Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769-5 May 1821), also known as Napoleon I, was born The island of Corsica , A famous military strategist and politician ^[57] , has served successively as First French Republic First Reign (1799-1804), First French Empire Emperor (1804-1815).

Napoleon was crowned emperor on December 2, 1804, turning the republic into an empire. During his reign, he was called the "Emperor of the French", which is also the first in history Charles III The second French emperor to hold the title.

At home, he repeatedly suppressed uprisings. Externally, he led the army to defeat the alliance formed by Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia and other countries, expanded abroad many times, launched aggressive wars, and became a Italy The King, Confederation of the Rhine Protector, Swiss confederation Arbiter of French empire Colonial lords (including the colonies of France, Holland, Spain, etc.)

Napoleon was defeated and abdicated in 1814, and was subsequently exiled The island of Elba . He fled back to Paris in 1815 and founded Hundred days . He was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815 ^[59] He was exiled to St. Helena until his death in 1821. The coffin was returned in 1840 The Invalides in Paris . ^[1]

Napoleon presided over it " French civil code It is a monument in the history of world law ^[45] , The civil law system, which was developed by it, is also called Civil law system . ^[44]

The Second French Empire further promoted the process of official Napoleon worship. Compare it to the national heroes of French history, Virsengitorix, Joan of Arc In parallel, he points out that they are both heroes who resisted foreign invasions, and both are defeated because of betrayal, and they symbolize" patriotism , faith and refulgence ". ^[43]

Full name: Napoleon Bonaparte
alias: Napoleon I , Napoleon I , Napoleon
Honorable title: Emperor of France (Emperor of France, emperor of the French), King of Italy ^{[51
]} ^{[60
]} ^[61] ^{[62
]}
Badge number: Golden bee ^{[58
]}
The surname: Bonaparte
age: Kingdom of France, First Republic of France, First Empire of France
Ethnic group: The Corsicans
Place of Birth: Kingdom of France - The island of Corsica - Ajaccio
Date of birth: August 15, 1769 ^{[46
]}
Date of death: May 5, 1821 ^[40]
Place of death: British St. Helena ^[56]
mausoleum: Tomb of Napoleon
Place of burial: The Invalides in Paris ^[56]

succeed

Napoleon II ^{[62
]}

Major achievement

Set up First French Empire
promulgate Napoleonic code "
Build up Napoleonic empire system
Protection French Revolution The achievement of
Five break Europe Coalition against France unfold

Major achievement: Set up First French Empire
promulgate Napoleonic code "
Build up Napoleonic empire system
Protection French Revolution The achievement of
Five break Europe Coalition against France
Won more than 50 major battles

Major work

Selected Napoleonic works

Foreign name

Napoléon Bonaparte ^[57]

Graduate School

Briena Military Academy , Paris Military Academy, France

Have faith in

Catholicism ^{[47
]}

Royal room

The House of Bonaparte

height

168 to 170 cm (Autopsy)

Weigh mark

God of War, unstoppable army

Coronation site

Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris ^{[52
]}

Royal emblem

N ^[56]

catalogue

biography

broadcast

EDITOR

Rise to prominence

Napoleon at the age of 23

On August 15, 1769, Napoleon Bonaparte was born The island of Corsica the Ajaccio Cheng, is a lefty ^[2] His original name was Napoleon Buonabar, and he changed "Buonabar" to "Bonaparte" in 1796. Napoleon initially considered himself a non-French, hoping to one day make Corsica independent from France ^[3] .

He left his hometown on 15 December 1778 France . He entered Orton School on 1 January 1779.

In father Carlo Bonaparte Under the arrangement, Napoleon entered the Brienne military Academy in Chambani, France, in April 1779, at the expense of the King of France ^{[48
]} . Napoleon is quite studious, but as an "outsider" from remote and colonial Corsica, the small Napoleon often suffered other local students bullying, but he is very tough and tenacious, through their unremitting efforts, and eventually won the respect of many local students ^[1] . During this period, Napoleon showed his talent in mathematics, especially geometry ^[3] .

On October 19, 1784, after graduating from Briena with honors, Napoleon was sent to the Paris Military Academy, France, where he specialized in artillery.

On February 24, 1785, when Napoleon was 16 years old, his father died, and Napoleon graduated early from his poor family. In September, Napoleon was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Raphael Artillery Regiment, which was then stationed in Namibia Rhone On Valence. ^{[49
]} During his time with the troops stationed around the country, he indulged in all kinds of books, including about Alexander Works of war history, applied physics, mathematics, architecture, national customs records and so on ^[3] There are many more enlightenment Period thinker works, among which Rousseau His thoughts had a great influence on him. After the French Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon returned to Corsica, hoping to take the opportunity to promote the independence of Corsica, but was strongly opposed by another pro-British faction.

France in 1791 was a turbulent place. At the beginning of the French Revolution, the constitutional monarchies, representing the interests of the bourgeoisie and the liberal aristocracy, came to power, and they established Constitutional monarchy In 1791, King Louis XVI colluded with foreign feudal reactionary forces, and as a result, the conspiracy was exposed and the monarchy was abolished.

In 1792, the Girondins, representing the great industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, came to power, and on September 22, Kingdom of France instead French Republic .

In 1793, Louis XVI was executed, and the British were composed The First Coalition The French Revolution began to face a serious crisis.

In June 1793, the Democrats, led by Robespierre, representing the interests of the French bourgeoisie, Jacobins Taking power, the French Revolution reached its climax. In December, Napoleon, a young major, took the lead in defeating the Royalist forces and the British army Battle of Toulon The victory was appreciated by the Jacobins and he was promoted to brigadier general for the first time in European military history.

In February of 1794, Napoleon Nice He was appointed general of the artillery in the French Italian Front. On 28 July, Robespierre was beheaded in Paris. ^{[50
]} in Thermidorian coup In the Napoleon, due to the Robespierre The brothers were close, were investigated, and then dismissed from the rank of brigadier general for refusing to serve in the infantry of the Army of Italy. On 20 August, Napoleon was restored to the rank of general ^{[50
]} .

In 1795, he accepted the trust of the governor of Paris, Barras, and successfully suppressed the armed rebellion of the royalist forces, which is famous The campaign to crush the Royalists . Napoleon was promoted to brigadier general and commander of the Paris Garrison overnight, and began to make his mark in military politics.

Show the first signs

Napoleon as commander of the Italian Army^[5]

Napoleon was an excellent strategist who had a deep study of the military knowledge of the time and was good at applying various military strategies to actual combat, especially advocating the centralized use of artillery and giving full play to the mobile role of cavalry.

On March 2, 1796, at the age of 26, Napoleon was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Italian Front of the French Republic. March 6th, with the lady Josephine Beauarne Get married ^{[46
]} Then they hurried to the front. In Italy, Napoleon's French army defeated many times Austrian Empire the Wermser Alvenzi, Bollieu, and other generals finally forced the other side to sign an armistice treaty in favor of the French Republic.

After winning great victories in Northern Italy, Napoleon's prestige grew, making him a hero of the French Republic. Feeling threatened by his rise, he was appointed commander of the Arab-Indian Front of the French Republic (Army of the East) and sent to the Middle East to curb the expansion of British power in the region and to try to control it Suez Canal And the sea route to Asia. In Napoleon's expeditionary force, in addition to 2,000 cannons, he also led 175 scholars from all walks of life, and hundreds of boxes of books and research equipment. During the expedition, Napoleon issued a famous command: "Let the donkey and the scholar walk in the middle of the group."

In 1798, Napoleon invaded and occupied Egypt Alexander In the face of brave men Mamluk Napoleon showed extraordinary military talent and excellent military accomplishment. In July, in the shadow of the pyramids of Giza, "Soldiers! Forty centuries watching you from the pyramids! (Napoleon) ", passed Battle of the Pyramids A stunning victory clears the way Cairo It gained a reputation for terror among the Mamluks and Ottomans ^[4] .

Although he commanded the French army to complete victory on land, the French fleet fell in August Battle of Abkir A British admiral Horatio Nelson Destroyed. Ground forces are trapped Egypt . Napoleon marched into Syria and repeatedly repelled the Turkish army, but he was defeated plague , the heat, and difficulties with supplies. It was finally thwarted by the long-unassailable city of Acre. He returned to Egypt on 17 May and rounded up the Turkish army at Abkir. Napoleon continued to regret his failure to capture Acre Castle to his death, saying in his memoirs from St. Helena: "If Acre Castle falls soon, it will change the face of the world."

Napoleon in Egypt

First ruler

Brumaire coup

At the time of Napoleon's expedition, the anti-French coalition in Europe was gradually forming, and the power of the royalist party in the French Republic was gradually increasing. In August 1799, Napoleon decided to return to Paris immediately and secretly. On a dangerous Mediterranean return voyage, Napoleon cleverly evaded the Royal Navy's patrol fleet and landed two months later. October 7, 1799 ^{[46
]} Napoleon, who returned to France, was welcomed as a "savior." On November 9, Napoleon, with the support of the crowd, launched Brumaire coup He succeeded in ending the cycle of terror since the Revolution and became Consul of the First French Republic.

