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Russian Empire

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Imperial Russia from 1721 to 1917
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synonymTsarist Russia(Tsarist Russia) generally refers to the Russian Empire
Russian Empire (Russian: Thep)) occlusal (scrambles) bloggers bloggers, Russian Empire; October 22, 1721-March 12, 1917 (February 27, Russian calendar), [2] In Chinese, it is generally referred to as "Tsarist Russia" and calls itself "the Third Roman". [3-4] It was 1721 Peter I Crowned until 1917 Nicholas II The Russian state until its abdication. But also History of Russia Last one up monarchy State, by The Romanov Dynasty Rule. [5]
In 1547, Principality of Moscow Grand duke Ivan the Fourth Crown as tsar . [6] [12] The year 1721 Peter I In connection with Kingdom of Sweden proceed Great Northern War After the victory, he was awarded the title of "Emperor of All Russia" by the Russian Senate on 22 October, officially making Russia an empire in the true sense of the word. [11] And in the middle and late 18th century Catherine the Second He became stronger when he ruled. in Alexander I When he ruled, the empire entered its heyday. [13] Part of the resistance to Napoleon Coalition against France And became post-war Holy Alliance The leader of the group and long thereafter served as" European gendarmerie "The role. [7] Until the middle of the nineteenth century Crimean War In the failure, only to show Serfdom in Russia Its economy and industrialization lagged behind those of other European powers, Alexander II It was done in 1861 Russian serfdom reform But not completely. In 1904, Russo-japanese War Failed again. 1914 Attended World War I Which led directly to the 1917 February Revolution , Nicholas II Sign the abdication statement. The Russian Empire is gone.
The Russian Empire in the 18th century Three partitions of Poland Defeated twice Ottoman Empire . [13] World War I Before, the Russian Empire became home to more than 20 million Square kilometer Land, a big country with more than 100 nationalities. [14]
During the reign of the Russian Empire, a powerful military empire was formed, but it could not really solve the poor and backward living conditions of Russia. serfdom Nor was it really abolished. Orthodox Church As a religious element it was one of the most important components of the Russian Empire. [15]
Chinese name
Russian Empire
Foreign name
Р о с с и й с seem а second и м п е р и second
Russian Empire
continent
Europe
capital
St. Petersburg
Major city
Moscow , St. Petersburg , Warsaw , Kyiv , Riga , Minsk , Helsinki , Astrakhan Etc.
National Day
October 22, 1721
National song
God save the Tsar
Official language
Russian
currency
rouble
Time zone
UTC+2 to +12
Political system
Absolute monarchy
National leader
Peter I , Catherine the Second , Alexander I , Nicholas I , Alexander II , Nicholas II
Population number
165.7 million (1914)
Population density
5.9 persons/km2
Major nationality
Russian , Ukrainians , Belarusians , Polish , Jew Etc.
Major religion
Orthodox Church
Land area
22880000 km²
Road access
Keep to the right
alias
Tsarist Russia, Imperial Russia, Tsarist Russia
Time frame
22 October 1721-12 March 1917 [11]
National emblem
Two-headed Hawk
National motto
The Lord is with us
Legislative body
State Duma

catalogue

  1. 1Title of a kingdom
  2. 2history
  3. ▪Early history
  4. ▪Empire establishment
  5. ▪Set foot in Western Europe
  6. ▪Modern reform
  7. ▪Decay and die
  8. 3territory
  1. ▪Sphere of domination
  2. ▪Administrative division
  3. ▪Dependent state
  4. 4political
  5. ▪regime
  6. ▪cabinet
  7. ▪congress
  8. ▪Church
  9. ▪law
  1. ▪National symbol
  2. 5diplomacy
  3. ▪With China's Qing Dynasty
  4. ▪With Central Asian countries
  5. 6culture
  6. ▪literature
  7. ▪MUSICIANS
  8. ▪ART
  9. 7Science and technology
  1. 8nation
  2. 9society
  3. ▪Social stratum
  4. ▪serfdom
  5. 10religion
  6. 11Successive monarchs

Title of a kingdom

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EDITOR
The Russian Empire was the name of Russia from 1721 to 1917. According to the Russia According to the world mainstream school of thought, the Tsardom of Russia was the name of the Russian state from 1547 to 1721, and in 1721, Peter I was in war with Russia Sweden the Great Northern War After the victory, he was awarded the title of "Emperor of All Russia" by the Russian Senate, officially called Emperor, and since then the official title of Russia is "Russian Empire", "Russian. tsar ( Julius Caesar His title became "Emperor of Russia."

