The Republic of China (1912-1949) was referred to as the "Republic of China". locate Asia East, east Pacific , from Qing Dynasty Perish to People's Republic of China The country name and year number of China during its founding. Republic of China is Xinhai Revolution After the establishment of the first in Asia Democratic republic .

The year 1911 Xinhai Revolution After the outbreak, the revolutionary party in Nanjing Set up Provisional Government of the Republic of China Elected by provincial representatives Sun Yat-sen As interim president. In January 1912, the Republic of China was officially established in Nanjing ^[1] . Then the provisional government moved to Beijing Yuan Shikai chief Beiyang Warlords Regime establishment ^[3] . The year 1921 Communist Party of China It was founded to promote Sun Yat-sen's reorganization of the Kuomintang in 1924, and to implement three major policies of alliance with Russia, union with the Communist Party, and assistance to farmers and workers Northern Expedition , overturn Beiyang Warlords Rule. The year 1927 Chiang Kai-shek launch The April 12 counter-revolutionary coup Later, it was established in Nanjing National government . nationwide War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression During this period, the National government took Chongqing As a secondary capital. In May 1946, the Nationalist government returned the capital from Chongqing to Nanjing ^[21] Chiang Kai-shek then launched a full-scale civil war ^[22] . In 1949, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, the Chinese people overthrew Nanjing National government The People's Republic of China was established ^[11] .

Chinese name: Republic of China
Foreign name: Republic of China ^[19]
Abbreviated form: The Republic of China
continent: Asia
capital: Nanjing
Major city: Shanghai , Tianjin , Hankou , Peiping , Chongqing
National Day: October 10th
National song: National anthem of the Republic of China
currency: Silver dollar , Legal tender

Time zone: UTC+8
Political system: Presidential republic
National leader: Sun Yat-sen , Chiang Kai-shek , Li Zongren
Population number: About 540 million (1949)
Major nationality: Han, Manchu, Mongolian, Hui, Tibetan
Major religion: Confucianism , Buddhism , Taoism , Catholicism
Road access: Keep to the right
Geographical position: Asia borders the Pacific Ocean to the east and east
Establishment time: January 1st, 1912

catalogue

Title of a kingdom

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EDITOR

Following New Year's Day 1901 Sun Yat-sen to Tokyo The academic community and the international community declared the "Republic of China" as the title of the country after the success of the revolution in 1906 Tung Meng Hui The meeting was ratified unanimously.

The year 1911 Xinhai Revolution Successful, the Republic of China was soon proclaimed.

On New Year's Day 1912, Sun Yat-sen took office Provisional President of the Republic of China Officially announced the use of the "Republic of China" national title.

New Year's Day, 1912, Republic of China Nanjing Provisional Government Sun Yat-sen was inaugurated as the provisional President of the Republic of China. Sun Yat-sen made it clear:

Republic of China
"The Republic of China is also the state of the people. For the people and by the people."

It shows that the Government of the Republic of China is established solely to govern the country on behalf of the people of all ethnic groups in the country, the Republic of China State sovereignty It belongs to all citizens.

Sun Yat-sen made a comprehensive statement in 1916:

Republic of China
"Why not say the Republic of China, but the Republic of China?" The meaning of this character is derived from the results of more than ten years of research. The republics of Europe and the United States, founded long before our own, and the people of the twentieth century, in the spirit of creativity, should not claim to be self-sufficient by saying that they can imitate the laws of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. ... A citizen is the son of heaven of the Republic of China."

The essence of "Republic of China" and "Republic" is consistent. Sun Yat-sen's idea of the republic is not exactly the same as Europe and the United States, he believes that we should creatively learn from the West, to avoid the drawbacks of Europe and the United States, and in the title of the word "people" directly express civil rights, than the meaning of "republic" is more positive and distinct. ^[2]

history

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EDITOR

The rise of the democratic revolution

The establishment of the Republic of China was different from previous Chinese monarchies in that it came through bourgeoisie A democratic revolutionary struggle to establish a republican state.

In the late 19th century, due to the corruption of the Qing Dynasty capitalism The depth of aggression by the great powers, especially Sino-japanese War of 1894-1895 Its failure plunged China into a serious national crisis. The advanced Chinese people are searching for ways to save the nation and survive.

With the development of capitalist economy in China and the spread of Western political thought and theory, the political forces representing the emerging bourgeoisie began to step onto the political stage of China.

In order to Sun Yat-sen The leading group of people with lofty ideals first chose the path of revolution to save the country.

In 1894, Sun Yat-sen Honolulu Make up Reviving China Society He proposed overthrowing the Qing Dynasty and establishing a united government. From the beginning, the activities of the Xingzhong Association were different from the traditional pattern of dynastic succession and had the characteristics of a new era. However, Sun Yat-sen's pioneering work could not be understood by the broad masses at that time, and only a few hundred people followed him.

In 1898 Kang Youwei , Liang Qichao Initiated by the leading bourgeois reformists Reform and reform The failure and ensuing The Boxer Movement and Eight-nation allied forces The invasion greatly stimulated all levels of Chinese society, and more and more people began to realize that in order to save China, the Qing government must be overthrown. As a result, the anti-Qing revolution initiated by Sun Yat-sen quickly developed into a widespread one Social movement .

In the early 20th century, a number of small revolutionary groups openly or secretly opposed the Qing Dynasty appeared in China. There is a Huang Xing organization in Hunan Hua Xing Society Jiangsu and Zhejiang regions have to CAI Yuanpei president Rehabilitation society There are in Hubei The science Institute Sichuan has Kung Qiang Association Anhui has Yue Wang Hui Guangdong has Gunwisdom Let's wait. These small groups, including the Xingzhong Association, are mostly influenced by traditional secret associations in their organizational forms and lack of contact with each other. Their anti-Qing uprisings or struggles failed one after another, and their leaders fled abroad.

The setback of the revolution did not dispirit the leaders; on the contrary, it gave them an opportunity for reflection, reorganization, and grand coalition.

Thanks to Sun Yat-sen and Huang Xing The joint initiative of the Revolutionary Party in exile in Japan was founded in Tokyo on August 20, 1905 Tung Meng Hui . The membership includes revolutionary Party members from more than ten provinces. It was the first national political party in Chinese history. Sun Yat-sen was elected as premier Huang Xing is in charge of the executive department. The League, modeled after the bourgeois parties of the West, raised the uneven political level of small groups to new heights with a radical democratic program. This program is Sun Yat-sen put forward" Expel the Tartars, restore China, establish the Republic of China, Equal land right "; Later, it was further expounded nation , Civil rights , People's livelihood content-based The three People's Principles .

The Tongmenghui also declared that in the future Republic of China, "all citizens are equal. suffrage . Grand president Voted for by the people. The Assembly shall be constituted by members elected by the people Constitution of the Republic of China Everyone will defend it together, and those who dare to have the imperial system for themselves will be attacked by the whole world." The blueprint of this republic had great appeal to the Chinese people, who had long been oppressed by an absolute feudal monarchy.

After the founding of the Tongmenghui, the publication of the Min Pao "And other books and newspapers, exposing to Empress Dowager Cixi The Qing government headed by the Empress Dowager attacked the crimes of the country and the people Kang Youwei , Liang Qichao And so on Constitutional monarchy Encourage the people to join the ranks of the revolution. After the polemics with Kang and Liang, the anti-Qing revolutionary thought became more and more popular. At the same time, the League continued to organize in some southern provinces Members of a political party and New Army Uprising. Overthrowing the Qing Dynasty by armed uprising is the basic strategy of Tongmenghui to promote the revolutionary movement.