Napoleon then carried out a number of major military and political, educational, judicial, administrative, legislative, economic and other major reforms, one of the most famous, and until two centuries later still far-reaching influence is the promulgation of the" Napoleonic code It was drafted and enacted on Napoleon's orders, and many of its provisions were discussed and eventually promulgated by Napoleon himself.

The law of Germany, Spain, Switzerland The legislation of western capitalist countries had a significant impact. The third week after the coup d 'etat, Napoleon issued a solemn proclamation to the people, proudly declaring: "Citizens, the revolution has returned to the original purpose for which it began, the revolution is over." In addition, Napoleon also established the national education system, which remains to this day, and the Legion of Honor system.

Be crowned emperor

Napoleon, the first ruler^[5]

In June 1800, Napoleon, who served as the first ruler, personally led the invasion Alps He won the famous victory over the Italian and Genoese armies Battle of Marengo A great victory. The Battle of Marengo was the first major battle commanded by Napoleon after he came to power. The victory of this battle became a model, which was of great significance to the consolidation of the fragile bourgeois regime in France and to the strengthening of Napoleon's dominance.

On March 27, 1802, France and Britain signed a treaty in Amiens, France. Treaty of Amiens A temporary truce between Britain and France resulted in the collapse of the second Coalition ^[4] . Napoleonic modification Constitution of the eighth Republic for Napoleonic constitution To rule for life. In May, the Anglo-French contract was broken and Britain declared war on France.

On May 18, 1804, the decree of the Senate was passed confer Napoleon Emperor of France The title of. His former colleague, Cambaseres Lebrun and Lebrun were appointed Lord Chancellor and Grand Treasurer of the Empire, respectively. Napoleon's brother Joseph was given the title of elector. Louis was made Grand master; Two other important posts, Chief Secretary of State and Marshal of the Navy, were reserved for Napoleon's sons Eugene Beauarne And my brother-in-law Murat. The above six eminent men of the new Empire will be answerable to no one and cannot be removed; Together with the emperor, they formed the imperial Council. The emperor's mother was honored as "Empress Dowager"; His sisters are called princesses, each with his own maidservant concubines Multiple. ^{[51
]}

On November 6, 1804, a referendum approved the Constitution of the Twelfth Year of the Republic, declaring Napoleon Bonaparte as Emperor of France . ^{[60
]}

December 2, 1804, Napoleon crown emperor ^{[46
]} From the Pope Pius VII He took the crown in his hand and personally wore it on the head of himself and his wife Josephine, meaning "the throne he fought for" and has since become "the emperor of the French. ^[1] ". In the same year, Napoleon appointed Kevin as a deputy minister in the cabinet, in charge of military and political affairs in Paris.

On May 26, 1805, Napoleon returned to Italy Pope Crown as Kings of Italy ^[61] merger Genoa And let his stepson Eugene de Beauarne Vice King of Italy, in charge of Italy.

Napoleon's coronation

Naval Battle of England and France

Statue of Emperor Napoleon I

Beginning in 1803, Napoleon began to conceive of crossing through the French Navy English Channel In order to land in England. He took great pains to plan the invasion of Britain, appointed a number of "experienced" naval commanders, and assembled a group of French, Spain , Netherlands Formed a huge fleet. However, Napoleon himself was not proficient in naval warfare, and appointed the wrong commander, coupled with the stubborn resistance of the British Royal Navy, eventually led to the failure of the plan.

October 1805 ^{[46
]} , Battle of Trafalgar Commander of the British Royal Navy Nelson Dead, but the commander of the French army Villeneuve Captured, the huge Franco-Spanish fleet was destroyed. Since then, France has lost the chance to compete with Britain for supremacy in the sea. Because the British, in order to understand the encirclement at sea, began to stir up Austria With Russia and other continental European countries The Third Coalition Napoleon had to abandon his plan to invade Britain.

British military theorists Fuller In... Military history of the western world "In all respects, the Battle of Trafalgar is a memorable battle that has had a broad impact on history. It shattered Napoleon's dream of conquering England. A hundred years of Anglo-French naval rivalry was over. It made Britain a maritime empire that lasted more than a century." ^[6] It established British naval supremacy for the next 100 years and gave a shot in the arm to the monarchs of Prussia, Russia, and Austria, who had been terrorized by Napoleon. As the British historian Wilson put it in his Recent Cambridge History, "The Battle of Trafalgar was a decisive battle in the Napoleonic Wars from 1799 to 1813." ^[7]

Peak of life

Napoleon inspects the army

In August 1805, Austria, Britain, and Russia formed the Third Coalition against France. At the end of August, Russian generals Kutuzov Allied forces with Austria advance towards Ulm in Bavaria. Napoleon left Paris on 24 September and personally marched east, which the French captured on 12 October Munich . On 17 October, the French First Empire and the Austrian Empire took control after a fierce battle at Ulm The Battle of Ulm Victory. Coalition surrender.

Subsequently, on December 2, 1805, the First French Empire and Napoleon's coronation anniversary, with 70,000 weak troops defeated the Russian and Austrian allied forces of 90,000 superior forces, captured Battle of Austerlitz The great victory of the war, greatly weakened Austria and Russia, and reversed Prussia's attitude toward France. Because the Emperor of France, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the Emperor of the Russian Empire are personally involved in the battle, so the war is also called" Battle of the Three Kings ". The battle was the pinnacle of Napoleon's life and led to the collapse of the coalition. Napoleon abolished the Austrian Empire Holy Roman Empire The title of the long history of the Shenra Empire ended. Napoleon then united the vassal states in Germany to form" Confederation of the Rhine "And took it under his own protection.

Napoleon enters Berlin

In the autumn of 1806, the United Kingdom, the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were formed The Fourth Coalition . On October 14, 1806, Napoleon led an army against Prussia. in Battle of Jena He assembled a force of 90,000 men to attack the Prussians, but did not encounter the main Prussian army. At Auerstedt, the French army of Marshal Davout's 20,000 inferior forces were met by a main force of 50,000 men commanded by the King of Prussia himself, and Davout managed to command these 20,000 men to defeat the Prussian army, and the Prussian army was almost completely destroyed Frederick William III And Queen Louise fled in a panic ^[8] . Napoleon captured most of Germany and captured the capital Berlin . In June 1807, the French army again fought in Poland at the Battle of Eylau and Battle of Friedland The defeat of the Russian army, Napoleon and the Russian Tsar Alexander I They met and a peace treaty was signed.

Emperor Napoleon I of France was King of Italy, protector of the Rhine Confederation, and arbiter of the Swiss Confederation, In 1806, he conferred on his eldest brother Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples, fourth brother Louis Bonaparte King of the Netherlands; He was given the title of brother in 1807 Jerome Bonaparte for Westphalia The king. ^{[46
]} Since then, the supremacy of the First French Empire on the European continent has been established.

Napoleon

In 1808, King of Spain Carlos IV Faced with military and civilian opposition, he was forced to abdicate in favor of his son on March 19 of the same year Ferdinand VII . In March 1808, in the name of protecting Spanish territory and resolving royal conflicts, French troops entered Spain and occupied the capital Madrid . When Napoleon forced Ferdinand VII to abdicate and made his elder brother Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain from Naples, massive riots broke out in Spain. France invested a large number of troops in Spain, but was strongly resisted by the Spanish army and people, coupled with dispersed forces, continuous guerrilla warfare and harassment made the French army miserable, Napoleon had to move Spain to suppress the Madrid uprising. The British intervened in the Spanish dispute in 1808, landing at Mondego Bay on 8 August and occupying the entire area on 30 August Portugal . Then the Duke of Wellington, with the support of local nationalists, gradually drove the French out The Iberian Peninsula . The French were caught in a two-front war, fighting on the Iberian Peninsula in the west and the Coalition in the east.

While the French were bogged down in the Spanish quagmire, early 1809 The Fifth Coalition Make up. With the Austrian Empire attacking French territory in the Rhine from behind, Napoleon was forced to withdraw from Spain and lead an army to the East. The French defeated the Austrians in five battles between 19 and 23 April, and captured Vienna on 13 May The Grand Duke of Carl His armies met at the Battle of Aspen and Essling, and the French were defeated Lana The marshal was killed in the battle, and the French were forced to retreat to the island of Loba with more than 30,000 casualties and 20,000 Austrian casualties.

On July 5th and 6th Battle of Wagram Napoleon successfully turned the tide and led the French army to win a decisive victory again. Capture the Austrian capital Vienna And forced Austria to sign the Peace Treaty of Vienna, again ceding land.

In January 1810, Napoleon and Josephine Beauarne A divorce. ^{[46
]}

March 11, 1810, 18-year-old Austrian Archduchess Mary Louisa marry Napoleon I It was a political marriage that took place at the Louvre on April 1, 1810. ^[55] The Franco-Austrian alliance brought the first French Empire to its peak. Napoleon became the hegemon of Europe, became the second Julius Caesar , Alexander the Great The famous Napoleon the Great.

Battle of Austerlitz

Attack Russia by mistake

Napoleon on the battlefield of Borodino

Napoleon thought all the time of the whole of Europe, the European continent only Russia is not controlled by him, and Napoleon knew that only by putting Russia under his feet can he conquer England. In May 1812, Napoleon led an expedition into Russia with 570,000 troops speaking 12 languages. Napoleon got it one after another Battle of Smolensk His victories at the Battle of Valutino and the Battle of Vitesk crushed the Russian forces that had stopped him.