history

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EDITOR

Early history

Kievan Rus in the 10th and 11th centuries
The ancestors of the Russian nation grew up in Eastern European plain A branch of the East Slavs. As a branch of the East Slavs, the early Russians lived in the west The Dniester River , east to The Dnieper River and The Black Sea The vast north shore Eastern Europe On the plain.
Russia before expansion
In 862 Rurik ruled Novgorod. In 882, Rurik Relatives of the Duchy of Novgrod Ollieg Grand duke conquest Duchy of Kiev Along with a number of other tribes, they gradually established a state (historically known as Kievan Rus') centered around Kiev Grand duke of Kiev Title. At the beginning of the 13th century, Kievan Rus Decline, Feudal system Separate from the princes.
Ivan the Terrible
In 1453, Ottoman Empire Emperor Muhammad II capture Constantinople , The Byzantine Empire Perish. Sophia Palaiolog, niece of the last emperor Constantine XI, and Ivan the Third Married, Sophia Palaiorog and Russia Grand duke Ivan the Third The son succeeded to the throne as Vasily III He has since called himself the "Third Rome". It was promulgated by Ivan the Third in 1497 code It is stipulated that Byzantine The national emblem of the double-headed eagle is the national emblem of Russia.
Ivan the Fourth It was crowned in 1547 tsar Russia began a policy of foreign expansion. gain Feudal Lord With the support of the class, a special Council was established in 1549 to codify new laws and reform local and central politics, administration, economy, and military, especially Military reform To make Russia strong; He broke all the power restrictions of the seignorial regime on the Tsar, while the former grand duke had very little power and was subject to many restrictions by the lords. Ivan IV eliminated the seignorial regime, established the tsarist autocracy, cracked down on the local separatist forces, and unified Russia. After the military became strong, it began to expand abroad. It was destroyed in the expedition of 1547-1552 The Kazan Khanate In 1556 The Astrakhan Khanate It was also annexed. By 1557, Siberian Khanate And to Ivan. Then make big The Khanate of Nogai Submit to Russia.
Ivan the Fourth The period when Russia began to become Multi-ethnic state . It was crushed in 1572 The Khanate of Crete . Put out The Kazan Khanate is History of Russia A major turning point marked the Russian power was stronger than the Mongol Tatars from then on, and the capture of Kazan changed the balance of power between the Russians and the Mongol Tatars; Smashing the Crim was significant. The Crim Khanate was Ottoman Turkey The Whip, when the shadow of advancing Ottoman Turkish aggression hung over the entire Eastern European continent, was shattered The Khanate of Crete Making Ottoman Turkish domination of Russia and Eastern Europe impossible; Open the way to Siberia The road.
In 1547, Ivan IV proclaimed himself" tsar Since the Rurik dynasty, the capital was Moscow, and the country was known as Russia. Ivan the Fourth Son Fedor childless, after death Rurik dynasty Without issue. all-Russian Zemsky Sobor Godonov was elected Tsar of Russia. He inherits Ivan the Terrible He ended the war with Poland, launched a war in the north against Sweden, and expanded the Baltic Sea. Continue the invasion eastward Siberian Khanate , south and Crimean Khanate They fought and built a series of fortified cities.
During the reign of Ivan IV, Russia also promoted the serfization process, stipulating that if a free person worked for another person for more than six months, he would become the slave of that person. It also announced that fugitive serfs could be hunted for five years. At the end of his reign, there were repeated serf uprisings in Russia.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Volga River Basin, Urals and Siberia Various ethnic groups joined Russia successively, making it a multi-ethnic state. It was located in the mid-17th century Eastern Europe The Orthodox state Ukraine And Russia merged into a unified country.

Empire establishment

1613. All Russia Zemsky Sobor (zemskysobor) announced the creation of a 17-year-old Mikhail Romanov For the tsar, The Romanov Dynasty Here. Russia started out as just one in Moscow The small states nearby, whose imperial status was not recognized by Europe. Peter I As czar, he initially fought against the Islamic Tartars to protect his southern borders Ottoman Empire . In order to continue the war against the Ottoman Empire, Peter began to visit Europe in search of Allies and to learn Western science and technology Brandenburg (Prussia), Netherlands , Britain and Holy Roman Empire Let's wait. In August 1689 Peter I formally took power.
Peter I The reform began by changing life customs. In order to make the Russians more like Western Europeans in appearance, he personally cut off the front the day after his return Have an audience with The long beards of his great nobles, soon declared it the duty of the subjects of the whole country. Peter also abolished the calendar that had long been in use in Russia, switching to the one used in most of Europe from January 1, 1700. Peter imported many cultural elements from Western Europe, the most prominent of which was the development of Russia Educational cause He personally hired several British professors to run schools and teach in Russia, and in January 1701 established the first secular school in Russian history - the Mathematical Navigation School in Moscow. After that, Peter founded many more schools. Peter I believed that money was the lifeblood of war. Upon his return from Western Europe, he immediately followed the British experience Currency reform Since 1700, new coins have been circulated in Russia. He also made a name for himself in just a few years Taxes and levies Multiply. Northern War After the beginning of the Russian army on November 19, 1700 The Battle of Narva In the defeat. This forced Peter to step up his efforts to strengthen Russia Military strength Reform in respect of... [10]
In order to increase the chances of communication with the West and to find Russia in Baltic Sea the outfall Peter was married in 1700 Ottoman Empire Armistice and war against one of the strongest nations in Europe at the time Sweden Declare war. in Gulf of Finland At Narva, the Swedes proved that the Russians were no match for them. Fortunately, Sweden fell into it at this point Poland In the midst of a battle for the throne. During this respite Peter built a new Westernized army. Peter stepped up his recruitment and followed suit Western countries The model was implemented Compulsory military service . Peter I also started the construction with the participation of the English The Baltic Fleet ; He not only built ships at home, but also instructed the ambassador to Britain several times to buy ships in England. [10] When two armies met in 1709 Poltava When they met again, Russia defeated Sweden. In the late 1690s, the explorer Johann Patkul succeeded in bringing Russia, Denmark An alliance was formed with Saxony, and The Three Kingdoms were launched in 1700 Campaign in northern Russia . After 1700-1721 Northern War Russia received access from the Kingdom of Sweden Baltic Sea The outlet to the sea makes Russia from Landlocked state Become a coastal nation.
After 1712, Tsar Peter I of Russia moved the capital St. Petersburg (The city was renamed after World War I Petrograd ) to peep Continental Europe . 1721, Tsar of Russia Peter I He changed his name to the Russian Empire and called it Peter the Great.