From 1906 Pingliu Li uprising By April 1911 Huanghuagang Uprising The revolutionaries launched more than ten armed uprisings one after another. Although these uprisings gave the Qing dynasty a blow again and again, it showed Bourgeois revolutionaries It was a force that could not be ignored, but because the uprising had the tendency of simple military adventure away from the masses, it could not fundamentally threaten the rule of the Qing government. However, the continuous failure of the uprising made some revolutionary Party members produce negative emotions, which became an important reason for the upper echelon of the Alliance.

The first righteousness of Wuchang

In the first ten years of the 20th century, Chinese society was in a state of great turmoil, and the spontaneous resistance and struggle of the urban and rural masses were like waves, one wave higher than the other. Northern provinces Civil revolt Repeatedly. In the provinces of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, famine occurred year after year, and crowds of hungry people flowed into the cities.

In order to resist the revolution and ease the discontent of the people, the Qing government organized a variety of new policies: training a new army, building schools, and establishing provinces Consultative Council , implement Preliminary constitutionalism Wait a minute.

End of 1908 Guangxu Emperor And after the death of the Empress Dowager Cixi, three years old A surname Take the throne, father Zaifeng Prison Country. The Qing government was in turmoil, and the internal strife became increasingly fierce. Fengzai exile north Ocean new army chief Yuan Shikai , organization Royal cabinet In an attempt to seize the military and political power Manchu Pro-you group hands, thereby causing constitutionalist The gentry officials and Beiyang Army General discontent among the generals.

In May 1911, the Qing government ordered the implementation of "railway state-owned". The so-called state is to seize the power of the private railway and sell it to the foreign powers, while refusing to return the share capital that the merchants and the people have collected. The looting provoked widespread outrage. Under the agitation of the constitutional gentry and revolutionaries, who were closely related to the rights and interests of the railway, a nationwide trend of road protection was soon formed Sichuan-han railway Passing through Sichuan is the most intense (see Sichuan Road protection movement ).

When the Qing government sent the new army from Hubei to suppress the people in Sichuan, the revolutionary Party members of the new army in Wuchang revolted on October 10, 1911 and captured it in one fell swish viceroy Yamen, and quickly recovered Hankou and Hanyang County .

New army association Li Yuanhong And the head of the constitutional faction Tang Hualong And so on to the revolution.

Li Yuanhong was raised as Hubei military government Your Governor.

The military government declared that China was the Republic of China and that sovereignty belonged to the people; The provinces were called upon to respond to the revolution and overthrow the Qing government.

Wuchang Uprising Shake the country. Revolutionaries in various provinces launched uprisings of the new army, guild or chamber of commerce. Many of the constitutional gentry merchants in the regions who had opposed the revolution turned to the republic, turning the provincial councils they controlled into organs of agitation for independence.

Qing The official of the frontier Some abandoned their jobs and fled for their lives, while others were forced to express their support for independence.

More than a month after the Wuchang uprising, Hunan, Shaanxi, Jiangxi, Shanxi, Yunnan, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Guizhou, Anhui, Zhejiang, Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Sichuan and other provinces declared their independence successively, and the Qing Dynasty's rule showed a tendency to collapse.

On December 2, the revolutionary army captured Nanjing, and the revolutionary forces in the upper and lower reaches of the Yangtze River were united, and the southern provinces were liberated. Both the Hubei and Shanghai military governments proposed to organize the provisional Central government .

On November 30, the provincial delegates met Hankou British Concession It was decided that before the interim government could not be established, the Hubei military Government would act as the central government, and passed the" Outline of Organization of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China ". The Congress also decided to establish the provisional government in Nanjing and hold the presidential election in Nanjing. After repeated consultations, most of the leaders of the revolutionary Party advocated the election of Sun Yat-sen, who had just returned from overseas, as provisional president.

On December 29, representatives of seventeen provinces elected a provisional president in Nanjing, with one vote per province, and Sun Yat-sen was elected by sixteen votes. Li Yuanhong Be elected as veep Still in Wuchang.

On New Year's Day 1912, Sun Yat-sen was sworn in and renamed the Republic of China Solar calendar With 1912 as the first year of the Republic of China, to Five-coloured flag For the flag.

The beginning of the Republic of China

It was successfully launched by the revolutionaries on October 10, 1911 Wuchang Uprising In the following two months, the revolutionary response was driven across China.

On December 29, 17 of the 22 provinces of the Qing Dynasty, which had become independent, sent representatives to elect Dr. Sun Yat-sen, who had just returned to China Provisional President of the Republic of China .

On January 1, 1912, Sun Yat-sen took the oath of office, Asia The first democratic republic, the Republic of China, was officially established.

January to March 1912 Provisional Government of the Republic of China In... Republic of China Provisional Convention For the temporary constitution Nanjing is temporary capital .

February 12, in the Qing Dynasty Prime minister Persuaded by Yuan Shikai and other ministers, Emperor Xuan Tong Puyi inherit Mother queen ^[20] Empress Longyu publish Edict on abdication "To make the sovereignty of the whole country public and establish a republican constitutional state"... "For one Republic of China";

At this point, the Republic of China officially replaced and succeeded Qing Empire .

On February 13, 1912, Sun Yat-sen was forced to submit his resignation to the Provisional Senate. ^[18] The Provisional Senate elected Yuan Shikai as provisional President, and the capital was moved to Beijing.

The period from then to 1928 is called the "Beiyang Period", and the government of the Republic of China during this period is also called the "Beiyang Government".

Represent China in World War I and Paris Peace Conference That is Beiyang government .

From the Beiyang period Flag of the Republic of China It is the red, yellow, blue, white and black flag, which symbolizes the republic of the five ethnic groups. National anthem Be taken from... The Legend of the Ancient Book Yu Shun's" Song of the Clouds ", which famous sentence: "Sun and moon Guanghua, Dan Fudan Xi."

The Northern Warlord period

Flag of the Republic of China (1912-1928)

After the provisional government officially moved to Beijing, Yuan Shikai headed the government Beiyang Warlords The regime was established. Yuan Shikai suppressed the internal Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) Sell out State sovereignty Sun Yat-sen called for force against Yuan," Second revolution "It happened. Because the Kuomintang's strength was scattered and the Beiyang Army was strong, the "second Revolution" soon failed. Yuan Shikai suppressed" Second revolution "After that, it began Come back to power Imperial activities. Sun Yat-sen once again organized force against Yuan, National defense movement Suddenly, Yuan Shikai was forced to abolish the imperial system and died in despair. ^[3]

After Yuan Shikai's death, China emerged Secession by warlords The situation. Xuzhou warlord Zhang Xun To mediate" The battle between the government and the court "In the name, into Beijing to support the restoration of Puyi, history said" The restoration of Zhang Xun ". But the Restoration drama lasted only 12 short days. After Duan Qirui returned to power, he refused to reinstate the" Republic of China Provisional Convention And summoned Congress. In order to maintain the republican system, Sun Yat-sen advocated Law protection movement But that too soon failed. ^[3]