On September 7, 1812, Napoleon led the French army to a very difficult and massive victory Battle of Borodino The tactical victory of the Russian army, but heavy losses on both sides, excellent commander Bagration The prince and artillery commander Kulesov was killed. On 16 September, Napoleon entered Moscow . But strategically, the commander of the Russian army Kutuzov Barclay and others pressed for the surrender of the capital, with Tsar Alexander I withdrawing with the remaining senior Russian generals and most of the population, and gradually moving deeper into the Russian heartland, to be taken Make the walls strong and clear the fields Tactics to save the remaining Russian forces.

Napoleon expected Alexander I to compromise, but he was greeted by a fire in Moscow ^[8] . Meanwhile, the Russian winter proved to be Napoleon's greatest obstacle ^[2] Due to the lack of supplies and the delay of the French army and the scattering of troops, the Russian army welcomed a major turning point, Kutuzov waited and took the opportunity to constantly harried the French army, and in the disaster of several weeks, the French army that was superior was either killed in battle or froze to death, and finally returned to France only less than 30,000 people. ^[5]

The French withdrew from Russia

Hard fight the Rhine

After Napoleon's defeat on the Russian battlefield, Alexander I decided to completely defeat France and dominate Europe. However, when the Russian army was chasing the remnants of the French army, it was also a great blow to the French army, so Alexander I decided to form an anti-French alliance once again.

To thwart the coalition, Napoleon wants the Crown Prince of Sweden Bernadotte Joined the French side, but was rejected. He also made his wife Queen Louise, Princess of Austria, regent of the Empire to keep Austria at bay. However, in 1813, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Sweden formed the Sixth Coalition against France, and the two sides fought several fierce battles in the Rhineland.

French cuirass cavalry

Napoleon quickly regrouped and won one after another The Battle of Lutzen , Battle of Bautzen After a brief armistice, the Allied forces outnumbered Napoleon's French forces as Austria joined the coalition. In August, Napoleon was in Kingdom of Saxony The capital of... Dresden You have gained Battle of Dresden They won, but were unable to extend their gains due to a lack of cavalry.

in Battle of Leipzig In the middle, the French army concentrated 155,000 men, and the allied army was twice as strong as the French army. Although the cavalry of the French Marshal Murat at first beat the emperor of Russia and Austria and fled, the allied army surrounded the three countries in six ways Leipzig The Saxony army defected, and by this time the French artillery had run out, and Napoleon was forced to retreat. On the way back, the French army suffered heavy blows from the Allied forces, and only 56,000 men were lost. The Rhine Union soon disintegrated and the Allied forces marched into France. ^[1]

In 1814, the Anti-French Coalition again offered an armistice, that is, the territory of France to be restored to the state of 1790, Napoleon as an insult, refused to accept, he reorganized the army to fight again, but the French army was only 100,000 men, while the allied army was 350,000.

Napoleon signed the abdication edict in 1814

At the town of Brenner (Briena), Napoleon commanded a crushing defeat of the Prussian army, restoring morale that had been low since the Battle of Leipzig. At the La Rotier River, the French army engaged the allied forces again, and although they were defeated, the French army showed great courage. Napoleon commanded the French army to defeat the anti-French coalition forces one after another at Chambeaubert, Montmirais, Chartotier and Vauchamp. His military talent and tactical talent were fully displayed, but he mistakenly divided the attacking forces into two ways strategically. Leaving the Allied route to Paris unimpeded.

On March 31, 1814, Paris was captured and the Allies demanded the unconditional surrender of France and the abdication of Napoleon. Napoleon wanted to make his son the king of Rome Napoleon II He succeeded to the throne, but was rejected by the Coalition. On 11 April, Napoleon announced his unconditional surrender, and on 13 April in Paris Fontainebleau Palace The edict of abdication was signed, and the first French Empire was over. Napoleon himself was exiled to an island in the Mediterranean after his abdication The island of Elba . Napoleon retained the title of "Emperor," but his territory was limited to the island of Elba. ^[9]

Able was I ere I saw Elba. Able was I ere I saw Elba

The French soldiers warmly welcomed Napoleon back

Napoleon was almost assassinated on his way to Elba. And in Paris, Louis XVIII To return to France, to become king of France again, House of Bourbon The restoration. With his wife and son under house arrest by the Austrians and rumors that Napoleon would be exiled to an island in the Atlantic Ocean, Napoleon had no choice but to keep a close eye on the situation in France.

He escaped from Elba on February 26, 1815 ^{[46
]} Napoleon returned to France with 700 soldiers on March 1.

The French army, sent by Louis XVIII to stop him, soon returned to Napoleon's side. The return of Napoleon was warmly welcomed by the army and the people ^[1] . The king repeatedly sent troops to stop him, but most of the army turned back when they saw him. Cambaseres , Davout , Ma Lei, Nei , Sirte When the Minister of culture and war returned to his side. When Napoleon returned to Paris on March 20, 1815, he had a regular army of 140,000 men and 200,000 volunteers, and Louis XVIII fled in panic." Hundred days "Begin. ^[5]

Hundred days

The states of Europe were quickly formed The Seventh Coalition They had a total army of 700,000 men, while France had only 284,000. Napoleon analyzed the situation and believed that the Russian and Austrian allied forces only needed to contain a small number of troops, and the focus of the attack was on the Anglo-Prussian allied forces in Belgium. He marched north to Belgium and decided to take it Brussels . ^[9]

On June 16, 1815, Napoleon made a surprise attack Battle of Linne Defeated the Prussians and was wounded Blucher However, due to various factors, the remaining Prussian army fled, and the battle of Linny became a defeat battle, and he had to send Grouchy The marshal led the army in pursuit of the Prussians.

On June 18, 1815, Battle of Waterloo Here we go. The British army was commanded by the Duke of Wellington. 72,000 French and 68,000 British troops fought near the town of Waterloo in a battle that would change the 19th century.

Napoleon bade farewell to his guards before his exile

The main direction of the French attack was the hill of Mont St. John, which was never captured because most of the French generals capable of commanding the army did not take part in the battle, resulting in a number of incompetent commanders in the French army, including Napoleon's brother Jerome. In the midst of a long war, Nei The Marshal and his cavalry began to charge the hill of Mont-Saint-Jean in a charge comparable to that of the Moscow Battery and the battle of Leipzig. Although the cavalry charge was not tactical, it was so decisive that the French cavalry nearly broke through the phalanx and captured a large number of batteries. The British suffered heavy casualties and La Hay-Saint-fell. The British managed to hold off the French onslaught. Napoleon's victory was in sight, but at noon he saw the Prussian army coming to the rescue of the French marshal Grouchy Late arrival.

Both the English and the French had suffered heavy casualties, but the French had gained the upper hand, but at 7 p.m., the Prussians, led by Deputy Commander Bulow, suddenly broke out, and the British reserves on standby launched a general attack. Although Napoleon and Ney tried to turn the tide, but no avail, the last French phalanx has been destroyed, Waterloo is full of deserters, Napoleon had to go with the army, the Waterloo defeat, the Hundred Days dynasty completely collapsed.

After Napoleon's defeat, the French people and his ministers urged him to rule the country and overthrow the parliament that had forced him to abdicate, but Napoleon knew that the bourgeoisie had abandoned him. Therefore, he refused to launch a people's War of resistance.

On June 23, 1815, Napoleon announced his abdication ^{[46
]} Off the coast of France The Bellerophon The captain of the ship surrendered. The English treated him badly and decided to exile him to St. Helena without giving him the title of emperor.

Battle of Waterloo

Island elegy

In October 1815, Napoleon was exiled to the Atlantic island of St. Helena, and he chose Bertrand, Montolon The three counts of Lasgarth and General Gurgo accompanied him.

Post Waterloo

On October 17, 1815, Napoleon arrived St. Helena ^{[46
]} The island of St. Helena faces the African continent across the sea. After Napoleon landed, he temporarily settled in the home of the English merchant Balcombe, and later he had a Longwood estate, where he lived, and he began to work on his memoirs, which he dictated, and the Count of Lasgarth recorded and collated.

About Napoleon" Chess hidden map escape The story is a legend that actually originated from an elaborate chess set given to him by the English officer Elphinstone as a thank you to Napoleon for treating his captured brother well at the Battle of Waterloo ^[10] . Later versions of the story were told that St. Helena was far from land, more closely watched by the British, that Napoleon's old men were dead or attached to Bourbon, and that he had no desire to fight in Europe.

Napoleon's coffin at Les Invalides in Paris

Napoleon died on the island on May 5, 1821. On May 8, the conqueror was buried in a gun salute near the Torbet Spring on the island of St. Helena.