Set foot in Western Europe

Catherine the Second
Catherine the Second The era can be said to be the second strong period of the Russian Empire, the empire in the south and the West gained considerable strength New Panel . Catherine II, born Sophia Friedrich August, was a princess born into a declining German noble family. In 1744 she was elected wife of Peter III of Russia and later Empress of Russia. At the end of June 1762, Catherine II passed Palace coup She overthrew her incompetent husband and ascended to the throne of the queen. [8]
Ekaterina During his reign, serfdom was a serious impediment to social and economic development, and had begun to collapse on its own, with most people in the country calling for its abolition, except for the large aristocracy and the large landlord class serfdom . Catherine II also understood the importance of serfdom in Russia Social development However, she not only did not abolish serfdom, but also consolidated the serfdom system through a series of measures, and even extended serfdom to other countries Ukraine , The Don River , Volga The river basins and the southern provinces allowed the Russian aristocracy to expand and serfs to increase. [9] She also issued the decree granting Freedom to the entire Russian aristocracy, which not only exempted them from the duty of military service and gave them direct inheritance of hereditary land, but also gave them unlimited power to dispose of peasants and even buy and sell serfs as goods. In 1773 Russia broke out Pugachev uprising . Under the leadership of Pugachev, revolution broke out among the peasants, the lower masses of the citizens, the miners and some Cossacks, unable to bear the oppression of the great nobles and the great landlords. They opposed landlords and serfdom, but considered the Tsar a good tsar and did not raise slogans against the Tsar. Catherine II was so frightened by the uprising that she sent a heavy army to suppress it and brutally executed the leaders of the uprising, Pugachev, Perfilyev and others, and deported thousands of rebellious officers and soldiers Siberia . [8]
Partition of the Polish map
In 1768, with the former three continents across Europe, Asia and Africa and the eastern Black Sea Mediterranean The coastal areas and the Islamic feudalism that fought and dominated for centuries theocracy Great empire Ottoman Empire between Russo-turkish War The outbreak ended in 1774 with the Treaty of Kainaka Lake. According to this treaty, Russia obtained the original Ottoman Empire The Black Sea By the sea, Crimea's Tatars had seceded Ottoman Empire "Independence", which Catherine annexed in 1783 Crimean Khanate .
In 1787, Second Russo-Turkish War Outbreak, 1792 End of war Later, Russia extended its influence into Ottoman Turkey subordinate Balkan Peninsula ; Although Ottoman power was not completely driven out of the Balkans in southeastern Europe by the Russian Empire, it was no longer a serious threat to Russia. In the West, Russia is taking advantage Poland When the nation's power is waning, and Prussia , Austria Partition Poland.
As a major European power, imperial Russia was inevitably involved in the end Napoleonic Wars . In June 1812, the French emperor Napoleon invaded Russia with 600,000 troops, a force larger than the Russian army The Regular Army More than twice the size and better equipped. But at the same time as Napoleon pushed forward, he also faced the problem of overexpansion. The scorched-earth tactics used by the Russians and the cold Russian winter caused Napoleon to suffer a catastrophic defeat: fewer than 30,000 people were able to return to their homeland. As the French army retreated, the Russian army advanced to Central Europe And Western Europe, and finally at the gates of Paris. in Coalition against France After the defeat of Napoleon, Emperor Alexander I was regarded as the "savior of Europe". In December 1825, the aristocratic revolutionaries Petersburg Hold an uprising (i.e The Decembrist uprising ), was suppressed.

Modern reform

Tsar Alexander II
In the mid-16th century Russia became a semi-Asian country on the eastern edge of Europe centralization The feudal state prevailed Feudal serfdom . Due to the obstruction of feudal serfdom, by the mid-19th century, Russia capitalism Industrial development is slow, lagging behind other major Capitalist country . The conditions of the Russian serfs were miserable, and riots were frequent.
Faced with a grave crisis, 1861, the Emperor Alexander II Have to sign out serfdom The decree. The law stated that serfs were legally "free persons"; Landlords could no longer buy or sell serfs or interfere in their lives; When serfs were "emancipated," they were given a piece of land, but they had to pay for it.
The reforms of 1861 were carried out from the top down by the Tsar bourgeoisie Because the abolition of serfdom was conducive to the development of capitalism and enabled Russia to develop into a modern capitalist power, it became a major turning point in modern history. However, this reform was not thorough enough, and some remnants of feudalism were preserved.

Decay and die

The naval Battle of Tsushima
1905 Russo-japanese War The failure of the Tsarist regime increased popular discontent in the capital Petrograd There were large-scale public anti-war petitions, and the military police opened fire without authorization, resulting in the so-called "anti-war". Bloody Sunday This event became the centrepiece of the 1905 All-Russian Revolution Blasting fuse . Although the revolution was successfully suppressed, it seriously shook the authority of the Tsar. And it makes reform urgent. So the tsar used Stolypin After Stolypin took office, he introduced the land reform system and severely suppressed the peasant movement, although it was quite effective, but it still did not solve the fundamental social problems.
In 1914, World War I In continental Europe, Russia joined forces with Britain and France The Entente countries The camp declared war on Germany and Austria, and the First World War brought great suffering to the Russian people. Late in the war, in March 1917, Russia broke out." February Revolution Three hundred years of autocratic rule in Tsarist Russia was overthrown.
Attack the Winter Palace
1917 in Russia February Revolution Later, Russia established a bourgeoisie Provisional government It was established with the workers' and soldiers' representatives in the February Revolution Soviet Exist simultaneously. It is therefore once bourgeois Democratic revolution . Russia's interim government holds the main power. The bourgeois provisional government carried on regardless of the lives of the people World war And provoked a backlash from the people. And arrested and killed Bolsheviks on a massive scale. The Bolshevik Party Forced to go underground. As the situation changed, the Bolshevik party was established in August Armed uprising The policy of...
On the night of November 6, 1917, Lenin secretly came to the uprising in Petrograd Commander in chief Ministry -- The Smolny Palace , leading the uprising. At 9:45 p.m. on November 7, 1917, a warship anchored near Petrograd, the Russian capital," Oh, Alfred "A few bursts of cannon fire, Insurrectionary army To the last stronghold of the bourgeois provisional government - Winter Palace A general assault was launched. In the end, the armed uprising won. This is historic Russia." October Revolution ".