With the further development of China's capitalist economy, the bourgeoisie has strongly demanded the practice of bourgeois policies in China Democratic politics Oppose feudalism warlord The rule of New culture movement Came into being. In 1915, Chen Duxiu Founded in Shanghai New youth And became the symbol of the rise of the new cultural movement. "Democracy" and "science" were the slogans of the New Culture Movement. The New culture movement has set off a trend of ideological liberation in society. After the victory of the October Socialist Revolution in Russia, Li Dazhao propagate October Revolution And lifted it for the first time in China socialism So that the new culture movement has a new development. ^[12]

May Fourth Movement Later, Marxism spread in China and became the mainstream of the new thought. A group of advanced elements Marxism with Chinese workers' movement Initial combination. In 1920, Communist group Established in various places, in 1921, The Communist Party of China The Communist Party of China was born. In 1922, Second largest party of the Communist Party of China It formulated the democratic revolutionary program and pointed out the direction for the Chinese revolution. ^[12]

Northern Expedition and unification

The 1923" The 27 massacre ", make Communist Party of China Recognize, just rely on Working class The power is not enough, only unite all the forces that can be united, can it be Chinese revolution Lead to victory. 为此，中国共产党决定同孙中山领导的国民党合作，建立革命 United front . In January 1924, the Chinese Nationalist Party held its first National Congress in Guangzhou. The Kuomintang is a big party It marked the realization of the cooperation between the two parties and the formal establishment of the revolutionary united front. Military academy And laid the foundation for the establishment of the National Revolutionary Army. ^[12]

After the Kuomintang, the National Revolutionary movement against imperialism and feudalism began rapidly. Guangdong revolutionary government A training center for the backbone of the peasant movement was also established. Two eastern conquests Chen Jiongming Later, the revolutionary base areas in Guangdong were consolidated and unified; The first expedition Later, National government It was established in Guangzhou, and its army was organized as National Revolutionary army . ^[12]

In order to overthrow imperialism, overthrow the rule of warlords, and unify China, the nationalist government began the northern expedition in 1926. The Northern Expeditionary Army marched successfully and reached the Yangtze River Valley in less than six months. The Northern Expedition was strongly supported by the workers' and peasants' movement; The victory of the Northern Expedition also promoted the upsurge of the workers' and peasants' movement. From October 1926 to March 1927, Shanghai workers launched three armed uprisings and won victories. ^[12]

Nanjing National government period

After Sun Yat-sen's death in March 1925, the right wing of the Kuomintang intensified its struggle for revolutionary leadership. In April 1927, Chiang Kai-shek launched the "April 12" counter-revolutionary coup d 'etat in Shanghai; On July 15, 1927, Wang Jingwei launched the "July 15" counter-revolutionary coup d 'etat in Wuhan, and the first cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party broke down. During this period, the CPC Central Committee represented by Chen Duxiu made the mistake of right-leaning capitulationism. The national revolution failed. ^[12]

Flag of the Republic of China (1928-1949)

The April 12 counter-revolutionary coup d 'etat Later, Chiang Kai-shek established a national government in Nanjing. ^[12] On April 18, 1927, Nanjing was designated as the capital. ^[13] In 1928, the nationalist government held a "northern expedition", occupied Beijing, and served warlords Zhang Zuolin Withdraw to the outside, in the Emperor Gu Tun was killed by the Japanese Kwantung Army plot. At the end of the year, Zhang Xueliang Announce" Northeast Yi Zi "And obey the national government. The national government formally unified the country. ^[12] After the nationalist government occupied Beijing, it changed Beijing to Beiping and set up a special city of Beiping. National government Used by The sky is blue and the earth is red The national flag replaced the five-coloured national flag of the Beiyang Government (later Northeast Yi Zi ), and signed in the Government's" Administrative training period of the law "In. The "Covenant law" is equivalent to the Constitution. Qingyun Song was also discontinued, and changed to Sun Yat-sen in 1924 Huangpu Military Academy The motto of the opening ceremony is "The Three Principles of the people, the school of our Party; To build the Republic of China, to enter Datong. Zurdos, forward for the people; Day and night bandits, the principle is from. Yaqin Yayong, will believe will be loyal; "One heart, one virtue, always" is the national anthem.

According to the 1924 National Government National founding outline The "military and political" period ended in 1928 after the successful northern expedition and national unification. Political tutelage The period begins. On account of Civil war between Kuomintang and Communist Party Continue, as well Japan Invaded China until the Constitution of the Republic of China was written in 1946 and enacted in 1947. Political training period The beginning is over. Drafted in May 1936 Fifty-five grass "Prepare for the formal constitution. After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, the constitution was delayed. The president of the National Government at that time was Linson (1932-1943), the Chief executive was Wang Jingwei (1932-1935), Military Commission Chairman of a committee for Chiang Kai-shek (1932-1946) ^[4] . Wang Jingwei suffered repeatedly Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) Internal pressure, after the fall of Hanoi, contact with Japan, promised anti-communism, stop anti-Japanese Another was formed in Nanjing in 1940 Wang puppet national government . The government received only the Holy See, Italy , Nazi Germany , The "Manchukuo" The recognition of... Wang Jingwei He died in 1944 Tokyo .

War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression

It was launched by Japan on 18 September 1931 The September 18 Incident From the northeast began a local invasion of China.

On July 7, 1937, a unit of the Chinese Garrison Army of the Japanese Army manufactured" The Lugou Bridge Incident The Chinese army fought back and the National War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression broke out. On August 13, the Japanese army made the "Hongqiao Airport Incident" in Shanghai, deliberately expanding the scale of the war of aggression against China, and the nationalist government was forced to fight against Japan. Battle of Songhu Eruption. In late September, the Kuomintang Central News Agency The Communist Party of China promulgated the Declaration on Cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party, Anti-japanese national united front Officially formed, the whole Chinese nation's war of resistance began.

In the early days of the War of Resistance, the Nationalist government organized many large-scale battles on the front battlefield to fight against the Japanese invaders, but it carried out a one-sided line of resistance and lost a large part of its territory. The Communist Party of China pursues the line of total resistance and the policy of sustained resistance. The Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army penetrate deep behind enemy lines, establish anti-Japan base areas, open up battlefields behind enemy lines, conduct guerrilla warfare on a wide scale, coordinate with the front battlefields, resist Japanese aggression, and achieve victory for the Chinese people in the War of Resistance against Japanese aggression and the final victory of the anti-Fascist War for the people of the world. Made a great contribution. ^[12]

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor China, the United States and Britain officially declared war on Japan, Germany and Italy, and the Pacific War officially broke out. December 31, 1941, President of the United States Roosevelt After obtaining the consent of the British and Dutch governments, he formally proposed to Chiang Kai-shek the establishment of the China Theater command and the establishment of a High Command to unify the command of the United Nations forces operating in China, Thailand, Vietnam and Burma in the China Theater Command, and to coordinate the contacts within the three headquarters of the China Theater Command, the Indian Army Commander and the South Pacific Theater Commander. On January 4, 1942, the United Nations officially elected Chiang Kai-shek as commander of the China Theater Command. On January 5, 1942, Chiang Kai-shek announced his inauguration as the Supreme Commander of the China Theater Command in Chongqing, and the Chinese Theater Command was officially established. ^[14] America Stilwell The general was appointed Chief of Staff of the Chinese Theater Command. ^[15] China's War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression became an important component of the World Anti-Fascist War, and the Chinese theater became the main eastern theater of the world Anti-Fascist War.