The cause of Napoleon's death has been widely debated. An autopsy by doctors in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland found that he died of a severe stomach ulcer. There are also studies that have found that Napoleon's body arsenic Levels 100 times higher than the limit, and historians from the aristocracy's favorite wallpaper, found arsenic in the mineral, presumably because the environment is wet and let arsenic leach out of the environment;

It is even said that the Count of Montoron, because he was bribed by the British and was eager to inherit part of the inheritance left to him by Napoleon, put arsenic in Napoleon's wine for a long time, resulting in Napoleon's chronic poisoning. ^[11]

Nine years after his death (1830), Dynasty of Orleans Under the pressure of the people, the statue of Napoleon was re-erected The Vendome cylinder On top. 1840, France July dynasty The King of Louis Philippe Sent his son to retrieve Napoleon's coffin. On December 15 of the same year, Napoleon's coffin was welcomed back to Paris, France Arc de Triomphe After that, he was buried in Paris at the Seine River Retirement Hospital for the elderly and disabled (Paris Honorary Military Hospital). ^[5]

An island lament on the island of St. Helena

Administrative measures

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EDITOR

political

Napoleon

He launched a coup d 'etat, seized power, realized a centralized monarchy, developed capitalism and protected the bourgeoisie.

Napoleon was a well-deserved bourgeois revolutionary. He repeatedly repelled the invasion of the anti-French coalition and suppressed the rebellions of reactionary forces at home and abroad, protected the achievements of the French Revolution, and overthrew the old autocratic regime. ^[12]

Napoleon defended the achievements of the revolutionary period of the French Republic and protected the vested interests of the bourgeois revolution in the French Republic. When the French monarchy was finally restored in 1815, it was opposed by the people. The measures promulgated by Napoleon had a profound impact not only in France, but also in the countries he conquered. Napoleon spread the fruits of the victory of the French bourgeois revolution to different degrees wherever the French army went through wars. The social influence caused by the French bourgeois revolution has become an irresistible force in the developing countries of Western capitalism. Napoleon made important contributions in laying the political system of the bourgeoisie and promoting the development of capitalism. Napoleon's ambition for hegemony is the concentrated embodiment of the nature of the big bourgeoisie in France, and his domestic and foreign policies represent the interests of the bourgeoisie and protect the development of the capitalist economic foundation.

Napoleon also had a huge indirect impact on Latin American history. His invasion of Spain weakened the local government, leaving it unable to control its colonies in Latin America for years to come. Based on the current period of de facto self-government, the independence movement in Latin America began. ^[5] ^[12]

In addition, Napoleon was the first to propose the idea of a United States of Europe and to try to achieve it by force. Although he did not succeed in achieving this dream, the Europe of the twenty-first century is moving towards integration. ^[13]

economy

1. Economic liberalism and state intervention

Liberal policies in agriculture and trade (towards state intervention in the later imperial period) ^[14] The government can take a series of measures as needed. A series of economic associations were established to guide and supervise economic activities. In 1801 the "National Economic Promotion Association" was established, in 1803 the Manufacturers' Association was established, in 1810 the "Factory Workshop Management Committee" was established, and in 1811 the Ministry of Industry and Commerce was established. Restore industrial exhibitions, encourage the development of animal husbandry, and raise horses, cattle and other livestock ^[15] Encourage the cultivation of potatoes, sugar beets and cotton ^[16] .

Napoleon's signature

The economy became an accessory to politics, and all economic activities were subordinate to political needs.

2. Set up banks and rectify the fiscal system

In 1800, a fiscal reform was carried out, raising taxes on land and real estate. It was founded in 1800 Banque de France Unified currency ^[17] Encourage the development of capitalist industry and commerce. This series of measures is conducive to military and political stability and the development of capitalism.

3. Tariff protection and the policy of "continental economic blockade" ^[18]

Napoleon's policy of "continental economic blockade" was detrimental to the later development of the European continent, but the continental economic blockade protected the early development of capitalism when it was taking root in Western countries. Napoleon was the representative of the French big bourgeoisie, and he protected the dominant position of the French big bourgeoisie with the policy of "continental economic blockade".

4. The rise of the Industrial Revolution and the policy of incentives and support

At the beginning of the 19th century, France kicked off the Industrial Revolution. Napoleon was always supportive of the Industrial Revolution. At that time, the cotton textile industry in France once rose and bought a large number of British Machine Jenny Quadruple the yield ^[19] .

law

The cover of the Napoleonic Code

Promulgated in 1804 Napoleonic code The Commercial Code was promulgated in 1807, and the Criminal Code was promulgated in 1810. These codified codes became the legal norms of modern capitalist legal society.

The Napoleonic Code, formerly known as the Civil Code of the French Republic, is a typical bourgeois civil code, divided into 3 chapters, 35 chapters, 2,281 articles, the code was introduced in 1804, most of the articles Napoleon personally participated in the discussion, it is said that in the more than 100 meetings held on the formulation of the civil code, Napoleon personally attended more than 90 times. "Napoleon Code" is no longer simply a legal work, but represents a distinct era and political color, because of Napoleon's outstanding contributions, "French Civil Code" is also called "Napoleon Code".

The Napoleonic Code includes criminal law, criminal procedure law, civil law, civil procedure law, Constitution and commercial law, establishing a relatively complete legal system and constituting the six legal systems of France in the Napoleonic era and even for a long time to come. The enactment of these codified codes greatly promoted the legal norms of the French legal society at that time and even in the future for a long time. The Napoleonic Code also includes property rights, creditor's rights, marriage, inheritance, and many civil law concepts that are still in use today, and is the first civil law that completely inherits the basic principles and essence of the time to modern society.

The first page of the original 1804 Civil Code

The Napoleonic Code legally guaranteed the newly established small peasant land ownership. It ensured the sanctity of private property ownership, established the order of commodity trading and value under the conditions of market economy, further spread the fruits of the victory of the French bourgeois revolution, and safeguarded the basic human rights of ordinary French people. It conceptualized and concretized basic human rights such as property rights and reputation rights in the Declaration of Human Rights, and because of this, many people believe that the Napoleonic Code is an important symbol and product of the end of the French Revolution.

The Napoleonic Code was enforced in the lands occupied by Napoleon's armies, so it has spread widely in history. Almost all the laws of European capitalist countries have used this code for reference. It regulates the social order of western capitalist countries, represents the interests of the bourgeoisie, and embodies the principles and essence of the French Revolution.

When Napoleon was defeated and exiled to St. Helena, he said," My true glory is not that I have won more than forty battles (it was more than fifty), and Waterloo has erased all memory of it. But there is one thing that will not be forgotten, it will be immortal - this is my book. French civil code ". "

Science and education

During the First French Empire, the national education system, which remains to this day, was developed, public secondary schools and French universities were established to train talents and encourage the rise of scientific research and technical education.

In December 1797, Napoleon, returning from Italy, was awarded the title of Academician of the Institut Francaise. Napoleon's expedition to Egypt also established the Egyptian Academy of Sciences, appointed Monge He was the president of the Academy, and from time to time he held the position of vice president, and often convened the members of the Academy to discuss problems. The expedition began the scientific study of Egypt's ancient civilization, and many valuable artifacts, minerals, plants and animals were transported to France, where the famous Rosetta stone was discovered.

Napoleon was deeply concerned with science and culture. After taking power, he regularly attended the academy's meetings, invited academicians to report on scientific progress, and awarded many awards to scientists, including volt David and other foreign scientists. In the early days of his rule, he divided the Paris Polytechnic, artillery, road and bridge and other higher technical schools (called "big schools") into basic and applied two. Ecole Polytechnique de Paris was originally born during the republican system, after Napoleon was crowned emperor, in the military parade on the second day, a banner embroidered with the words "for the motherland, science and honor" was personally awarded to the students of the Ecole Polytechnique who participated in the review, thus winning their loyalty. Every time Napoleon went to war, he was accompanied by graduates of the engineering school. Among the graduates of the First French Empire, 16 later became members of the French Academy of Sciences.

Napoleon's attention to scientific and cultural undertakings promoted the prosperity of French science, and it can be said that the Napoleonic era was one of the richest eras of scientific achievements in French history Laplace , Lagrange , Monge , Sadie Kano , Fourier , Guy Lussac , Lamarche , Cuvier Waiting for a host of bright science stars.

Napoleon reorganized the Institute to make it the official representative of French culture and to serve the national interest. Following the blueprint drawn by Enlightenment thinkers, the French Academy since the Revolution has been part of the national education system, and Napoleon laid the foundation for the centralized management of the national education system that continues to this day. Among them, universities are established to supervise the entire education system, and the central government has absolute control. The Head of State directly appoints the Governor, who has a university district under his administration and supervises the universities and primary and secondary schools of the municipalities. Teachers become part of the state bureaucracy, thus realizing the state's monopoly on education.

In 1808, Napoleon's edict restored the Ecole Normale Superieure as a model school for the training of teachers of state secondary schools, and vocational and specialized schools for the training of well-trained officers for the army and government. A centralized science and education system can promote the prosperity of science to a certain extent, but scientific achievements can only be fully applied by the whole society in order to truly realize the power of the country. ^[20]

Major achievement

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Military achievement

Five Allies against the French

Napoleon had great command skills, starting with Battle of Toulon During the 23 years of the Battle of Waterloo, he personally commanded nearly 60 major battles, of which more than 50 were won ^[4] There are countless small battles. He repeatedly repelled the invasion of the anti-French coalition and suppressed the rebellion of the reactionary forces at home and abroad, and carried out seven battles Coalition against France The war is of great significance in military history. His continuous foreign expansion broke the balance of power in European countries, severely countered the feudal system in European countries, defended the achievements of the French Revolution, and safeguarded the interests of the bourgeoisie. ^[21]

The Napoleonic Empire at its height

However, not all the wars launched by Napoleon were just, and the nature of the wars changed from self-defense to aggression and expansion. The cut-off point is roughly 1810:

(1) In the early stage: the war before this was mainly justice, he repeatedly repelled the invasion of the anti-French coalition and suppressed the rebellion of reactionary forces at home and abroad; The First French Empire established by him defended the achievements of the French Revolution, severely countered the feudal system of European countries, and laid the social order of western capitalist countries. Objectively, it was conducive to the collapse of the feudal system of European countries and the revolutionary movement and the war of liberation of the local people (a just self-defense counterattack war to defend the achievements of the French Revolution).