territory

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EDITOR

Sphere of domination

The Russian Empire expanded
The Russian Empire spanned Europe and Asia (from 1799 to 1856 in North America) Alaska Established colonies) with an area of 22.88 million Square kilometer (1914), slightly less North America , Much larger than South America It was the second largest country in the world, after British Empire Its territory rises from the east The Bering Strait Take the whole Siberia and Eastern European plain , arriving in the west Baltic Sea , south to Caucasus Mountains , Caspian Sea and The Hindu Kush Mountains Across the Amur River ( Amur River ) and Wusuli River See China, land and Lee's Korea (before 1910), Imperial Japan (after 1905), China (before 1912 was Qing Dynasty Empire, after 1912 Republic of China ), Afghanistan , Persia ( Iran ), Ottoman Empire ( Türkiye ), Romania , Austro-hungarian Empire , German Empire , Sweden , Norse Bordering countries or regions.
Russia It covers a vast area, spanning ten time zones (East II to East XII). At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Russia had a total area of 22.88 million square kilometers, 42% of the area of Eurasia and Asia, accounting for 1/22 of the entire Earth's area, and about 1/6 of the earth's land area.
Except for the original Soviet republics ( Russia , Ukraine , Belarus , Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , Republic of Lithuania , Estonia , Latvia , Moldova The Russian Empire until 1917 also included Finland ( Grand Duchy of Finland ), Poland , Türkiye the Ardahan Province , Altwyn Province , Odel Province , Kars Province and Erzurum Province The northeast region. Between 1742 and 1867, Alaska It was part of the Russian Empire.
with Sweden in Great Northern War Fail in, Hamina The treaty was signed in September 1809, and Finland became an autonomous country Grand duchy Was incorporated into the Russian Empire. tsar As a constitutional monarch, through his government and the local of Finland senate To control Grand Duchy of Finland Have a firm grip on it Power of appointment and removal .

Administrative division

At its peak, the territory reached 22.88 million Square kilometer Is second only to British Empire and Mongol Empire . The most east ever occupied Alaska (sold to the United States in 1867), Sphere of influence Vast. For better administration, Russia is divided into 81 provinces, 20 districts, and one autonomous region.
The political boundaries of the European part of Russia are roughly the same Eastern European plain the Natural boundary Consistent, but in addition to this it also occupied the Finnish Conference Kingdom and the Polish Conference Kingdom. Its northern boundary has been reached The Arctic Ocean And the islands of the Arctic Ocean.
Russo-imperial The Ural Mountains Taking the east as its northern Asian territory, Siberia And the grasslands to its south.
The Asian part of the Russian Empire and the European part The Ural Mountains , The Ural River , and Caspian Sea - Caucasus Mountains Is bounded. The south boundary has been reached The Black Sea The southeast coast and the Caucasus Mountains. The western border in the traditional sense from Kola peninsula via Baltic Sea until Danube The estuary, which contained the Russian portion of Poland. Neighboring countries to the west Kingdom of Prussia , Austrian Empire , and Romania .

Dependent state

Russo-imperial Client state and Protectorate state , there is Bukhara Khanate , The Khanate of Shiva And after 1914 Tuva ( Tang Nu Wu Liang Hai ), etc. The Asian part of the Russian Empire consisted of 11 provinces, 17 districts, and one autonomous region. Sakhalin Island ). In addition to Russia itself, there are eight other provinces in Finland and ten in Poland. The European part of the Russian Empire had 59 provinces and one district (Don District), which was owned by the Minister of War Right of jurisdiction ; Other provinces have their own governors in charge of local government.
In addition, there is usually a secretary general above the governors of the provinces, who generally has the prerogative to mobilize the troops within their jurisdiction. In 1906, the Russian Empire was already in Finland , Warsaw , Vilnius , Kyiv , Moscow and Riga There is a secretary General. Larger cities ( St. Petersburg , Moscow , Odessa , Sevastopol , Kerch , Nikolaev , Rostov There are also their own administrative systems, independent of the provinces; In these cities the prefect is equivalent to the prefect.

political

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EDITOR

regime

  • regime
According to the Almanac of European Royal Genealogies, the Russian Empire adopted the Prussian style in 1910 bourgeoisie Constitutional monarchy The regime. It was established in October 1905 as a transitional and self-contained regime. Yet before that day, Russia tsar The right is arbitrary and unlimited.
In October the proclamation reformed the Law and the First Empire Duma Since the beginning (April 27, 1906), the word despotism has been carefully preserved, but the power has been reduced to a limited degree. This regime, however, could not become a meaningful constitution because it lacked a parliamentary unit. But unlimited despotism gives room for self-limiting despotism, whether it will be permanent or only permanent dictator The rule of opinion and the conduct of the parties will only increase the conflict between the parties. At present, then, the Russian system of government is best defined as a system of limited monarchical power under an autocratic emperor.
  • tsar
Peter the Great In 1721 he renamed himself Emperor and declared himself full Russia The Emperor. Subsequent rulers continued to use the name until 1917 February Revolution Until overthrown.
Russian monarchs used it from 1547 to 1721 tsar This title, however, was followed by the use of the name Emperor, only in Chinese Half tone and half meaning Under the translation, it is still called tsar .
The emperor's power prior to the October Proclamation was limited by two provisions designed to protect the existing system. Pope Paul I believed that both the emperor and his spouse must be Orthodox Church Members of the church, and it must be obeyed Right of inheritance Law (PaulineLaws) provisions. But on October 17, 1905, the situation changed, and the emperor voluntarily limited his legislative powers. He believed that no proposal could be passed into law without the consent of the Imperial Duma, a freely elected national Assembly. Although on April 28, 1906 it appeared with the above Moral responsibility Relevant laws, and Organic law But at the same time the emperor still had the right to dissolve the Duma, and he exercised that right.