In the spring of 1942 and 1943, China sent its most elite troops to form the expeditionary Force, which twice entered Burma as the main force to fight in cooperation with the British and American Allies. ^[16] In the operation to aid Myanmar, the Chinese army has invested more than 300,000 troops, and wiped out a total of more than 60,000 Japanese troops in more than three years, making significant contributions to the cause of liberation of the people of Southeast Asia, and saving the critical situation of the Allied forces in the Southeast Asian theater. China's armed forces have become an important strategic pillar for allied forces in the Asia-Pacific region. ^[17]

In 1944, the army and the people in the liberated areas began local counter-attacks. In April 1945, the Seventh Congress of the Communist Party of China was held. On August 8, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. On August 9th, Mao Zedong The call for "the last battle against the Japanese invaders" was issued, and the war of resistance against Japan entered a major counteroffensive. ^[12]

In early August 1945, America In Japan Hiroshima with Nagasaki After dropping nuclear weapons, the Emperor of Japan announced his unconditional surrender on August 15. On September 2, the Japanese Empire signed an instrument of surrender to the Allies, accepting the treaty. Cairo Declaration "And" The Potsdam Declaration To provide for the return of occupied foreign territory. Thus" The "Manchukuo" After the collapse, the Wang Jingwei government fell, and the Taiwan Islands were taken over by the Republic of China.

War of liberation

January 1946 Political consultative conference Held in Chongqing, the Political Consultative Conference passed resolutions that benefited the people and were welcomed by the people of the whole country. Although the Kuomintang also announced its approval of the CPPCC resolution, it put forward many reservations. Then, at the Second Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the Kuomintang held in March, it openly refused to recognize the binding force of the CPPCC meeting and continued to advocate One-party dictatorship . At the same time, the people of the whole country demand to abide by the resolutions of the CPPCC and oppose Civil war The activities of the United States have been indiscriminate in destruction and repression, creating the "Jiaochangkou Incident", "Jiaochangkou Incident", The murder of Li Wen "And" Shimonoseki Massacre "Such bloodshed.

In May 1946, the Nationalist government returned to Nanjing from Chongqing, and the negotiations between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party were also transferred to Nanjing. Chiang refused to comply under the pretext of the Communists Northern Jiangsu , Northern Anhui They retreated, openly mobilized 200,000 troops, and laid siege to it in June Xuanhua Store As the center of the central Plains liberated areas, launched a full-scale civil war.

He was appointed Chairman of the Chinese People's Revolutionary Military Commission on 21 April 1949 Mao Zedong And Commander-in-chief of the Chinese People's Liberation Army Zhu De Issued an order to march across the country. A million-strong army crossed the Yangtze River, destroyed the Kuomintang army's defenses, and liberated Nanjing on the 23rd. Last Republic of China on the mainland Reactionary government The fall marked the end of twenty-two years of Kuomintang rule on the mainland. Next, the People's Liberation Army captured Shanghai, Hangzhou, Nanchang, Wuhan and other cities, and wiped out a total of more than 430,000 Kuomintang troops Battle of crossing the River The victory. The remaining Kuomintang troops retreated to Guangdong, Guangxi, Southwest China, Northwest China and Taiwan. Chiang Kai-shek went from behind the scenes to the front, set up the Kuomintang Extraordinary Committee in Guangzhou, directly controlled the military and political power, and then retreated to Sichuan, trying to resist in a corner. For the total elimination of Kuomintang reactionaries The People's Liberation Army launched a separate pursuit war, sweeping Guangdong, Fujian, southwest and northwest regions. In the context of the victorious march of the People's Liberation Army, Suiyuan In Xinjiang, Hunan, Yunnan and other provinces, the Kuomintang military and political personnel electrified uprisings. Chiang Kai-shek He led the rest to Taiwan. According to the Opinions on the Correct Use of Taiwan-related Propaganda Terms in China after October 1, 1949 Taiwan area The regime should be called" Taiwan authorities "Or the" Taiwan party concerned "or the" Taiwan side ", do not use the so-called "Republic of China", and do not use the so-called "Republic of China" chronology. ^[5]

Physical geography

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EDITOR

Location and neighbors

China is located in the eastern part of the Asian continent and the west coast of the Pacific Ocean. Its territory was generally established during the Kang, Yong and Gan periods of the former Qing Dynasty. However, after the late Qing Dynasty, a large part of the territory was lost to the Eastern and Western powers. Jin Ou Not really. After entering the Republic of China, China's territory was only 11.1665 million square kilometers. Its territory extends to the east Amur River with Wusuli River Confluence, west Pamir Plateau , Rising South Nansha Islands the Zeng Mother sand North to the heart of the Heilongjiang River north of Mohe. It borders Korea to the east, Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar to the south, India, Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal and Afghanistan to the west and south, and Russia to the north. The shape is slightly like a begonia leaf. Across the sea and Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei and other countries and regions.

landform

The western part of China is mountainous and has a grid shape, while the eastern part is mostly plain and hilly. The mountains extending from west to east include the Altai Mountains, Tianshan Mountains, Kunlun Mountains, Qilian Mountains, Karakoram Mountains, Gangdises Mountains, Himalayas, Yinshan Mountains, Qinling Mountains, Nanling Mountains; Hengduan Mountain stretched from north to south; In the eastern part of the same border, there are mountains extending from northeast to southwest, such as the Greater Hinggan Mountains and Taihang Mountains. The eastern plain mainly includes the Northeast plain, the North China Plain and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River plain.

The topography of the country is slightly in the shape of three steps, the westernmost is the Tibetan Plateau, with an average elevation of more than 4,000 meters, the highest and largest plateau in the world, and the mountains are inlaid with huge plateaus and basins. Is for the first step. To the north and east of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, there are plagues and basins with elevations of 1000-2000 meters, including the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, the Loess Plateau, the Mongolian Plateau, the Sichuan Basin, the Tarim Basin and the Junggar Basin. It's for the second step. To the east of the Xuefeng Mountain line in the Greater Khingan Mountains, there are hills below 1000 meters above sea level to plain below 200 meters. It's for the third step.

Rivers and lakes

Due to the high terrain in the west and low in the east, the country's rivers are also mostly from west to east, and finally into the Pacific Ocean. The main rivers are Liao River, Haihe River, Yellow River, Huaihe River, Yangtze River, Pearl River and so on. To the south flows the Brahmaputra River, through India, Bangladesh, Myanmar into the Indian Ocean; To the north is the Irtysh River, which flows into the Arctic Ocean. There are also inland rivers that do not flow into the sea, the largest being the Tarim River. The Yangtze River is the longest at 6,300 kilometers with a drainage area of 1.8 million square kilometers. It is followed by the Yellow River, which is 5,464 kilometers long and covers an area of more than 750,000 square kilometers.

Throughout the country, there are large and small lakes distributed, and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River plain and the northern Tibet Plateau are the most densely distributed. The largest is Poyang Lake in Jiangxi Province, with an area of 3976 square kilometers; Dongting Lake in southern Hunan, 3915 square kilometers; Hongze Lake in Jiangsu Province, 3,780 square kilometers; Taihu Lake, more than 2200 square kilometers. In addition to the above freshwater lakes, there are saltwater lakes, the largest Qinghai Lake, with an area of more than 4,400 square kilometers, and Lop Nur in Xinjiang, with more than 2,500 square kilometers.