Second period: After this is a war of aggression and expansion, Napoleon has invaded Spain, the continental economic blockade of Britain, and marched into Moscow, Russia. Armed forces violated the sovereignty and independence of many European countries, plundered the property of many European countries, aroused the resistance of the local people, and led to the defeat of the war. ^[13]

The seven Coalitions and the famous battles commanded by Napoleon
Seven coalitions	time	Member state	Famous battle commanded by Napoleon	result
The First Coalition	1793-1797	Eng, Ao, Ho, Pu, Si, Sa, Na	Battle of Toulon (French victory), suppression of the Royalists (victory), Battle of Lodi (Fa Sheng), Battle of Mandovi (Fa Sheng), Battle of Ronatu (Fa Sheng), Battle of Bassano (Fa Sheng), Battle of Arcola (Fa Sheng), Battle of Rivoli (Fa Sheng), The Battle of Mantua (Fa Sheng)	The first coalition collapsed.
The Second Coalition	1798-1801	Russian and Austrian	Battle of Alexandria (French victory), Battle of the Pyramids (Fa Sheng), Battle of Arish (Fa Sheng), Battle of Acre City (Fa Sheng) Dharma defeat ), the Battle of Tabur Hill (Fa Sheng), Battle of Marengo (Fa Sheng)	Franco-austrian signed the" The Peace of Luneville France and Britain signed the" Treaty of Amiens The Second Coalition collapsed.
The Third Coalition	The year 1805	UK, Russia, Austria, Pu, Denmark, Switzerland, Turkey	The Battle of Ulm (Fa Sheng), Battle of Austerlitz (Fa Sheng)	France, Russia and Austria signed the treaty Pressburg and John ", Holy Roman Empire It's over. The Third coalition has collapsed.
The Fourth Coalition	The year 1806	English, Russian, Rui, Pu	Battle of Jena (Fa Sheng), Battle of Eylau (fruitless), Battle of Heilsberg (French victory), Battle of Friedland (Fa Sheng)	Franco-russian treaty The Peace of Tilsit The Three countries allied, and the Fourth Coalition collapsed.
The Fifth Coalition	The year 1809	English and Austrian	Battle of Ebensburg (French victory), Battle of Landshut (French victory), Battle of Aspinn-Asselyn ( Dharma defeat ), Battle of Wagram (Fa Sheng)	With the signing of the Vienna Peace Treaty, Vienna was occupied and the Fifth Coalition collapsed.
Russo-french war	The year 1812	Russia	Battle of Vitesk (French victory), Battle of Smolensk (Fasson), Battle of Valutino (Fasson), Battle of Borodino (Tactical victory), Krasnere - Battle of the Berezina River (Successful breakout)	Napoleon's army withdraws from the Russian Empire
The Sixth Coalition	1813	Russian, Prussial, British, Swedish and Austrian	Battle of Lutzen (French victory), Battle of Bautzen (French victory), Battle of Dresden (Fa Sheng), Battle of Leipzig ( Dharma defeat ), Battle of Hanau (Fasson), Battle of Briena (Fasson), Battle of La Rotier (Fasson) Dharma defeat ), the Battle of Chambaube (Fahsen), the Battle of Vauchan (Fahsen), the Battle of Laon (Fahsen) Dharma defeat ), Battle of Reims (French victory), Battle of Montmiray (French victory), Battle of Montero (French victory), Battle of Arcy (French victory) Dharma defeat )	Signed a treaty with the Coalition Treaty of Fontainebleau After the dissolution of the Rhine Federation, Napoleon abdicated for the first time and was imprisoned on Elba ^[1]
The Seventh Coalition	The year 1815	English, Russian, Austrian, Pu	Battle of Linne (Fa Sheng), Battle of Waterloo ( Dharma defeat )	Napoleon abdicated for a second time and was eventually exiled to St. Helena

Military thought

I. Operational principles and ideas

1. Concentrate superior forces and attack each other

Napoleon in 1806

The concentration of superior forces and the crushing of the enemy, which had been used by the French Revolutionary Army without being noticed, was used and developed by Napoleon into a classic rule: the secret of the military art is to outnumber the enemy where necessary and when necessary.

When Marx talked about Napoleon's two principles of warfare, he pointed out: "First. "Do only that which is within your power, and only that which is most certain of victory," and secondly, "use the main force only for the main purpose of the war - the destruction of the enemy." Napoleon himself said, "There are many good generals in Europe who wish to see many things at once, but I look at only one thing: the enemy's men and try to destroy them." ^[22]

毛泽东在谈论历史上强大之军打败仗，弱小之军打胜仗时，也以拿破仑多数战役，都是以少击众，以劣势对优势而获胜为例，指出“都是先以自己局部的优势和主动，向敌人局部的劣势和被动，一战而胜，再及其余，各个击破，全局因而转成了优势，转成了主动”。 ^[23]

Since Napoleon had set the main objective of the war as the destruction of the enemy's effective forces, in November 1805, he was furious with his brother-in-law Murat, who disregarded his command, was obsessed with occupying Vienna, which had been abandoned by the Austrian side, and did not immediately pursue the enemy, and lashed out at Murat, saying: "You have wasted two days of my time in order to gain the vanity of entering Vienna first." Honor is only won where there is danger. What honor is there in entering a defenceless capital?" ^[24]

2. Focus on the combination of attack and defense

Napoleon always focused on promoting the coordinated development of infantry, artillery and cavalry to adapt to the characteristics and new methods of fighting at the time.

His outstanding command ability was also shown in 1814 and 1815, when in the situation of defense, he still dared to carry out offensive battles, and won the victory, which was praised by Engels.

Although the former ended with Napoleon's exile to Elba, and the latter with the defeat of Waterloo and the fall of Paris, the unfavourable outcome of both campaigns in no way detracted from the merits of their general intentions or the significance of their partial actions." He once pointed out that "the whole art of war is to first make a reasonable and thorough defense, and then to make a quick and bold attack." He also paid attention to the unity of offense and defense as an organic link, he said: "defensive war does not exclude attack, and offensive war does not exclude defense." "Shifting from the defensive to the offensive is one of the most delicate operations." ^[22]

Second, the idea of army building

1. Improve the command system

The first command in the world dedicated to operational command was the Staff Department established during the Napoleonic period.

Before the 19th century, the military command structure included not only combat command, but also logistics and political work, which was a three-in-one form. After the world entered the 19th century, the rapid development of science and technology greatly promoted the development of military industry. In the army, new guns replaced old firearms, iron ships replaced wooden ships, automobiles and trains replaced horse-drawn carriages, and so on. Great changes have taken place in the size of the armed forces, many new features have emerged in the war, and the operational command has become increasingly complex. The original three-in-one simple organization can no longer meet the needs of war, and the command system must be changed. ^[25]

Napoleon fought dozens of battles in his life, and by the end of his life he felt unable to command his army. In 1807 he appointed Bertiere, who had been chief of staff on the Italian side, as his chief of staff. Berthier is an expert on staff work and has written the Alpine General Staff Operational Programme. After some intensive research, Bertier proposed to Napoleon the idea of establishing a consultation office, which was supported by Napoleon.

In 1812, the world's first special staff to assist the commander in carrying out combat command came into being, and the combat command better adapted to the needs of the war at that time. The Staff Department is headed by a chief of staff and consists of four sections. The first section is responsible for the organization and strength of the army, the organization of troop movements and reviews, the collection and enactment of military laws, and the handling of prisoners of war and deserters. Section II is responsible for troop equipment. The third section is subjective reconnaissance, the preparation of battle plans, the organization of communications and internal services. With the implementation of the military command, the command system has gradually improved. ^[26]

2. Reform the conscription system

The military reform in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries was essentially the transformation of the armed forces from private to national, and the army was essentially just the private soldiers of the monarch or Lord, which began with the introduction of the "conscription system". The real revolutionary change came from the French Revolution, when the royal family was overthrown and there was no longer the name "King's army", and under the siege of the anti-French Alliance, the nature of the war was transformed into a "people's war" for "defending the motherland", not for the glory of knights, nor for money, and as citizens of the country, they had the duty to serve in the army. Completely forced by the situation, under the spirit of "patriotism" inspired spontaneous behavior.