cabinet

  • Council of State
For reform Central agency , Peter I It was launched in February 1711 Türkiye An edict was issued on the eve of the formation of the Senate. The Senate replaced the Duma as the supreme body of a fully supervised state Organ of power And the taming tool of the Tsar, it was built on Autocratic system The formation is of great significance. [10]
  • Modern cabinet
By law of October 18, 1905, a Supreme Council was established to support the Tsar, and was established Head of government Under the name of the Russian Prime Minister. The Government of Russia consists of all its government departments and their ministers, who are listed below:
Judges of the Royal Court; Minister of Foreign affairs ; Secretary of War; Commander of the Navy and Minister of Economy; Minister of Commerce and Industry (created 1905); Ministers of State (including security, health, censorship and publishing, postal and communications, foreign territorial affairs, affairs statistics); Minister of Agriculture; Minister of Transport; The Minister of Justice; Minister of Education.

congress

  • Imperial council
By a law enacted on February 20, 1906, the Imperial Parliament and the Imperial Duma were merged into legislation The House of Lords And the legislative power of the emperor from this time on could only function properly with the cooperation of the two chambers.
Of the 196 seats in the Imperial Council, 98 were nominated by the Emperor and the remaining 98 were elected, with the Prime Minister as one of its members. Of these elected members, three were Greek Orthodox priests, three were white priests in charge of diocesan or secular offices, the remaining 18 were nobles, six were members of universities or scientific academies, six were members of chambers of commerce, six were members of the Bureau of Industry, 18 were members of the government with local self-government, and the remaining 16 were none, and six were members of the Government Poland . However, when the legislature works with the Duma, the group's proposals are rarely implemented.
  • senate
Repose on Reform of Peter I Russia's senate (П р а kind guide и т е л ь с т kind guide ю щ и й с е н а т, PravitelstvuyushchiSenat, iedirectingorgoverningsenate) all members appointed by the tsar. And its great function is composed of the functions of its separate departments. It is owned Veto power The highest body of the State; It's the imperial accounting department, too Political prisoner The Supreme Court of the United States; And it has a department to do the same The British College of Arms Similar effect. It also owns the arguments that take place in all the organs of the Empire Jurisdictional power Especially for the central representatives and Local election Out of the contradictions between the agencies. Finally, it also enacts new laws, with which a theoretical function is conferred United States Supreme Court Same right: refusal to implement and Basic law Conflicting measures.
  • Lower house (Duma)
The Imperial Duma or British Duma (Duma Empire) formed the Russian Parliament Lower house It has a total of 442 seats and has an extremely complex electoral system. The job of these members was to enlist the support of the wealthy families who made up the overwhelming majority of them, especially the landlord class, and to speak on behalf of the Russian people. except Central Asia Each of the other provinces put forward a few members, and most of them came from the big cities. However, this does not mean that they can become full members of parliament, they must still pass Peasant , citizens and Landlord class In order to officially take office. However, when the delegation represented the weaker owners, the wealthy owners would be present in person, the citizens (metropolitan people) were divided into two groups according to taxable property and were elected members of the provincial delegation, and the peasants were represented by the delegation of the smaller districts. The working class, on the other hand, is treated in a special way, by electing one or more representatives, if not 50 employees per factory deputation .
Duma
In the delegation they held a secret majority election, winner He may represent him in the Imperial Duma. Since these people formed a conservative force (the House of Commons and the citizens), reformist Have the power to elect a person from all levels of government to participate in the delegation. So if Douma has some radicals, it is because they enjoy the special status of seven big cities Exclusive right Respectively are St. Petersburg , Moscow , Kyiv , Odessa , Riga And Polish Warsaw and Rhoades . However, members of the Duma are directly elected by the regions, although their election is differentiated according to taxable property, and this gives the wealthy some advantage and elects the same number of deputies.

Church

Most sacred synod (Founded in 1721) Yes Russian Orthodox Church The highest organ of government. It was presided over by a secular prosecutor, representing the Tsar, as well Moscow , St. Petersburg , Kyiv Three large cities and Georgia There are also rotating bishops.

law

Catherine herself did it in 1767 Codex committee She wrote the Oracles, she quoted a lot of Enlightenment thinkers, the Oracles are full of words like "liberty", "equality", "democracy" and this is Catherine's great practice of putting her democratic ideas into law. It reflects the Empress's determination to promote democracy in Russia at the beginning of her reign. [8]

National symbol

  • flag
The year 1721 Peter the Great After his accession to the throne, the flag of the Russian Empire was for a long time the private imperial flag of the Romanov royal family - black on a gold background Two-headed Hawk In the late 19th century, Nicholas II To change the flag to its current form. The flag is a horizontal rectangle with a length to width ratio of about 3:2. The flag surface consists of three parallel and equal horizontal rectangles connected, white, blue and red from top to bottom.
Russian Empire Vast territory Land span Frigid zone , Subfrigid zone and Temperate zone three Climatic zone ", with a three-color horizontal rectangle connected in parallel, indicating Russia Geographical position On this feature. White represents the cold zone all year round white snow Natural landscape ; Blue represents both the subcold zone Climatic province It also symbolizes Russia's rich underground minerals and forests, water power and so on Natural resources ; Red is the symbol and symbol of the temperate zone History of Russia The long and right Human civilization The contribution of... The white, blue and red tricolor is from 1697 Peter the Great The tricolor flag adopted during the reign of red, white and blue, red, white and blue are called Pan-slavic color . The year 1917 October Revolution Cancel after victory tricolour .
  • National emblem
in Eastern Roman Empire In the process of extinction, Russia introduced the two-headed eagle into its national emblem. Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan the Third He married in 1473 The Byzantine Empire the Sophia Palaiorog After the princess, put the two-headed eagle in Coat of arms of Russia To show that Moscow is the third Rome.
The double-headed eagle dates back to the 15th century. The two-headed eagle was originally The Byzantine Empire The emblem of Constantine I. The Byzantine Empire once spanned Eurasian At the junction of two continents, it looks west to southeastern Europe at one end, and east at the other Asia The western region is a symbol of the unity between the two continents and the union of peoples. In 1497, the double-headed eagle was first used as a state emblem in Russia Great seal of the state It appeared until 1918.