In addition to natural rivers and lakes, there is also the man-made Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal, stretching 1,782 kilometers from Beijing in the north to Hangzhou in the south, connecting five river systems: the Haihe River, the Yellow River, the Huaihe River, the Yangtze River and the Qiantang River.

island

The Bohai Sea is an inland sea, and the others are marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean. There are more than 5,000 islands listed in the sea, with a total area of about 80,000 square kilometers, the largest is Taiwan island, 35,700 square kilometers, followed by Hainan Island, 34,000 square kilometers.

Climate and resources

Due to the thermal difference between the ocean and the continent, resulting in a significant monsoon climate, coupled with the vast land and complex terrain, China's temperature and rainfall vary greatly, and the climate type is diverse. The country is generally hot in summer, dry and cold in winter in the north, warm and wet in the south.

The vastness of the land, the complexity of the terrain, the differences in climate, and the various natural characteristics of the regions concerned make China extremely rich in natural resources. In the plain area, wheat, rice, corn, soybeans and other crops and oil, hemp, sugar and other cash crops are abundant. Production of tea, tung oil, silk, medicine and so on in mountainous areas. Grassland cattle alpaca, forest mainly concentrated in the northeast, southwest and Fujian, Taiwan and other places. Coal, oil and iron are all over the country. Other minerals are also unusually abundant.

Administrative division

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EDITOR

The first was in the early years of the Republic of China. At the beginning of the establishment of the Republic of China, local Administrative division The setting is still along the Qing season system, the country has 23 provinces, and the provinces are implemented. fu ( state ), county (state, hall Three-level management system. In January 1913, Yuan Shikai The government issued the Order on the Standardization of the Current Organization of Local Administrative Offices at All Levels, abolishing the old local system and establishing provinces, tao County three-level management system. The country is divided into 22 provinces. Outside the provinces. Set another 5 Special administrative region Except in the capital Beijing trillion Outside the Special Administrative Region, to Shanxi Province The Great Wall North original naturalized grade 12 Zhili Hall Old place, as well Inner Mongolia The bend of a river External and internal Ikzhao , Ulanqab Two league Zhusheng banner grazing land set up Suiyuan Special administrative region; To direct the original Chengde Chaoyang two house and Chifeng Mountain Zhili Prefecture The old land, and Inner Mongolia Zhaouda And set up the two league grazing lands in Zhuo Sotu Rehe Special administrative region; In order to Kawanabe Yunnan border adjacent Xizang And so are delimited as Kawanabe Special administrative region; In the north of Zhili Kou Dao, Zhang Bei , Doron All the lands and Suiyuan prosperity , Happy and harmonious , Liangcheng Taolin 4 counties, as well as Inner Mongolia Xilin Gol League Chahar eight flags grazing land set Chahar Special Administrative Region. besides Outer Mongolia Two places in Tibet and Ningxia , Qinghai (Province) Two districts, 32 total First-level administrative region Row. Provinces and special administrative regions shall have roads and counties under them. It is basically used in Mongolia and Tibet Qing Dynasty Old system. Mongolian region Monan adopt au , The flag System, Mobei The system of ministry (league) and banner is adopted, while the system of Zong and Huo is adopted in Tibet. There were 92 nationwide in 1914, and 96 in 1920. In 1914, there were 1,740 counties in the country, plus 209 county organs such as flags, accounting for 1,949 third-level administrative regions; by 1920, there were 1,885 counties in the country, and 223 administrative bureburets and flags, accounting for 2,108 third-level administrative regions.

The second time is Northern Expedition After the victory. The year 1927 Nanjing National government After its establishment, according to Dr. Sun Yat-sen National founding outline Abolish prefecture-level divisions nationwide and implement a two-level management system of provinces and counties. June 21, 1928 Zhili Province for Hebei Province And change Beijing to Beiping special City The original 20 counties of Beijing Zhao will be incorporated into Hebei Province Habeido Into Chahar. September 5, 1928 Rehe, Chahar, Chuanbian four special administrative regions, Ningxia guardian and Ningxia Road The areas under their jurisdiction were rehe, Chahar, Suiyuan, Ningxia, Xikang 5 provinces. In October of the same year will be Qinghai place and Gansu Province Xining Road The area under its jurisdiction was renamed Qinghai Province. January 30, 1929 will be Mukden instead Liaoning Province . There are 28 provincial-level institutions across the country, as well as two places in outer Mongolia and Tibet. In 1932, the National government implemented the first county system as a regional convening unit. It was established in October of the same year Administrative supervision district , also known as prefecture The region is not an administrative division, but a provincial agency. In 1938 Kuomintang-administered area There were 142 districts in 15 provinces, reaching 209 by 1947.

The third time is War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression After the victory. After the victory of the War of Resistance, the national government will The three northeastern provinces To Liaoning, Northern Liaoning , Anton, Ji Lin , Hejiang County , Songjiang, Amur River , Nenjiang, Xing 'an 9 provinces at the same time Taiwan Province After returning to the motherland, the number of provincial-level units in the country increased to 35, and there were two places in outer Mongolia and Tibet. On January 5, 1946, the National Government recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia. On June 5, 1947, the National Government announced 12 municipalities with provincial level, and the number of first-level administrative divisions in the country reached 48. As of June 5, 1947, the Nationalist Government announced that in addition to Tibet, there were 2,016 counties, 57 ordinary cities, 40 administrative departments, 1 administrative bureau, 132 flag leagues, and a total of 2,246 county-level divisions.

Before 1940, the National Government divided counties into three classes, and after 1940 they were divided into six classes.

political

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constitution

See also: Constitution of the Republic of China

Adopted by the National Assembly on 25 December 1946. January 1, 1947 by Nanjing, China National government The Constitution consists of one hundred and forty-one articles, divided into thirteen chapters: the Body of the State, the Sovereignty, the Territory, the People, the Powers of the State, the Congress, the President, The State Council, the courts, laws, accounting, local institutions, and the interpretation and effect of amendments to the Constitution. The characteristics of the Constitution of the Republic of China are as follows: 1. Complete provisions and formal democracy. Although the provisions of the Constitution of the Republic of China on the rights and freedoms of the people are the most specific of all the "official" constitutional documents since the General Outline of the Constitution at the end of the Qing Dynasty, their essence is no different, and they are hypocritical human rights to cover up the fact of one-party dictatorship. ^[25] (2) Nominally implementing local autonomy, but in reality confirming the sphere of influence of domestic warlords. ^[24]

Organ of power

See also: President of the Republic of China

Administrative organ

See also: Government of Republic of China

The government of the Republic of China is the governing body of the Republic of China, and its history can be traced back to the provisional government of the Republic of China founded in Nanjing in 1911, and then it has been replaced by the Beiyang Government and the National Government many times.

Judicial organ

The judicial organ of the Republic of China is the Judicial Yuan of the Republic of China.