Through the French Revolution, the idea of the so-called "National State" came to dominate, with the army of the state, the "people's army." In short, from the French Revolution to the Napoleonic era, the army gradually completed its evolution into a bourgeois army: In terms of the military service system, the mercenary system was mainly changed to the compulsory military service system, which basically realized the bourgeois principle of equality before military service. Napoleon I reformed the army established by the French Revolution, implemented the universal compulsory military service system, established divisions and armies composed of infantry, cavalry and artillery, and formed a strong reserve force. ^[27]

3. Attach importance to the selection and use of outstanding military personnel

In the practice of war, Napoleon always put the problem of army construction in an important position, and strive to establish a powerful bourgeois army capable of fighting well.

"He who wishes to rule his soldiers must first choose his generals." Napoleon famously said," A lion army led by reindeer can no longer be a lion army ". Therefore, the selection of general commanders is regarded as an important condition for the establishment of a powerful army. On the question of how to select the general commander: he dared to use new people and create opportunities for young officers. Most of the 18 marshals he created in 1805 were under the age of 40, and about seven were under the age of 37 Davout Only 34 years old. At the same time, it completely broke the traditional concept of paying attention to the aristocratic origin of the family, focusing on talent. This is Napoleon's selection criteria: pay attention to young and promising; Strive to be eclectic and emphasize quality. ^[24]

" A soldier who does not want to be a marshal is not a good soldier ". He once said," Each soldier carried a marshal's baton in his knapsack ". He advocated that all men should be generals and marshals. From the beginning of the Italian War in 1796, Napoleon deeply realized that the victory of the war is mainly determined by mental strength, not numbers. "It is not the number of troops that gives the army strength, but loyalty and pride that give the army fighting spirit." Try first to stimulate the sense of honor among officers and men. He believed that courage could not be bought with money, and that every effort should be made to encourage officers and soldiers to sacrifice their lives for reasons that were not usually understood. Second, not hesitate to reward with a large sum of money. Although Napoleon said that money can not buy courage, but in order to stimulate morale, or spend a lot of plundered gold and silver property as a material reward. ^[24]

" Both hands must be hard ". Napoleon placed education and training in an important position in the establishment of an army, and believed that good education and training was an important condition for the establishment of a good army, and untrained troops would only cause trouble. In political education, the army is required to have patriotic feelings and a sense of national honor, and it is strictly forbidden to defect to treason and surrender the defense area to outsiders. Those who surrender are deemed to be rebellious and sentenced to death. And advocated the use of honor rather than whip management. A sense of honor was encouraged by the creation of an "Honorary Officer corps" and crimes were prosecuted by military courts. He often went to the various troops to visit, to the soldiers to make very provocative, provocative speeches, he is particularly good at using the Enlightenment movement promoted in the French Revolution to stimulate the soldiers' sense of national honor, honor and self-confidence, so that soldiers with great enthusiasm to the upcoming battle, he created a "comrade trial" system to implement discipline. Not only to rectify discipline, but also to educate others; In terms of military training, Napoleon believed that the art of military command was first expressed in being good at quickly arming, training and building a large army. He trained officers through military schools and trained officers in secondary schools, and the students were admitted to higher specialized military schools after graduation by examination. In order to strengthen the training of the army, special training barracks have been set up, and the training has always been based on actual combat, and the formal and stereotypical training has been opposed. At the same time, it adopts the form of training new recruits with the camp. ^[24]

Napoleon loved mathematics as a child, and when he was studying at a military academy his mathematics teacher Laplace, who later became his Minister of Home Affairs, gave him a test. In his spare time on the march, he often studied plane geometry; He placed a special group of men, scientists, in the ranks of his armies, in order to plunder cultural relics and scientific and technological achievements in the conquered countries.

4. Military legislation

An important feature of Napoleon's military practice was that he regulated the management and command of the army through legislation, incorporated the construction of the army into the legal track, and formed certain norms, which was fundamentally different from the army of the feudal monarchy under the "I am the country", thus maintaining and consolidating the leadership and control of the bourgeoisie over the army. Napoleon's military laws and regulations are mainly scattered in the specific systems and measures he formulated, although there is no system, but it has the characteristics of norms. ^[28]

First, through the legislative process, a strict bourgeois hierarchy was established within the army.

Napoleon built up the most powerful army in Europe at that time, and in order to make this army completely subordinate to him, he fixed the ranks between the officers and men, and also fixed the ranks between the guards and the regular corps, and incorporated the mechanism of competition. Napoleon created a guard loyal to himself, and gave the guard various privileges and concessions, in order to attract outstanding officers, establish their own prestige and military worship of their own.

On March 19, 1813, Napoleon clearly stipulated the corresponding relationship between the ranks of guards officers and ordinary officers in the form of imperial decree, as a reward system, excellent queue officers can be transferred to the guards officers, for ordinary officers, entering the Guards has become a channel for promotion and wealth. This system attracted a large number of officers loyal to Napoleon. ^[29]

The Great Revolution buried the unbridgeable feudal class gap between the officers and men in the army. For ordinary French people, being a soldier is not only a way to serve the country, but also a practical way to improve and enhance their social and economic status. Napoleon tried to take advantage of this mentality in the people and attract them to become soldiers. He believes that the French "have only one feeling, and that is honor." So you have to feed that emotion." And this nourishment is the proper promotion system, that is, the promotion of officers not on seniority and birth but on the size and quantity of war merit. In this way, Napoleon channels the military's sense of honor into promotion and thought and action, "every soldier dreams of entering the ranks of officers," and makes the army completely subordinate to him. ^[24]

The second is to enact decrees to vigorously establish military schools, improve the cultural and educational quality of soldiers, and regard the level of cultural education as an important condition for promotion.

Napoleon was deeply influenced by French enlightenment thinkers. After he came to power, he attached great importance to the education of the country and the army. In order to improve the political and military quality of soldiers, Napoleon promulgated many laws and established many military schools.

In January 1803, Napoleon founded a specialized military school at Fontainebleau, on the basis of the Mars Cadet School opened by the Jacobins on June 1, 1794, for the purpose of training officers for the army and thus lay a good organizational foundation, which became famous Cadet de Saint-Cyr (renamed 1806). ^[30]

During the imperial period, Napoleon also founded the Paris Comprehensive Technical School, the Metz Artillery School, the St. Germain Military Academy, the Versailles Military Academy and the Brescia Military Academy in Italy. He vigorously used military graduates in the army, which ensured that Napoleon's officer corps had a high cultural and military quality, and became an important factor in high combat effectiveness. Engels spoke highly of Napoleon's officer quality, saying: "Napoleon was able to get his recruits out of camp school in four weeks only because he had the best cadres." ^[30]

Third, the unique military social security legislation.

The army was Napoleon's power base and related to the stability of his rule, so Napoleon attached great importance to relieving the worries of soldiers, the most important of which was the legislative guarantee for veterans and disabled soldiers. After Napoleon came to power, the social legislation on retired and disabled soldiers was constantly supplemented and improved, forming a relatively complete legal system.

In addition, the Napoleonic government also paid attention to the resettlement of veterans and arranged their re-employment to the maximum extent, so as to avoid their dissatisfaction with the government due to future difficulties in life. At the same time, the housing problem of retired disabled soldiers was solved in an important position, and Napoleon provided a relatively comfortable living environment for retired disabled soldiers. He built the old soldiers' invalides on the basis of the feudal military hospitals, so that they could have a place to live. The Palace of Versailles, the residence of the French emperors, was also called a residence for disabled soldiers, which shows Napoleon's concern about this issue.

Napoleon's military strategy, in a nutshell, is to make full use of and give full play to the characteristics of his own army, to use it quickly and flexibly, to concentrate superior forces in excellent movements, to launch resolute attacks, to annihilate the enemy forces, and to win the battle. Among them, the annihilation of enemy forces is the core of Napoleon's military thought; Napoleon's thought of army building is the humanized reform and propaganda of army building principle, military system, army ideological construction and so on.

Third, the influence of Napoleon's military thought

Through the radical reform of army building thought, strategy and tactics, military system and other aspects, Napoleon personally commanded about 60 battles for more than 20 years, especially the victory of the five anti-French Alliance, so that his military thought and military theory in the practice of war constantly improve and develop, known as "the real master of military art". ^[30]

Different path choices will have a very different impact on national development and its consequences. Historically, Britain forced the United States to become a dependent country of British capital like India. Napoleon, while blockading the European continent, also used violence to expand French capital in Europe. He inherited the gains made during the Revolution and consolidated them through foreign wars. Specially commissioned by him Napoleonic code This code is the prototype of the legal system of many modern democracies. In addition, Napoleon was the first person to propose the United States of Europe and try to achieve it by force. Although he did not succeed in achieving this dream, Europe is moving towards integration.

