minister Batbold visited China. From 28 April to 3 May 2010, Elbegdorj The president is on a state visit to China. In June 2010, Wen Jiabao The Prime Minister is paying an official visit to Mongolia. In June 2011, Prime Minister Batbold paid an official visit to China and the two sides decided to upgrade their relationship to a strategic partnership. In June 2012, President Elbegdorj came to China to attend the summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In January 2013, Wu Bangguo Chairman MAO paid an official visit to Mongolia. In October 2013, Prime Minister Altankhuyag paid an official visit to China, during which the two countries signed the Program for the Medium - and Long-term Development of China-Mongolia Strategic Partnership.

In January 2014, Foreign Minister Bollard visited China and the two sides signed a plan of activities to commemorate the Year of China-Mongolia Friendly Exchanges. In May, President Elbegdorj came to China to attend the Fourth Meeting on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia. ^[7] 8月21日至22日，习近平主席对蒙古国进行国事访问，双方决定将中蒙战略伙伴关系提升为中蒙全面战略伙伴关系。 ^[8]

In 2017, the two sides signed the 2018-2021 Implementation Plan for Educational Exchange and Cooperation between the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Science and Sports of Mongolia.

24 January 2017, Minister for Foreign Affairs Wang Yi At request, he spoke by phone with Mongolian Minister of Foreign Relations Monkhorgil. Mongolia firmly supports it One China It has always maintained that Tibet is an inalienable part of China and that the Tibet issue belongs to China's internal affairs.

China and Mongolia established trade relations in 1951. In 1989, the two governments established the Committee on Economic, Trade and Scientific and Technological Cooperation, which has held 16 meetings so far. In 1991, the two governments signed a new trade agreement, which replaced government-to-government accounting trade with spot trade. In the same year, the two governments signed an investment protection agreement. Bilateral mutually beneficial cooperation has been expanding in recent years, and China has been Mongolia's largest trading partner and investor for many years in a row. In 2023, the bilateral trade volume between China and Mongolia reached 16.59 billion U.S. dollars, up 36.1 percent year on year. ^[26]

China and Mongolia established cultural ties in 1951. In 1994, the two sides signed the Agreement on Cultural Cooperation. In recent years, according to the cultural exchange program of the two governments, the two countries have carried out multi-channel, multi-level and multi-form cultural exchanges and cooperation. The two sides have established a China-Mongolia Joint Committee for Cultural and People-to-people Exchanges, which has held two meetings so far. Minister of Culture, April 2004 Sun Jiazheng He led a delegation to visit Mongolia and participated in the "Chinese Culture Week" held for the first time in Mongolia. In May 2008, Confucius Institute, National University of Mongolia Unveil the nameplate. In June 2010, Ulaanbaatar Chinese Cultural Center Unveil the nameplate. Existing in Mongolia Confucius Institute 3 schools and 2 Confucius classrooms.

In 1987, China and Mongolia signed the 1987-1988 Science and Technology Cooperation Plan. In 1989, a Mongolian government delegation for scientific and technological cooperation visited China. Since then, the two sides have held regular science and technology cooperation meetings and signed annual science and technology cooperation plans. In August 2014, the two sides signed the Agreement on Promoting the Exchange of scientific and technological personnel between China and Mongolia and the Memorandum of Understanding on jointly building a Joint Laboratory for biomolecial polymer Applications between China and Mongolia. In May 2017, the two sides signed the Memorandum of Understanding on the establishment of Science and Technology Parks and cooperation on Innovation infrastructure Development in Mongolia and the Memorandum of Understanding on the Exchange of young scientists between China and Mongolia.

The educational exchanges between China and Mongolia began in 1952. Over the years, the exchanges and cooperation between the two countries in the field of education have developed smoothly. In 1998, China and Mongolia signed the Agreement on the Mutual Recognition of Academic Degrees between the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of Mongolia. In 2000, the two sides signed the Implementation Plan of Training Mongolian Students with China's Free Aid. In 2008, the two sides signed the Agreement on organizing Chinese Volunteers as international Chinese teachers to teach in Mongolia. In 2010, the two sides signed the Memorandum of Agreement on the Mutual Recognition of academic and Degree Certificates between China and Mongolia. In 2017, the two sides signed the 2018-2021 Implementation Plan for Educational Exchange and Cooperation between the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Science and Sports of Mongolia. ^[20]

Consular relations between the two countries have been developing steadily. In 1986, the two governments signed the Sino-Mongolian Consular Treaty in Beijing. The two sides established a consular consultation mechanism in 1990 and have held 22 rounds of consultations so far. In 1990, Mongolia re-established its Consulate General in Hohhot, China. In 1996, the office of the Consulate General of Mongolia in Hohhot in Erenhot was officially opened. In 1997, the two countries signed the Agreement between the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of Mongolia on the Retention of an Honorary Consulate of Mongolia in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China. In 2007, the office of the Consulate General of Mongolia in Hohhot was upgraded to a consulate in Erenhot. In 2011, the Consulate General of Mongolia in Hong Kong opened. In 2014, the Chinese Consulate General in Menwood opened. In 2019, the Consulate General of Mongolia in Shanghai opened. In 2022, the Mongolian Consulate in Manchuria will be opened. At present, the two sides are visa free for holders of diplomatic and service passports.

In 1991, China and Mongolia signed the Agreement between the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Mongolian People's Republic on Border Ports and their Management System. In 2020, the two sides revised the agreement. In 2010, the two sides signed the Treaty on the Management of China-Mongolia Boundary System. In 2014, the two sides established the China-Mongolia Border Port Management Cooperation Committee and signed relevant agreements.