diplomacy

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EDITOR

With China's Qing Dynasty

As early as the 17th century, Russia had been actively moving towards The Far East Expansion and conflict with the Qing Dynasty of China. China and Russia signed treaties in 1689 and 1727, respectively. The Treaty of Nerchinsk "" Treaty of Brenski "And" Treaty of Kyakhta The establishment of borders did not stop Russia's expansionist ambitions.
May 1858, Russia Anglo-french army When Russia invaded China, it threatened to use force Qing government Sign the" Treaty of Aihui ", to Amur River Is the boundary. Signed in 1860 Sino-russian Treaty of Beijing The Russian Empire even more Outer Manchuria (include Sakhalin Annex, and acquire Vladivostok this Open port To expand it to the west Pacific The impact of...
The Russian Empire's annexation of Chinese territory
On the other hand, Russia is also trying to get its hands on it Sakhalin and Kuril Islands And compete with Japan. On May 7, 1875, Japan and Russia signed a treaty Huatai Thousand Island Exchange Treaty Russia gave the Kuril Islands to Japan in exchange for Japan's southern Sakhalin island.
From 1858 to 1911, Russia forced the Qing government to sign a series of unequal treaties, and cooperated with Britain against China Pamir region Two private partitions were carried out, including large areas of northeast and northwest China into its territory and instigation Outer Mongolia Separated from China and occupied by armed forces Jiangdong sixty-four Tun Tangnuulianghai (officially incorporated into Russia in 1944) and other regions, together, China lost more than 3.3 million square kilometers of territory. [1]
In the late 19th century, Russia began to Qing Court rent Dalian , be established Guandong . Russia got it, too Dongqing Railway The building right inside Manchuria (that is, the three Eastern provinces) further aggression with the intention of establishing the so-called "Yellow Russia". The aim was to transform the vast, densely populated inner Manchuria into Russian territory colony . This is the ultimate goal of Russia's grand strategy for the Far East. 1900 Gengzi Russia difficult That is, Russia joined the eight-nation coalition to invade China, manufactured The Helanpur massacre , Jiangdong 64 Tun massacre The implementation of the strategy was greatly accelerated after the looting of many towns in inner Manchuria and other diplomatic incidents. But since Russia's 1905 Russo-japanese War Defeated by the Japanese Empire, and there was a revolution in their own country Strategic plan Thus a picture cake.
Russia also acquired land in North America in 1787, but sold it in 1867 for $7.2 million America That is, contemporary Alaska .

With Central Asian countries

On the Central Asian side, Russia's earliest activities in Central Asia were Peter the Great The Times, then have been to The Khanate of Shiva Expand. in Crimean War After the failure. Expansion into Central Asia, egged on by Ignachev. by Aral Sea Let's go. To the Khanate of Shiva with Bukhara . The two countries became dependent states. In 1864, he attacked A surname with Tashkent . In 1877, he occupied all of Central Asia. The Russians also tried to support The Khanate of Hohan The aggressor Yakub He invaded Xinjiang, captured Ili, and ended up in Zuo Zongtang defeat Yakub , and Zeng Jize In the case of resolute negotiation, "reluctant to part" had to leave Ili, but still cut off the Chinese in Xinjiang A lot of territory.

culture

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EDITOR

literature

The literature of Peter I's period is still a mixture of old and new, with a transitional nature. Shaferov's and Feofan Prokopovich's politics were opposed to conservatism and preached openness Absolute monarchy From which you can see the time Social contradiction And the movement. It emerged in the 1930s on the basis of Peter's reforms classicism It was nearly half a century later Russian literature The basic genre is represented enlightenment The struggle against the principles of medieval thought.
Pushkin
Kontemir's satirical poems focused on criticizing the fatalism and feudalism in society in the 1920s and 1930s Hierarchical concept "Was still widely read in the 1950s. Lomonosov wrote hymns in praise of the enlightened monarch Scientific culture For the benefit of mankind. He makes Literary genre And the stylistics were normalized, and the syllabic poems were changed into syllabic and accented poems more suited to the characteristics of the Russian language, towards the unification of Russia National culture The formation and the development of poetry played a driving role.
In the late 1760s and early 1770s, satirical magazines were popular, the most prominent of which was Novikov's magazine. drone "And" The Painter." At the end of the 1970s, Djerchavin's eulogy began to appear. He combined satire and praise, criticism and affirmation, and introduced the "vulgar" daily life into his poems, thus breaking through the mode of classicism. Von Weissing In its excellent comedy "Fine Hakama Boy" although still abide by" Three unities But it deeply exposed the brutality and cruelty of the serf owners parasitism Pointing out that serfdom is the root of all evil in Russia, to realism A step forward.
In the late 18th century, under the catalyst of English, German, French and other countries' literature, sentimentalism It flourished in Russia, reflecting the period 1773-1775 Pugachev uprising The melancholy mood of the post-noble. Its advocate, Karamzin (1766-1826), broke the classicist taboo and introduced the image of the humble into literature, writing in the Miserable Lisa (1792) about a peasant girl who fell in love with an aristocratic young man, and finally abandoned himself. The novel focuses on rendering the inner feelings of the characters, the style is novel, the language is elegant and smooth, and it is popular after publication.
Leo Tolstoy
By the 1812 rebellion Napoleonic Wars Victory trigger National consciousness Under the influence of upsurge and social unrest, Russian literature in the early 19th century changed rapidly, with the nature of the new and the old. Krylov Allegorical sum Griboyetov The comedies of (1795-1829), although following the classical poetic norms, have a distinct realistic character in their presentation of Russian social conflicts, plots, images, and vivid language. Sentimentalism quickly became romanticism In place of; Zhukovsky and Bakushkov (1787-1855) and other poems were born out of Kalamzin's pursuit of inner freedom and harmony, revealing a pessimistic and reclusive mood; Rayleyev (1795-1826) and Malinsky (1797-1837) and other Decembrist poems and novels more inherited Radishev The tradition is permeated with revolutionary ideas of opposing tyranny and fighting for freedom.
Since about the mid-1820s, since 1825 Aristocratic revolution Romanticism in Russian literature soon gave way to an emphasis on calm and objective observation and description of life and the need to shape it Typical environment Hit the mark Typical character As the main characteristic of realism. Pushkin, who originally belonged to the active romantic poets along with the Decembrists, from this time on produced a large number of realistic plays, novels and poems, for which he was revered as a Russian Modern literature The Father of... Later Lermontov was first a romantic poet, Gogol also started from romanticism and always maintained romantic temperament, but the former's novel "Contemporary Hero" and the latter's plays and novels are austere realism. They further enriched and consolidated Pushkin's realistic art from two different aspects: psychological analysis and humorous satire. The critic Belinsky, mainly through the analysis of the three writers' creation, called realism (then called naturalism It laid a solid theoretical foundation, which has since become the main trend of Russian literature for more than half a century. subsequent Herzen , Goncharov, Turgenev, Nekrasov, Dostoevsky, Ostrovsky, Saltikov. - Schedrin Tolstoy, Chekhov, etc., are world-class giants of novels, poems, and plays. Also belonging to or close to this major school at the time were Dubreuropov and Pisarev The critical works of Chutchev, Krytsov And the poetry of the fund, as well Pisemski Grigorovich, Leskov, Ge Uspinski Novels, features, etc.