The war made Napoleon rise to the top of the French power and become the hegemon of the European continent, but the war also made Napoleon end his political life. Under the historical conditions at that time, the Napoleonic Wars also played a role in safeguarding the victorious achievements of the French Revolution, promoting the French revolutionary ideas and revolutionary systems to Europe, destroying the feudal order and shaking the feudal system in Europe, and creating prerequisites for the development of capitalism in Europe. In particular, Napoleon's military legislative activities marked the establishment of the bourgeois professional army, he legalized the principle of material stimulation as the basic principle of promoting the construction of the army, and he showed us a new model of the establishment of the bourgeois army, that is, completely abandoned the model of the feudal army, and established and developed its own army through bourgeois revolution and war. His military thought and theory made great contribution to the development of modern military science. ^[22]

Military works

" Selected Napoleonic works (Dictated by Napoleon Bonaparte)

Napoleon's selected writings were exiled to him in his later years St. Helena Recollections of several wars, dictated by him himself but recorded by others, and abstracts of some of his writings. This book gives a detailed account of his participation and command in the capture of Toulon in 1793, the war against Italy in 1796-97, and the expedition to the Middle East in 1798-99, as well as his speeches to the soldiers in these wars, orders, and his following Belligerent power Engaged in intricate diplomatic battles. ^[24]

Mathematical contribution

Napoleonic triangle

Napoleon Bonaparte had a special respect for mathematics and mathematicians, and he was quite talented himself. Discovered and proved celebrated Napoleon's theorem . ^[31]

"If the sides of any triangle are equilateral to the outside, then their centers form an equilateral triangle." The equilateral triangle is called Napoleonic triangle . If you make an inward triangle, the same conclusion holds."

The theorem was first known posthumously in 1825, as a tribute to Napoleon.

Artistic image

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EDITOR

Musical image

" Eroica symphony " Beethoven

Napoleon III was captured

The original manuscript, titled "Napoleon Bonaparte's Grand Symphony," was written for Napoleon at the invitation of the French ambassador to Vienna. But when Beethoven heard the news that Napoleon had declared himself emperor, he angrily tore off the title page and said: "He is only a common man!" Changed the title of the song.

Film and television image

A given year	Movies and TV series	Shooting country
The year 1935	Napoleon	France
1954	Napoleon in Love	America
The year 1957	Mighty Mountains and Rivers	America
The year 1960	Napoleon in Austerlitz, aka The Battle of Austerlitz.	France
The year 1968	War and Peace	The Soviet Union
The year 1970	Battle of Waterloo	Italy
The year 1985	Farewell, Bonaparte	France
The year 2002	The Napoleonic Wars	Germany
The year 2002	Napoleonic 1 Horn of War	France
The year 2002	Napoleon II The Glory of Kings	France
The year 2002	Napoleon III: A Twist of Fate	France
The year 2002	Napoleon IV The Battle of Waterloo	France
The year 2003	Monsieur Napoleon	France
The year 2005	The Quest for France	France
The year 2006	Napoleon and I	Italy
The year 2012	Napoleon Bonaparte	Russia

Character evaluation

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EDITOR

Hugo : Defeat makes the loser more noble, and Bonaparte falling seems to be greater than Napoleon standing. Napoleon was the Michelangelo of war. He's the master of rebuilding ruins. Yeah Charlemagne , Louis XI , Henry IV , Richelieu , Louis XIV The successor of the Public Security Committee, of course, he has stains, omissions, and even crimes, that is to say, he is a human being; But he was still solemn in his mistakes, still brilliant in his blemishes, and still mighty in his SINS. ^[32]

Stendhal There is no one in the world like him, and Napoleon is proving to the world that after so many centuries, Julius Caesar and Alexander At last there was a successor ^[4] .

Goethe : It seems to me that Napoleon's fairy tale is like the Revelation of John, where everyone feels that there is something hidden in it, but they just don't know what it is ^[4] .

On the day of Napoleon's defeat in the Battle of Leipzig, Goethe wrote a classic poem for Napoleon that has been celebrated for hundreds of years: "The heart of the hero is heroic and resolutely sets sail toward the throne." ^[33]

Hegel The reason why the world is balanced is because of the existence of God, and the reason why the European Libra is balanced is because of Napoleon, who is the existence of God.

Marx : Napoleon had understood the true nature of the modern state; He had understood that the unhindered development of bourgeois power and the free movement of private interests, etc. were the basic manifestations of these states, and he decided to recognize and protect this basis.

Friedrich Engels : Bringing his code to the countries he conquered, it was superior to any that had ever existed, and it recognized equality in principle. ^[34]

Churchill No one in the world is greater than Napoleon.

Romain Rolland : Short stature, dark complexion, seemingly bottomless dark eyes, thick black hair. He often wore a wandering black robe, tied with a thick sash, like a visitor. Not to be fashionable, not to conform to the narrow rules of society. Not comfortable sitting in a chair, but often cross-legged on a low stool, or perched in the windowsill; Sometimes laughing vivaciously, sometimes sinking in hesitation. Anyway, a big dreamer living the dream.

Lenin : The wars of the French Revolution began as wars of liberation, and they were indeed needed. These wars were originally revolutionary, protecting the great revolutionary movement against the alliance of the counter-revolutionary absolute monarchy. Just as Napoleon was building Napoleonic empire In enslaving many long-established and viable nations and states in Europe, the war of national nationalism in France became a war of imperial capitalism, and this war of aggression and expansion became a war of self-defence against the Napoleonic imperial system. ^{[35 and 36]}

Liddell Hart : Thirty years passed before the beginning of another "Great War." The genius of Napoleon Bonaparte made the war glorious. As in the previous century, France posed a serious threat to the rest of Europe, which again united against it. This time, however, the war is playing out differently. There had been many sympathizers in post-revolutionary France, but they were neither national authorities nor in control of their own armies. When France began the war alone, it was forced to isolate itself from the rest of the world, as if it were infected with an epidemic. However, France not only defeated the allied forces that wanted to kill it, but after the revolution became a serious military threat to the rest of Europe, and eventually became the master of a large part of Europe. ^[37]

Zhou Enlai : The hero of the moment is a hero of The Times, but it is not for me to say Xiang Yu And Napoleon, too. He's the biggest geek in the world. With the heart of swallowing eight famine, the gas of shaking; Yong Guan Wan Fu, wisdom beyond ordinary; Invincible in battle, invincible in attack; The enemy states hear of it and tremble, women and children think of it and cold; Under the hundreds of generations, there is still anger, or only the male of one life! He is still brave to write outside also. If it is related to the advance and fall of the world, the rise and fall of mankind, it is not a handsome man of the moment, two or three scholars can be mentioned in the same day. With the power of the emperor, the power of religion, and the power of money, it is not easy. So the two of us, the so-called hero of The Times. A person should develop the habit of trusting themselves, even in the most critical times, but also believe in their own courage and perseverance.

George lefevre (French bourgeois historian) : When the new state after the French Revolution was not yet formed, Napoleon gave it a complete administrative apparatus, which was clearly the work of the master. The French Revolution of 1789 had forced the bourgeoisie to seize power, but then the democratic forces rose to compete with it, and under the protection of the emperor, the new rich and elite were able to maintain their power, increase their wealth, and expand their power; Once free from the threat of the poor, they are ready to rule themselves and restore liberalism. In Europe, the spread of France, the influence of England, the growth of capitalism, and with it the growth of the bourgeoisie, were all leading to the same effect, and Napoleon greatly accelerated this process by shaking up the old institutions of the European states, and by bringing about the spread of the principles of the new order of the modern European states to the rest of Europe. The flourishing culture, the proclamation of popular sovereignty, the spread of Romanticism, etc., all foreshadowed the awakening of nationalism, which was facilitated by Napoleon's territorial adjustments and various reforms. ... Napoleon's personal influence is indeed valuable, but it can only be effective if it follows the historical trend that is driving the progress of European civilization. ^[38]

Wang Rongbao : White horse rumor gas 槩 male, bartu horizontal sea west east. The end of ten years Dingxing Wang Ye, world War I full Hui. The grassy plain is still rainy, and there is sad wind on the island of Lingqi. Wujiang River runny nose day death, Qingqiu regret the same thing. ^[41]

Gu Yuxiu : Heavy pupil Xiang Yu, failure to hang into. Wujiang crossing, Yu song, Chu singing, sad. The end of the Qin, the war, the alliance. Handan service, Hongmen banquet, and bright. Li Ba Shan Xi, the heroic dream of the world, heroic. Look at Naweng Jiwu, the European storm. Nightshade drums contend, a continent startled. Ask Rhein water, a peak snow, after the chaos, a few drift. When lost, the heart is still strong, make the smell of fish, long March. Black sea head white, cold, poor soldiers. When the flames of war go out, the wounds are full, and the hatred is difficult to resolve. Visit the lofty old tomb, the image of the king, want to see the banner. How yellow sand bones, empty tears, after the trauma. ^[42]

Zhang Zhilian (Chinese historian) : Napoleon's bourgeois regime realized the anti-feudal significance of war, declaring itself emperor, and interests, and could not overturn the results, the code, and the revolution. ^[39]

Emmanuel Macron (French President) Napoleon is an important figure in French history, he was a designer, strategist and legislator, but he made a series of mistakes on the restoration of slavery, dictatorship and other issues Bad. ^[40]

Family history

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EDITOR

Florence

Careful research finally ruled out the myths of these "discoverers" of history, and identified this enigmatical family as one named William Florence People connect. This William took the surname "Bonaparte" in 1261. It seems that in doing so, he is engaged in endless strife and strife between the old Elfs and the Gibelins Florence A time when the life of the people was disturbed. The old Elfs of the 13th and 14th centuries Florence The pro-pope faction. Its opposite was called the "Gibelins", who were at that time anti-Pope, pro-pope and pro-pope. Germanic The emperor, therefore also known as the "imperial party" school. The faction to which William belonged at the time, the Kibelins, temporarily prevailed in the struggle. But then Florence The political situation is volatile. ^{[53
]}

Tuscany

Soon after, William fled to Tuscany The village of Sarcanna settled down to avoid reprisals from the victorious ancient Elfs. This family, which seems to have lived in Sarcana for almost three hundred years, has maintained with a remarkable stubbornness the rules of the Gibelins and the nobility. Loyalty, as well as other virtues, were quite rare at that time. Political life as well as private life is corrupted by endless intrigues; In the disputes between the Pope and the emperor, between the grand duchy and the republic, and between the city and the soil emperor, the Italian character, as sketched out by Machiavelli, was formed.