Relations with Russia

The two countries established diplomatic relations on 5 November 1921. January 2008, Russia Republic of Buryatia President Potapov visits Mongolia; In February, Chief of the General Staff of the Mongolian Armed Forces Tao Gao visited Russia. In February, Acting Secretary of the Russian Security Council Alexander Sobolev visited Mongolia. In March, President of Russian Railways Yakunin visited Mongolia. In March, Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Russian Duma Mikhail Kosachev visited Mongolia. In April, Mongolian Prime Minister Bayal visited Russia. In May, Mongolian President Enkhbayar paid a working visit to Russia. In May, Russian Defense Minister Anatoly Serdyukov visited Mongolia. In September, Mongolian Prime Minister Bayal attended the Baikal Economic Forum in Russia. In November, the "Darhan 1" Mongolia-Russia joint military exercise was held in Mongolia. In November, President of Russian Railways Yakunin visited Mongolia.

On March 24, 2022 local time, according to the Embassy of the Russian Federation in Mongolia, the Russian Federation has decided to cancel the temporary restrictions on the entry and exit of people at the land border crossings between the Russian Federation and Mongolia. It is reported that the decision will take effect from 0:00 local time on March 30, 2022 in Moscow. ^[14]

Relations with the United States

The two countries established diplomatic relations on 27 January 1987. In March 2008, Robert Reed, the United States Millennium Challenge Fund's Executive Officer for Mongolia, visited Mongolia. In July, Mongolian President Enkhbayar met with the President of the Asia Fund of the United States. In September, Mongolian President Embayar Enkhbayar met with U.S. UnderSecretary of Commerce Charles Michel. In April 2014, the US Foreign Minister visited Mongolia and expressed the United States' willingness to strengthen relations with Mongolia.

On the afternoon of July 31, 2019, the President of the United States Trump in The White House He met with visiting Mongolian President Haletma Battulga and announced the upgrading of bilateral relations to a strategic partnership. ^[9]

Relations with Europe

In February 2008, the first consultation between the foreign Ministries of Mongolia and Switzerland was held in Switzerland. In March, the ninth Inter-governmental Round Table between Mongolia and Britain was held in Ulaanbaatar. The first political consultation between the Foreign Ministries of Mongolia and Portugal was held in April Lisbon Hold; In May, Mongolian Foreign Minister Oyun visited France. In August, Presidents of Croatia Mesic Visiting Mongolia; In August, House of Lords Chairman of the Mongolia-UK Friendship Group visits Mongolia; In August, Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark visited Mongolia. In August, Monaco Grand Duke Albert visits Mongolia; In September, German President Koehler visited Mongolia. In September, the 6th Mongolia-European Commission meeting was held in Mongolia. In October, Mongolian President Enkhbayar visited Bulgaria. In October, President of the National Chamber of the Federal Assembly of Switzerland Bignon visited Mongolia. In October, Luxembourg Prime Minister Jean Claude visited Mongolia; In November, Norse Crown Prince Haakon visits Mongolia; In November, President of Poland Lech Kaczynski Visit Mongolia.

On July 24, 2017, the European Commission disclosed that the High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Federica Mogherini, decided to establish a delegation to Mongolia in Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia.

On December 5, 2017, the European Union added Mongolia to its blacklist of tax havens. ^[10]

Relations with the UAE

On February 24, 2023 local time, during the 16th ABU Dhabi International Defense Exhibition, the UAE Minister of State for Defense Affairs Mohammed bin Ahmed Bawardi A memorandum of understanding on defense cooperation and exchanges was signed with Mongolian Defense Minister Saihan Bayar. ^[19]

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National Museum of Mongolian History

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The National Museum of Mongolian History is located Ulaanbaatar City Sukhbaatar Square The northwest corner of the city, formerly known as the Museum of Revolution. It is divided into seven exhibition areas, focusing on the introduction of Genghis Khan's unified Mongolia and the establishment of its successors Mongol Empire And then establish Yuan Dynasty And the situation of Mongolia after independence.

Genghis Khan Scenic Area

Genghis Khan Scenic Spot is a prairie style tourist spot with strong ethnic characteristics, 60 kilometers away from Ulaanbaatar. Some are 30 meters high Statue of Genghis Khan on horseback In the museum, there are 9 meters high, made of 225 cowhide Genghis Khan's leather boots, and 4 meters long Genghis Khan's riding crop, showing the "generation of heaven pride" Genghis Khan's "Mongolian war". ^[11]

Lake Kushugur

Lake Kushugur Located in the north of Mongolia, it is the largest lake in Mongolia with a total area of 2760 square kilometers and is known as the "blue pearl of the East".

Erdeni Zhao

Erdeni Zhao Located west of Ulaanbaatar Harahorin It is the first lama temple in Mongolia with an area of 0.16 square kilometers and was built in 1586.

Ruins of Halhorin, capital of the Mongol Empire

Ruins of Halhorin, capital of the Mongol Empire Located 365 kilometers west of Ulaanbaatar, it dates from the 13th century Mongol Empire Ruins of the capital. He became Genghis Khan in 1220 Mongol Empire The capital of the city was destroyed in 1368 Ming Dynasty In the hands of the army. Haller and Lin It is the political, economic and cultural center of Mongolia in its most prosperous period, and it is a prosperous town in history UNESCO The only human in Mongolia Cultural heritage Protect the project.

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