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Protestantism
One of the three major schools of Christianity
Protestantism, also known as Protestantism, and
Catholicism
,
Orthodox Church
Be called together
Three schools of Christianity
. Including the 16th century
The Reformation in Europe
The new sects that emerged from the Ecumenical Church of Rome (Ecumenical Christianity) : Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglican, and subsequently more sects that diverge from these sects. Protestantism is also called "Protestantism" and "Anti-Luozong". Chinese often use the term"
Christianity
The term "Protestantism" refers only to Protestantism. The folk is often called Jesus because of the right
Roman Catholic
(i.e.
Catholicism
With a protest attitude, it does not recognize the papal status of the Bishop of Rome, so it is generally called in the West
Protestantism
It is called "Anti-Luo Sect" or "Protest sect". The word comes from the German "Protestanten" (protester), originally referring to the 1529
German Empire
The Protestant princes and city representatives who protested against the resolution restoring Catholic prerogatives were later given the common name of the Protestant denominations. Mainly distributed in
Britain
,
Germany
,
Switzerland
,
Nordic five
and
America
,
Canada
,
Australia
,
NZ
Wait for the country.
[1]
- Chinese name
- Protestantism
- Foreign name
- Protestantism
- sutra
- The Bible
- Have faith in
- Jesus Christ
- superclass
- Love God and love, not the world
- reform
- Martin Luther, John Calvin
- Instrument type
- baptism , Communion service
catalogue
- 1Protestant origins
- 2Major Protestant denominations
- ▪Lutheranism
- ▪Calvinist
- ▪Episcopal Church
- ▪Baptists
- ▪Methodism
- 3Doctrine Creed
- ▪Core doctrine
- ▪creed
- 4Development of protestantism in China
- ▪The late Qing Dynasty
- ▪The Republic of China
- ▪New China
Early pioneer of reform
The Catholic Church with the Pope as its core was the "great tradition" that integrated Western Europe in the Middle Ages, but outside of this, each
nation
Or there are a variety of "small traditions" in each region. When they appeared doctrinally or organizationally to be reactionary to the "grand tradition," the Inquisition ruled them heretics. From the 13th century onwards, the Inquisition frequently pursued heretics throughout Western Europe. After entering the late Middle Ages, the undercurrent of nationalism had formed, and the so-called "heresy" was increasingly combined with the movement for national self-determination, causing greater upheaval in the Church. The heresy movement headed by Wycliffe and Hus, respectively, took place in the marginal areas of the Western European Catholic cultural circle, namely
Britain
And Bohemia.
[1]
Britain
As an outlying island on the European mainland, relations with the Pope in Rome have always been strained. In 1351, England and Parliament enacted the Ordination Act, which provided for the election of bishops and other clergy without papal interference. In 1353, the law forbade the "unauthorised exercise of religious justice" and prohibited citizens from appealing outside England, on the grounds that they would be deprived of their citizenship. These decrees, though not necessarily effective, are a clear sign of rising nationalism in Britain. In this context, Wycliffe's theory of church reform was soon combined with the turbulent political situation and triggered a large-scale social movement.
[2]
Wycliffe believed that the church should not revolve around popes and cardinals,
God
The whole electorate is the core of it. The only leader of the church is
Christ
"Not the Pope. Wycliffe did not oppose the papacy directly, but he did not
The Bible
According to the Bible, the Pope should be subject to the standards of church leadership required by the Bible. In other words, the Pope must be simple, godly, and hardworking like Peter, rather than keen on power and wealth. Otherwise, he would not be God's chosen people, much less a leader of the church.
[3]
Bohemia and England were two poles of Europe, but in 1383 a Bohemian princess married the king of England, and the two countries began to deepen their relations. The population of Bohemia was composed of Germanic and Slavic peoples. Although Prague is an independent archdiocese, in practice Germany has a significant influence here. Bohemians want to have a voice. During the Great Schism of the Church caused by the two popes of Rome and Avignon in the early 15th century, the Bohemians wished to be neutral between the two popes, free from German influence, but the Bohemian Germans wished to continue to support the Pope of Rome. Ethnic conflicts are reflected in the form of religion. In 1410, Hus was excommunicated by the German Archbishop of Prague. This, in turn, aroused even greater indignation in Bohemia, and even burned the Pope's encyclical exculpation.
[4]
Humanism and the Renaissance
The word "Renaissance" comes from French and is now commonly used to refer to the literary and artistic revival that took place in Italy during the 14th and 15th centuries.
[5]
At the heart of the Italian Renaissance worldview was a return to ancient cultural glory and the marginalization of the fruits of medieval thought. Renaissance writers did not value these intellectual achievements as far removed from the achievements of antiquity. What is true in culture is true in theology as well: they believe that the ideas of the late Classics surpass the theological works of the Middle Ages in both content and style. Indeed, the Renaissance can be seen in part as a reaction against the line of thought associated with the faculty of arts and the Faculty of theology in Northern European universities. In disgust with the language and technicality of scholasticism, Renaissance writers threw it all away. In Christian theology, the key to the future lies in directly confronting the biblical texts and the writings of the Patristic period.