Because of their poverty and their isolation from the outside world because of their residence in Sarcana, the Bonapartes were spared from the fall during that period of cynicism. Some able members of the family, however, served from time to time as envoys; Their actions show that the family is not without a sinister disposition, just hidden; And these gifts were unquestionably concentrated and passed down to the greatest descendant of the family. ^{[53
]}

The island of Corsica

In 1529, Francis Bonaparte moved in The island of Corsica ; It may have been driven by poverty, or it may have been driven by a distraught sense of despair at the unfortunate situation prevailing in Italy at that time. In Corsica, the Bonaparte family became related to a more powerful branch of the Italians. In this way, the Bonapartes not only had the fox-like cunning that the Medici influence had produced, but also added some strong characteristics. The Corsicans, though dominated by the Mediterranean - The Carthaginians , Roman , The Vandals , Pisa People, and The Republic of Genoa They have successively ruled, but they have still maintained their prominent characteristics. ^{[53
]}

The Bonaparte family

Napoleon Bonaparte was born Mediterranean The island of Corsica Of a noble family. ^{[54
]} Napoleon's father had no wealth, and the family had been Corsica's dignitaries for four generations. ^{[48
]}

A vendetta between clans

The rocky coast and mountainous interior help to preserve some of the main features of the island's original life. Foreign powers, though able to influence the coastal towns, had little impact on the inland clans. these clan Life is based on family Centered. In their view, government is insignificant, even dispensable; For isn't government the very symbol of a loathsome foreign domination? Therefore, as soon as the law of the government contradicts the supreme unwritten law of family honor, the law of the government becomes zero. In Corsica, if a man shows contempt for his neighbors, he is warned: "Watch out for your life, I am on the lookout!" Then a bloody struggle begins - a "vendetta between clans"; Such vendettas often extend over generations into plots and assassinations, until the main person is no longer alive and the next of kin is implicated. In Corsica, he who falters in avenging the honour of his family is most loathed - even against distant relatives of the aggressor.

Napoleon's murder of the Duke of Dangan in 1804 sent a shiver through the continent; In the eyes of the Corsicans, this is merely the embodiment of the principle of "revenge must be avenged" in the hands of absolute monarchs.

Until recent times, "vendetta" was an important rule in Corsican society; Its effects can still be seen today in the hardy islanders.

In Corsica, commerce and agriculture are despised, women are mainly domestic and drudgery, and men are intrigues; The result of this life was a typical Corsican character - sulky and demanding, but also keen, brave, persevering, and seeing the world as a competitive field for the glory of the patriarch. Napoleon was the supreme example of this kind of man, and he was born at a time when France was in turmoil and Europe was in turmoil, which provided a stage for his activities. ^{[53
]}

The Bonaparte family

The Bonaparte family It was in this harsh Corsica way of life that the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were spent. As a court apologist And lawyers, who are proficient in all the practical details of the law; They must also have been involved in family disputes on the island and the frequent disputes between Corsica and Genoa. Several members of the Bonaparte family, by virtue of their prominent position in the city of Ajaccio, took up the defence accordingly Genoa One side. In 1652, the Senate of Genoa addressed Jerome Bonaparte in a document: "Noble procurator Don Jerome Bonaparte ". The Bonapartes, it seems, do not aspire to such noble titles. In Corsica, the noble families are Very few And their flower town is not important. In Corsica, as in the forest cantons of Switzerland and the Highlands of Scotland, nobility was not sought as it was in places that were completely feudal.

The Bonaparte family is against them in Ajaccio The high status of society is satisfied, and the tenants of their estates, Tenant farmer Loyalty is also satisfied; It seems that they rarely used titles with aristocratic connotations. The life of the Bonaparte family, with the old days Scotland Many of the landlords are not alike; Although their roots may have been middle class, they were respected as the heads of the peasants, and were addressed by the townspeople, perhaps because they were reluctant to use titles from abroad.

But a new influence would soon summon all the strength of the mighty Bonaparte family. In the middle of the 18th century, Charles Marie Bonaparte, the patriarch of the family, had a fire in his chest The Corsicans The flames of patriotism; This fire was ignited by Paulie's noble cause. Paulie, a talented patriot, is objecting Genoa He was the standard-bearer of the Corsican islanders in two wars against France. Hoping to consolidate Corsica as a political entity through education, he founded a university. At this university, the future emperor of France Napoleon The father of - Charles Bonaparte He studied law and received a spiritual boost that enabled his family to rise beyond the status of local tribunes and lawyers that had been predestined for centuries. Charles Bonaparte The dedication of the profession can be seen in the following fact: through the successful efforts of his uncle, Lucien Bonaparte, Grand Vice-chancellor of the city of Ajaccio, he conferred a peerage with the Grand Duke of Tuscany Tuscany The Bonaparte family, climbed into kinship. Charles Bonaparte's patriotism In the form of his enthusiastic support for Paulie. Thanks to Pauli's bravery and tireless efforts, the Genoese were finally driven out The island of Corsica . It was during this series of patriotic victories that Charles met his God-given lover, Letizia Lamolino. She's a pretty girl, from Florence The famous family. Her family has settled in Corsica for centuries. The couple married in 1764, the groom Charles Bonaparte She was 18. The bride was 15. Although they were married hastily in the midst of civil unrest, they were a well-matched couple. Both sides, if not quite Nobleman The descendants are also the descendants of the great. Both families had both Tuscan talents and talents The Corsicans The exuberant energy. The bride Letizia, from her mother's Pietra Santa side of the family, has been exposed to Corsica's most backward and barbaric customs: the prevalence of inter-clan vendettas and almost nothing Educational cause . Letizia had little education in her childhood, but she was accustomed to a hard life, and often showed the resourcefulness that such a hard life produced. Thus she married with a strong will far beyond her years; And her strong, resolute, uncompromising character allowed her to survive the very difficult years after her first marriage, but also to demure The serene, respectful manner in which she treats those unusual honors - she acts as Emperor of France The mother, various honors always They come in droves Yes. ^{[53
]}

Publish a book

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EDITOR

Selected Napoleonic works

Author name Napoleon Bonaparte

The Napoleonic Anthology is a collection of Napoleon Bonaparte's recollections of several wars, dictated by him and recorded by others, and a summary of some of his works, written about 1815-1821, collected on the island of St. Helena in his later years. His memoirs include the Siege of Toulon, a Summary of the military activities of the Italian Front in 1792, 1793, 1794, and 17954, and a Summary of the Italian Front in 1796-97.
Napoleonic code

Author name Napoleon Bonaparte

Work time 2011-7

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EDITOR

In December 1840, after Napoleon's coffin was returned to Paris, 900,000 Parisians braved the cold to greet him.

Napoleon's father

In 1855, Britain's Queen Victoria and Crown Prince ( Edward VII Arriving at the retirement Home for the elderly and invalides, the Queen asked the Crown Prince (Edward VII) to "kneel before the coffin of the great Napoleon." Over the years, Napoleon also earned the respect of his opponents.

On May 5, 2021, France commemorates the 200th anniversary of Napoleon's death. ^[40]

Family member

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EDITOR

relation	name	remark
father	Carlo Bonaparte	---
mother	Maria Letizia Lamolino	---
Eldest brother	Joseph Bonaparte	Was once named Naples King, later named King of Spain
Younger brother	Louis Bonaparte	He was named King of Holland and father of Napoleon III
Younger brother	Lucien Bonaparte	---
sis	Eliza Bonaparte	---
	Pauline Bonaparte	---
	Caroline Bonaparte	---
Younger brother	Jerome Bonaparte	Was once named Westphalia King
First wife (beloved wife)	Josephine Beauarne	She was crowned Queen in 1804, but was forced to divorce for a number of reasons (known as "the queen without an heir"). But she retained the title of Queen until her death
Second wife	Princess of the Austrian Empire	The marriage was political. Her mental education was anti-Napoleon, so when Napoleon was imprisoned on the island of Elba, she resolutely betrayed him
son	Francois Joseph Charles Bonaparte	Shortly after his birth in 1811, he was given the title" Roman king ". At the time of his first abdication, he was placed in foster care with his maternal grandfather, the Emperor of Austria, who died of tuberculosis at an early age, and "Napoleon II" was given the title.
bastard	Charlie Leon, Alexander Valinsky	---
nephew	Louis Napoleon Bonaparte	He became President of the French Republic in 1848 and proclaimed himself emperor after a coup d 'etat in 1851 Second French Empire , that is Napoleon III . After defeat in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, France abolished the imperial system ^[5]

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