Successive presidents

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EDITOR

Presidents of the Republic of China (including Provisional Presidents, Grand Presidents, and acting Presidents) (1912-1949) :

Presidents of the Republic of China (including Provisional Presidents, Grand Presidents, and acting Presidents)
Commencement time	End of office	name	Political party or faction	remark
Provisional President of the Republic of China
January 1st, 1912	March 10, 1912	Sun Yat-sen ^[6]		He resigned on March 10, 1912, and was officially dismissed on April 1, 1912
March 10, 1912	October 10th, 1913	Yuan Shikai	Beiyang Warlords
President of the Republic of China
October 10th, 1913	December 12, 1915	Yuan Shikai	Beiyang Warlords
December 12, 1915	March 22, 1916	Yuan Shikai	Beiyang Warlords	On 12 December 1915, he proclaimed himself emperor and changed his name to Empire of China , Year Title Hong Xian . On 22 March 1916, the monarchy was abolished.
March 22, 1916	June 6, 1916	Yuan Shikai	Beiyang Warlords
June 7, 1916	July 1, 1917	Li Yuanhong	Progressive party Research department
July 1, 1917	July 12, 1917	Zhang Xun		On July 1, 1917, a coup d 'etat was launched and the Qing Dynasty was restored. On July 12, Li Yuanhong's regime was defeated Duan Qirui 's" Invading Army "Overthrow.
July 6, 1917	October 10th, 1918	Feng Guozhang	Direct warlord :	On 6 July 1917, Feng Guozhang became Vice President
October 10th, 1918	June 2, 1922	Xu Shichang	Anhui warlords
June 12, 1922	June 14, 1923	Li Yuanhong	Progressive party Research department	On June 12, 1922, Li Yuanhong was reinstated as president
October 10, 1923	November 2, 1924	Cao Kun	Direct warlord
The year 1924	The year 1948			The Second Straight War Eruption, Feng Yuxiang launch Beijing coup Who overthrew him and then failed to hold this office.
May 20, 1948	January 21, 1949	Chiang Kai-shek	Chinese Kuomintang	Vice President: Lee Tsung-Jen On January 21, 1949, Chiang issued a "resignation notice", and Vice President Li Zongren became acting president.
January 21, 1949	October 1st, 1949	Li Zongren	Guangxi warlords	Acting authority Vice President of the Chinese Nationalist Party: None

October 1st, 1949 People's Republic of China Established, the President of the Republic of China is legally removed from power. ^[7]

National flag and emblem

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National emblem

Adopted in the early Republic of China The eighteen Star Flag , Five-coloured flag Later, it was promoted nationwide The sky is green and the sky is full of red flags . The national emblem has two sections, Beiyang government the Twelve national emblems and Nanjing National government the The sky is green and the day is bright. The national emblem. The national anthem usually refers to the song "After the success of the Northern Expedition" Songs of the Three People's Principles ". But when raising the national flag, use the" Republic of China flag song ".

Military affairs

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Flag of the three armed Forces of the Republic of China

The national defense Forces of the Republic of China are governed by the Constitution of the Republic of China According to Article 36, the President of the Republic of China commands the army, navy and air force, exercises the power of commander in chief, directs the armed forces, directly directs the Minister of National Defense, and the Minister orders the Chief of Staff to direct and execute it.

The Republic of China in the mainland period with neighboring countries, except World War II Besides, since the Qing Dynasty and Soviet Russia In Xinjiang, Mongolia, Northeast, and Britain There have been repeated border clashes in Tibet.

The Republic of China sent a small number of troops during the Beiyang government World War I .

During the Second World War, there were always differences and conflicts on the western border with the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom, and some problems even came to the fore People's Republic of China The period was also settled by force. The Chinese army fought with the Japanese in Shanghai, Xuzhou, Wuhan, Changsha, Nanchang, Yizao, Changheng, Jiujiang, Guiliu, Western Hunan, western Henan and northern Hubei, western Yunnan, involving more than 100,000 people in 22 battles, more than 200 battles, more than 200,000 battles, killing and capturing 2.61 million Japanese troops. ^[23]

economy

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Republic of China silver dollar

At the beginning of World War II, 92 cities were open to the outside world, railway and steamer Connecting these cities to the outside world. New occupations and Chinese and foreign enterprises developed in these cities, and the industrial growth rate reached 13.4% in 1912-1920, and briefly in 1921-1922 depression From 1923 to 1936, the average growth rate was 8.7%, from 1912 to 1942, the average growth rate was 8.4%, and from 1912 to 1949, the average growth rate was 5.6%. During the period of the Republic of China before World War II, industrial growth was still as high as 8-9% despite continuous wars. The traditional view is that the First World War reduced foreign products to China National industry The view that China's national industry had a chance to develop during the First World War is arbitrary and groundless. In fact, the First World War caused a decline in foreign direct investment in China, and many industrial projects had to be delayed for lack of badly needed equipment. The proposition that foreign investment has hindered the development of China's national industry is not supported by empirical data, and is owned by the Chinese Modern industry Its share of total modern industry did not decline until World War II, and foreign investment per capita in China was $3.75 in 1914 and $6.97 in 1936, much lower than in India and Latin America. In the 1930s foreign investment accounted for only 1% of net national product.

Rural economy

Republic of China Land system Since 1930 Land law The promulgation is more mature than the late Qing Dynasty. But due to lack of Right of primogeniture The war continued, and the institutionalized land market was still underdeveloped, so each family's land was divided into very small pieces. The average land per household was 2.62 hectares in 1910 and 2.27 hectares in 1933. The Republic of China period Land ownership Although the distribution is uneven, it is more average than other backward countries, 73% of families own an average of 15 mu of land, their land accounts for 28% of the total land, and 5% of families own more than 50 mu of farmland, accounting for 34% of the total land. Republic of China period capitalism Q.-q. Hire hands tenancy large-scale Commercial agriculture Business is not universal.

In the 1930s, 50 percent of the agricultural population Tenant system About 30% of the land farmed by sharecroppers is entirely Rent out land to tenants Yes, 20% or more Tenant farmer Cultivate their own land and lease part of it.

Yangtze River basin Fine-grained waterways were used to form regional food markets, and as a result, the region was characterized by specialization, urbanization, and primitive capitalism Song Dynasty It is the most developed region in China. There's a professional rental agent here. The tenant farmers were not necessarily very poor, and some of the large tenant farmers were richer than the small owner-farmers, and they had formed capitalist leases and hired hands for commercial agricultural operations.

Republic of China Ministry of the Interior In 1932, the survey of 849 counties recorded the diversification of lease contracts, 220 counties lease money is very common, rent mainly in cash, fixed rent in kind and divided rent in three forms. The 1934 survey of the National Government reported that 50.7% of tenant farmers paid fixed rents in kind, 28.1% paid shared rents and 21.2% paid fixed rents in cash, while the 1934-1935 land survey showed that these three groups were 60%, 15% and 24.62%, respectively, and that Labour rents accounted for 0.24%. The share of the rent depends on whether the landlord provides it seed , tools, Farm animal On the other hand, the rent of shared land rent is 12.9% higher than the fixed physical land rent, which in turn is 11% higher than the fixed cash land rent. In cases where the landlord did not provide seeds, tools, or livestock, the average lease was 43.3%. Fixed land rent in kind is more common in areas with high proportion of tenant farmers and high yield.

The Land Act of 1930 included a clause that gave a tenant the right to renew his contract indefinitely unless he volunteered to take back the land for his own use. Such provisions are not conducive to the formation of an efficient land system. Although this provision was not strictly enforced in the areas governed by the Kuomintang in the 1930s and 1940s, it was adopted later Land reform It sets a precedent for the violation of property rights and thus has a long-term negative impact on economic development. The National Government also introduced a rent cap of 37% in the 1930s, which was implemented by only a few provinces in 1949. The Nationalist government restricted rent policy during the Anti-Japanese War The Eighth Route Army It is also widely practiced in controlled areas.