MUSICIANS

At the end of the 18th century, under the influence of the Russian Enlightenment, the Russian composer School was formed. The representative figures are: Berezovsky, Bobortnyansky, Pashkevich, Formin, Khandoshkin and so on. The commonality of their creation is that they pay attention to the themes of Russian folk life, adopt Russian folk songs, and their music has certain national characteristics. Opera is the most concentrated reflection of their creative face. Representative works include: Sokolowski's Grinders - Wizards, Liars and matchmakers, Kinsky and Pashkovich's Good Deeds, Formin's Coachman and so on.
Tchaikovsky
Russian music at the beginning of the 19th century showed a romantic tendency. Opera subjects prefer fairy tales and folklore, the pursuit of luxurious stage effects, the music is full of sentimental sentiment. In the 30s and 40s, Mikhail Glinka It marks the establishment of the classical tradition of Russian music. Glinka draws on European classical and Romantic school The results of the study of the Russian nation Folk music The combination of professional musical skills and rustic Russian folk music raised Russian musical culture to the advanced level of Europe and laid the foundation for Russia National music school A solid foundation. His patriotic opera Ivan Susanin (originally titled "Dedicated to the Tsar") and mythological opera "Ivan Susanin" Ruslan and Lyudmila ", Orchestral music Fantasia "Kamalinskaya" and vocal music composed with poems by A.C. Pushkin Romance "I Remember That Wonderful Moment" and "The Breeze of the Night" became examples of Russian music. In the late '50s and' 60s, with Social movement With the upsurge of the progressive trend of thought, Russian music culture has gained a more extensive development. The Rubenstein brothers have made outstanding contributions to music performance activities and professional music education. 1859 In St. Petersburg, Rubenstein ', Rubenstein was founded Music of Russia The Association. Rubinstein founded a chapter in Moscow the following year. They hold a wide range of symphonic music and Chamber music Concerts, music training classes. Later, on this basis, St. Petersburg and St Moscow Conservatory .
Tchaikovsky, who was at the same time, paid attention Music art the Ideological nature and National tradition In terms of him and powergroup There are not many differences, but there are different characteristics in the creative practice. This is mainly manifested in the following aspects: his works deeply reflect the psychological distress of the Russian intellectual class under the autocratic and repressive policy of the Tsar in the 1880s and 1890s; The tone of the work is more derived from urban songs; The creative field expanded to cover almost everything Musical genre And form; The composition technique is more comprehensive and perfect. His works are interwoven theatricality The conflict, lyric confession and the description of custom life, the euphemistic melody, the sincere feelings and the vivid image give people a profound infection. His most famous works are: Symphony No. 4, Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 6 (Symphony No. 6) pathos "), fantasy overture "Romeo and Juliet"," Piano Concerto No. 1 ", D major " Violin concerto ", opera" Yevgeny Onegin "And" Queen of spades ", dance drama "Swan Lake" Sleeping Beauty "And" nutcracker ", String Quartet No. 1, Piano trio "In Memory of a Great Artist" and the vocal romances "Bless You, Forest" and "Is It Daylight?" Let's wait.
Since the end of the 19th century, there has been a new situation in the development of professional music in Russia. The combination of native traditions and foreign influences has produced a variety of creative styles and personalities. Russian music since the 19th century Performing arts Flourished, established the Russian School, and emerged many famous figures. Among them was the singer O.A. Petrovstravens Shyabin ', Shariabin, Nezhdanova, Sobinov, Yershov, pianists Rubinstein, Rachmaninoff, violinist Gerzhmali, cellist Davydov, conductor S. Kusevitsky Let's wait.