These policies also have a long-term negative impact on economic development by undermining confidence in the free contract system. In the 1930s, China's agricultural productivity was rice In terms of yield per mu, slightly higher Meiji Restoration the Japan 30% lower than Japan in the 1930s, Wheat Per unit yield is equivalent to that time America For sure, but Labor productivity That's 1/14 the size of the United States. All these show that although China's agriculture was not modernized at that time, it was not very backward.

But throughout the Republican era, property rights were due to Civil law , land law, Company law The adoption and implementation of the gradual modernization. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the government could arbitrarily violate property by making it illegal for traditional Chinese sharecroppers immutability Concepts, and landlord The concept that land can be sold and redeemed forever at the original price has been replaced by the modern concept of free sale of land and judicial cases. During the Republic of China, rural China remained high Fertility rate Wadao mortality rate The largely self-sufficient rural population accounts for 75% of the population and agricultural output accounts for 65% of output. The population involved in the higher level of division of labor, mainly in large and medium-sized cities, accounted for only 6% of the population.

commerce

During the Republic of China, the rural areas were basically self-sufficient, but professional merchants developed in the cities and cities Coastal area More developed than the average backward country, this is called commercial capitalism or primitive capitalism. Shanghai , Ningbo Domestic trade between the coastal areas and the rest of the Yangtze Valley and the division of labor, mainly in the production of final consumer goods, were the main businesses of these merchants.

This commercial capitalism led not only to the deepening of the division of labor in commerce, but also to different specialized merchants dealing with different aspects of trade warehouse The emergence, special coordination, regulation of commercial activities guild and Chamber of commerce The emergence of, but also produced a fairly developed China's own financial network. Shanxi ticket number It is such a network that ADAPTS to the financial services needed after the development of business, and it issues the function of money bill and Credit and loan . Various kinds of Money house and pawnshop It also forms networks in coastal and developed areas. Various kinds of Common law and Private law It is also developed to regulate the division of labor and related transactions in developed commercial and financial activities to improve transaction efficiency.

In the silk weaving industry in the Yangtze River basin, the piecework outsourcing system between merchants and artisans has been quite developed. Unlike the late Qing Dynasty, modern financial and trade systems developed during the Republic of China. In 1929-1930, the government was freed from the constraint of having to pay war reparations on a fixed tariff, gained full tariff autonomy, and increased the tariff rate. The government took some back in the 1930s Concession territory However, the economic effect of reclaiming the concession is negative. The year 1930 Import duty from Silver standard instead Gold standard 1928 Salt duty Be unified throughout the country Financial system All kinds of exorbitant taxes are unified into the central government's taxes and the local government's taxes Land tax In 1933, the currency was unified and almost ceased to be used tael Government use in 1935 Foreign exchange reserve To support the establishment of modernization Paper money system Silver was completely banned from being used as currency. official Central Bank of China , Bank of China , Bank of Communications Paper money was officially issued, and the government began to experiment Annual budget Tax and financial reporting systems have been greatly improved. The modern government bond system also developed in 1931-1932. The bonds were mainly purchased by state government banks and private banks in Shanghai.

The national government bank plays the functions of both the central bank and the commercial bank, and the government and business are not divided, making corruption and the state opportunism Institutionalize behavior. The cross-arrangement of personnel between the big private banks and the big four official banks also led to the emergence of bad capitalist characteristics such as collusion between government and business. However, compared to the post-1949 system, private banking was fairly free and developed during the Republic of China period, with 160 private modern banks established between 1928 and 1937, which had 1,597 branches. The capital of modern banks increased from 186 million yuan in 1928 to 447 million yuan in 1935, and deposits increased from 1.12 billion yuan to 3.78 billion yuan. However, due to the monopoly position of the four official banks, considerable financial resources are mainly used to provide the government with military expenses for the unified war, and the proportion of public facilities construction used to improve transaction efficiency is too small. The four government banks cannot effectively support profitable economic development according to the law of market competition due to the separation of government and business.

Banking industry

The development of modern finance and paper money system can greatly improve the efficiency of transactions, thus promoting the evolution of division of labor and improving the productivity of the whole society. However, since China was not yet truly unified, 70% of the fiscal revenue controlled by the central government from 1928 to 1937 was used for the unification war, while the central government's control over local finances only reached in 1929 Zhejiang (Province) , Jiangsu (Province) , Anhui (Province) , Jiangxi (Province) and Henan (Province) Five provinces. Spending by central and local governments amounted to only 3.2-6% of national income between 1931 and 1936, compared with 8.2% for the US government in 1929.

In particular, after the Second World War, the government nationalized a large number of Japanese private enterprises, which greatly strengthened the monopoly of government-run enterprises on heavy industry, which was the future of China Nationalization of industry And institutional development that stifles private free enterprise creates the structural conditions for the economy.

In the later period of the Republic of China, due to the defeat of the nationalist government in the war, the financial system collapsed. Inflation rate Up to 200%. Therefore, paper money has become a tool for the government to rob people's property, and people have abandoned paper money and returned to commodity money Barter The function of paper money to improve transaction efficiency cannot be played, so the level of division of labor is greatly reduced, and the productivity is collapsed.

Transportation industry

The traffic conditions of the Republic of China were also reflected Dual economy The characteristics of. Most goods are still transported by the outdated traditional mode of transport, which was traditional in 1933 handwork , Wooden boat The contribution of animal transport to national income is three times that of modern transport. Manufactured in Japan in Tohoku in 1915 Coking coal 5.74 yuan a ton, shipped Hanyang County It is 24.54 yuan per ton, and the transaction cost is 3.27 times the production cost. This was mainly due to political instability and delayed railway construction.

traffic

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a total of 9,618 kilometers of railway were built, and the Republic of China a total of 15,000 kilometers were built, one-third of which was built by the Japanese in the northeast. There was basically no road construction in the Qing Dynasty, and the Nationalist government, partly due to the needs of the unification War, carried out large-scale road construction, a total of 116,000 kilometers, most of which were built by the Kuomintang government after 1928. From customs records, non-motorized shipments of goods began to decline in the 1920s.

diplomacy

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culture

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thought

During the period of the People's Republic of China, people's pursuit of democracy and science never stopped, and the trend of thought and movement for this purpose continued. The first to raise these two flags is May Fourth Movement . After the May 4th Movement, the trend of thought and movement in pursuit of science and democracy continued to develop. In science, there are scientific school, Historical materialism Faction counterattack metaphysics 's" Controversy between science and metaphysics "; The "scientific movement" under the guidance of the "Scientific theory of national Salvation" from the early 1930s to before the Anti-Japanese War; contemporaneity Left wing People engaged in the "new Social science" movement. On the democratic side, there is the people's democratic Movement led by the CCP. Hu Shi , Rolonki motogenous bourgeoisie " Human rights movement "; At the end of the Anti-Japanese War, the nation-wide democratic nation-building movement and so on. On the eve of the outbreak of the all-out war of resistance, left-wing cultural people also launched a campaign New Enlightenment In order to inherit the May Fourth movement and surpass the May Fourth self-appointment, democracy and science are once again regarded as the goals of enlightenment, showing the spiraling development of cultural and ideological movements.

The aftermath of this movement can still be seen not only during the War of Resistance, but even after the War of Resistance. The advocation of democracy and science has become the soul of the Republic of China culture. In this period, the development of various fields of culture was permeated with the spirit of democratization and scientific pursuit. In terms of education, the most authoritative guiding principle for this period of education reform is Dewey advertised populism (or democratic) education. It emphasizes the equality of the right to education, pays attention to the cultivation of individual personality and independent personality, attaches great importance to the spirit of experiment, and plays a great role in promoting the formation of modern education in China.

literature

Literature and art also runs through the ardent pursuit of democracy and scientific spirit. From the May Fourth Period onwards, Writing in the vernacular Begin to replace Classical Chinese writing Expose and lash out at feudalism obscurantism It has become one of the most important themes in Chinese literature and art. Lu Xun 's shout "" The True Story of Ah Q "And" Sister Xianglin ", Barking 's" Torrent trilogy "-" home "" In the spring "" In the autumn All of them are classic works that perfectly combine this theme with the form of vernacular. Such works are called "enlightenment theme literature" in the literary history circle. Plus, it's from the '30s Popular language movement The rise of the "workers, peasants and soldiers" in the Yan 'an period is also the direct product of the spirit of advocating democracy. In the press and publishing, the pursuit of democratization and science is equally strong and persistent.

population

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EDITOR

During the Republic of China, the population was about 400 million The Han nationality The majority of the population, accounting for more than 90%, followed by other ethnic minorities, whose population is less than 10% of the total population of the country.

The 38 years of the Republic of China were only a brief moment in history, and it was a politically unstable transitional period. It is also a turbulent transitional phase in the history of population development, and population data are incomplete and inaccurate. After a variety of data integration, it can be roughly known that the population in 1912 was 41.64 million, and in 1949 it was 541.67 million, basically in a slow growth state. The population of the Republic of China has several characteristics: high birth rate, high death rate and low growth rate. The national death rate at that time was 2.76%. South China Is 3.04%, Sichuan The infant mortality rate is even higher, at 15.6%, and life expectancy is only 35 years, even in cities it is only 40 years. The gender imbalance, with more men than women, caused many social problems. At that time, there were 110 men for every 100 women. Population density is unbalanced. The population density of the southeast coastal areas is large, and Jiangsu has increased to 379 people/square kilometer, while northwest There is no human being, Xinjiang The area has a population of 2.38 / km ².

nation

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EDITOR

China is a unified multi-ethnic country, including the Han and more than 50 Minority nationality . In the period of the Republic of China, the population was about 400 million, with the majority of the Han population, accounting for more than 90%, followed by other ethnic minorities, and the population was less than 10% of the total population of the country.

The Republic of China upholds equality and freedom." Republic of five nationalities ". The identification of ethnic minorities in the Republic of China is the internal need of China's construction of "nation-state" since modern times. The classification and identification of ethnic groups itself is to provide academic support for maintaining national unity and border stability. At the same time, the ethnic classification standard constructed by scholars in the Republic of China based on the knowledge of western ethnology also provided a scientific standard for the ethnic identification of New China. The work of ethnic identification in New China continues the research of ethnic classification in the Republic of China. ^[8]

The origin of modern education of ethnic minorities in China is the contribution of the Republic of China. To formulate the policy of ethnic education in the future is also to learn the profound lessons from the policy of ethnic education in the period of the Republic of China. ^[9]

The government of the Republic of China, which represented the bourgeoisie, tended to govern the nation by law for its own needs, and formulated ethnic policies with ethnic equality, autonomy and industry as the main contents, which objectively had the characteristics of overall systematicness, epochal development and historical progress. But its class nature determines that its national policy is extremely deceptive, false and utopian. Fundamentally speaking, the ethnic policy of the Republic of China government could not really solve the ethnic problem of China at that time, and finally went to failure together with the Republic of China government. ^[10]

religion

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EDITOR

Subject article: Ancestor worship , Three religions

China is a multi-religious country. Chinese religious believers mainly believe in Buddhism , Taoism , Islam , Catholicism and Christianity Chinese citizens are free to choose and express their beliefs and manifest their religious identity. At the same time, China is also one of the countries in the world with more vigorous religious development, among which Buddhism, Protestantism and Taoism have the largest number of followers in China. Chinese religious culture, there are "Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism" three religions said; On the basis of ancestor worship, the general Chinese people are influenced by the three religions of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, which are called Chinese folk beliefs. Now there are mainly Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity and so on.

Science and technology

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EDITOR

After 1911, a large number of foreign students returned to China one after another, most of them are energetic, young and promising, eager to develop the scientific cause of the motherland. They promoted the great power of science and spread the latest scientific knowledge in the West at that time. Faced with the chaotic political situation at that time, they shouted the slogans of "saving the country by science" and "saving the country by industry" and put them into practice, forming a new trend of thought among the young intellectuals and students in the early years of the Republic of China.

In 1912, geologist Zhang Hongzhao First, he called for the establishment of a geological survey institute. The same year Gauru Preparations for the central observation deck began; In 1928, the famous educator CAI Yuanpei It was established through the efforts of others Academia Sinica Subsequently, the Beiping Research Institute and various research institutes were also established, in addition to several private research institutions. The establishment of the Institute is an epoch-making event in the history of Chinese science and technology, which shows that China has formed a professional scientific and technological team, which is the backbone of the establishment and development of modern Chinese science and technology, and the guarantee of the revival of Chinese science and technology.

From 1912 to 1937, in just 25 years, various societies and organizations reached more than 110 (not including the medical part), involving the vast fields of modern science and technology. Certain disciplines such as geology , meteorology , physics In individual fields, a number of achievements with the international advanced level at that time have been achieved. in Engineering technology On the other hand, it can be copied to 10,000 tons steamship , more advanced aeroplane , CARS , various Machine tool . Sino Engineer We have mastered the application Reinforced concrete The technology of building high-rise buildings has been built with international standards Qiantang River Bridge . In this period, China's modern science and technology was established and developed, and greatly shortened the gap between science and technology behind the West. This period undoubtedly has a special significance in the history of Chinese science and technology.

In the 1920s, the research institutes of Academia Sinica made remarkable research achievements in the following 20 years. 1928-29, Historical Language Institute Anyang Little Village dig Yin Ruins And found a lot Shang Dynasty Bronze ware and Oracle bones That made ancient China True history Moving upward for thousands of years has become a major event in the history of archaeology in China and the world, which marks the maturity of modern Chinese archaeological science.

The Institute of Geology was established in the early 1930s Lushan Mountain Wait to find China quaternary The remains of a glacier. Physics is carried out electricity , magnetism , optics The study was also later pioneered Nuclear physics , metallography , crystallography and Short wave The study.

Chemistry focuses on Molecular spectrum , Sex hormone , Traditional Chinese medicine Chemical analysis of components, Chemical glass The nature and pingyang Alum ore The use of such research.

The research of the Institute of Mathematics is mainly in Modern mathematics In theory, the development Number theory , algebra , Differential geometry , topology , magnitude theory, Mathematical statistics Six part study.

The astronomy Institute has been set up Purple Mountain Observatory The compilation of the national calendar and the release of Nanjing Time, focusing on the development of Celestial body Observations of orientation and morphology, such as Variable star , comet , sunspot and Solar eclipse Observations, etc.

The Institute of Meteorology has observed and studied the changing laws of China's climate. Zhu Kezhen About China hyetal and typhoon The research work has aroused the attention of the international meteorological circle.

What the animal did zootaxonomy Research, later focused on Fish biology , entomology , parasitology , protozoology and Laboratory zoology The study on the physical and chemical properties and of the Shandong ocean plankton Research has also been done.

The plant was carried out Plant taxonomy , phycology , mycology , forestry, Plant physiology , Plant morphology , phytopathology and cytogenetics The study.

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