ART

The reign of Peter the Great to Catherine the Great throughout the 18th century was a period of reform and "Europeanization" in Russia. Russian culture developed rapidly under the influence of Italian and French classical art, and Russian art began to be incorporated into the development process of European literature and art, and the popular classicism in Europe was also imitated and imitated in Russia.
The first period of the 19th century was the foundation period of Russian national art. Founded in the mid-18th century Royal Academy of Fine Arts In more than half a century, it has gradually cultivated a group of artists of this nation, who breathe the air of this nation and absorb the nourishment of national culture, and the literature and art with Russian characteristics began to emerge on the world stage. The fourth stage is from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, that is, from Critical realism into formalism and aestheticism Factors in the emergence of new schools, of which critical realism is the most brilliant. Critical realism in Russia Literary and artistic creation In the focus on reality and in with Western Europe In a wide range of exchanges, with its themes, genres, styles and techniques of diversity and originality In the world art occupies an important position, it and the French literature and art at that time, each leading a coquette, each launched a world-class master, formed a dazzling string of pearls in the history of literature and art.
Rebin, The Trotters on the Volga

Science and technology

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EDITOR
  • railway
post-1860 Railway planning Its construction had a profound impact on the economy, culture and life of the Russian Empire. The central authorities and the aristocracy basically monopolized decision-making, but the local gentile classes provided the demand for railway construction. Local nobles, merchants, and entrepreneurs imagined a future "from local to imperial," pursuing their own interests, often competing with other cities, and thus contributing to the empire's economy.
The Russian army built two major railways in Central Asia in the 1880s: the Caucasus Railway, which connected The Black Sea littoral Batumi and Caspian Sea littoral Baku ; The Outer Caspian Railway, by the Caspian Sea waterfront Krasnovodsk From, until Bukhara , Samarkand and Tashkent . The two railways served the commercial and strategic needs of the Empire, while facilitating Population mobility .
Railways in Russia

nation

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EDITOR
At the beginning of the 20th century, there were more than 200 ethnic groups in Russia, speaking 146 languages and dialects. But the majority of the country's inhabitants (nearly 80%) are made up of large Russians, Ukraine People, Belarusians, Polish And five Jews Ethnic composition . Great Russians make up 43% of the country's population (55.7 million people); Ukrainians (or Little Russians) make up 18% (22.4 million) and Belarusians 4.7% (5.9 million), these three Russian nation (Before the 1917 revolution, the term "all-Russian" included the three main East Slavic ethnic groups - Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians - which together accounted for 68% of the country's total population.

society

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EDITOR

Social stratum

Russians in the Russian Empire were divided into four classes: aristocrats, merchants, Cossack and Peasant . Caucasians, Tatars, etc Minority nationality They are called foreigners. Of the Russian population, 81.6% are peasants, 9.3% are merchants, 6.2% are soldiers, and only 0.9% are aristocrats (0.6%) clergy (0.3%). Of the more than 88 million peasants, more than half were serfs, the rest were peasants confined to the land (the vast majority) and free peasants (the few).

serfdom

Russia serfdom Founded in the 16th century, it became law in the mid-17th century (1647). After the reforms of 1861, serfdom was abolished in the Russian Empire. The serfs turned peasants were given allotments of arable land. But the land was just given away Rural commune An organization that manages the ownership and taxation of these lands. If farmers wanted to actually own their land, they had to pay a tax rate. Ransom money ". At that time, landless farmers had to work for others to earn money to "redeem" their land. However, after paying this money to the Tsar, the newly born peasants officially became peasants, free from any restrictions imposed by the landlords. But it's a lot of money, because it comes first tsar Ransom was paid to the landowners, so the peasants returned the money directly to the Tsar, which the latter demanded Annual interest rate It's 6%, and the payout period is 49 years. In addition, the reason for economic compensation to the landowners was not the land, but that they had lost what they should have done for it Voluntary labor Of the serfs. Not only that, but many landowners also considered how to reduce the already pitiful amount of land available to their serfs in the past, such as depriving them of the part they needed most: the land around the serf's hut grassplot . As a result, free farmers still had to work for their former owners in order to repay the cost of their land.

religion

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EDITOR
The state religion of the Russian Empire was Orthodox Church , tsar Is its leader, while retaining the title of supreme protector. Although the tsar could appoint and remove, he could not change the doctrine or the content of the church. Orthodox in the religious sense Leading organ It is the Synod of the most Holy Bishops, which has great power in religious matters. Theoretically owned Religious belief They were free, but there were certain restrictions on Jews.
St. Basil's Cathedral, the most famous Orthodox site in Russia

Successive monarchs

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EDITOR
Serial number
Chinese translation
Time in place
remark
1
Ivan the Fourth
1547-1584
Ivan the Terrible
2
Fedor Ivanovich
From 1584 to 1598
Fyodor I (bell ringer)
3
Boris Godonov
From 1598 to 1605
Blank
4
Fyodor Godonov
1605 (58 days)
Fyodor the Second
5
The false Dimitri I
From 1605 to 1606
Blank
6
Vasily IV
From 1606 to 1610
Blank
7
Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov
From 1613 to 1645
Mikhail the First
8
Alexei the First
From 1645 to 1676
Blank
9
Fedor Alexievich
From 1676 to 1682
Fyodor the Third
10
Ivan V
From 1682 to 1689
Blank
11
Peter I
From 1689 to 1721
Great emperor
Period of the Russian Empire (beginning 1721)
11
Peter I
1721-1725
Great emperor
12
Catherine the Great
1725-1727
-
13
Peter II
1727-1730
-
14
Anna I
From 1730 to 1740
-
15
Ivan VI
1740-1741
-
16
Elizabeth I
From 1741 to 1762
-
17
Peter III
1762-1762
-
18
Catherine the Second
From 1762 to 1796
Great emperor
19
Paul I
From 1796 to 1801
-
20
Alexander I
From 1801 to 1825
Divine King
21
Nicholas I
1825-1855
-
22
Alexander II
From 1855 to 1881
liberator
23
Alexander III
From 1881 to 1894
The peacemaker
24
Nicholas II
From 1894 to 1917
martyr
Hit the road
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