The mainstream of thought in the Renaissance is often called "humanism." Humanism is a cultural and educational movement. The core element of humanism is to return to the original resources of Western European culture in the period of ancient Rome and Athens. The theological counterpart of this movement is to go straight back to the foundational resources of Christian theology, primarily the New Testament. The movement proved to be of great significance. One of its most important results was a new appraisal of the fundamental importance of the Bible as the root of theology. As interest in the Bible has increased, it has become increasingly apparent that the Latin translation of this existing resource has shortcomings. The most famous of these Latin translations is the Vulgate, the most influential Latin translation of the Bible in the Middle Ages. The Old Testament was originally written in Hebrew (a small part of it in Aramaic); The New Testament was written in Greek. The Voga translation provided a Latin translation for those who knew Latin, but the reliability of this translation was soon questioned.
[6]
Humanist research revealed unfortunate differences between the Wuga translation and the original text it translated, thus opening the way to subsequent doctrinal reform. It is for this reason that humanism was decisive for the development of medieval theology:
[7]
It demonstrates the unreliability of this Bible translation and thus seems to indicate the unreliability of the theology based on it. As the humanists reveal one error after another in this translation, the biblical foundations of scholasticism seem to be crumbling.
Lutheranism
At that time, under the feudal system of Western Europe, the social crisis and the crisis of the church intensified. Some national princes and citizens are dissatisfied with the status quo, and the lower class of people suffer more deeply; Holy see and the Holy See
Holy Roman Empire
There has been a marked decline in the authority of the Church, and reform within the Church has repeatedly challenged. Luther was already depressed about the world and the state of the church when he was in college. He practiced and studied in the seminary
theology
When philosophized, he carefully explored the true meaning of relieving distress, but realized that he had gained nothing. When he was looking for a way to "be redeemed by the forgiveness of SINS by God" to relieve his "spiritual pain," he realized that the liturgy and good deeds that the traditional church required people to perform would not help people to relieve this deep inner distress, and scholasticism could only lead people's hearts into a dead end. He was attracted to some reform-minded figures of the Middle Ages, such as William Ocon and J. Huss, and was inspired by humanists such as D. The influence of Erasmus and others, but not yet against the traditional church and papal system. Many later generations believe that during this period, he has formed the basic connotation of the proposition of justification by faith. The thrust of this proposition is that the man whose soul is saved is justified before God, not by his own good deeds, but by the grace of God and by man's sincere faith in God. At the time, the church claimed that the Pope had tricked believers into buying indulgences that God would forgive them no matter how much they had sinned. Luther's proposition of justification by faith is an attack on the theological basis of this statement. Pope Leo X to restore Rome
St. Peter's Basilica
In the name of it, he sent Curia officials all over Germany to sell indulgences and collect money. Many of the princes and citizens were very unhappy about this. Friedrich, the elector of Saxony who had been a patron of Luther, was not allowed to sell indulgenies in the Elector of Saxony, but it was not banned in the Duchy of Saxony, and in fact the peddling of indulgenies spread far into the vicinity of Wittenberg. In response, Luther posted the 95 Theses "Welcome to debate" on the door of the cathedral of Wittenberg Castle on October 31, 1517 (said November 1) in the form of academic debate. The theses are written in the tone of theological debate, and the tone is very gentle; Accusing only certain church abuses without attacking the Church itself, article 71 also explicitly affirms the Pope's right to forgive SINS. The thesis argues that the center of the sacrament of confession is repentance, not confession to the priest; Physical penance and asceticism are useless without inner repentance; It is useless to atone for SINS by accumulating merit; only the merit of Christ can contribute to the forgiveness of SINS; The "merit bank" of the church lies only in the Gospel of God's saving grace through the acquisition of Christ. The claim of justification by faith is not put forward in the theses. However, the theses had reduced the sale of indulgences throughout Germany, and in some places no one was buying them. Luther's move received support from all walks of life, but it also angered the Church.
Luther's great achievement in 1520 was the publication of three treatises, "To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation on the Reform of Ecclesiastical Privilege."
[8]
"Babylonish Captivity of the Church."
[9]
And "On Christian Liberty."
[10]
He publicly argued that the Pope had no right to intervene in secular regimes. He declared that if the Church could not reform itself, state power should be saved, and called the Church of Rome "the greatest thief and robber on earth under the banner of the Holy Church and St. Peter." He believes that the Pope is not the final interpreter of the Bible, and that all believers can directly communicate with God and become priests without the need for priests to act as intermediaries. However, this issue also recited several different interpretations of the Bible, and Luther suppressed all of them, so that some critics said that he actually changed the power of interpretation to his own.
Because Luther insisted on his views, the Pope officially announced the encyclical excommunication of Lutheran church. Luther, with the support of the princes and the townsmen, decided to go public, writing the Encyclical against the Antichrist, and burning the encyclical and some of the torah in public on December 10. At the time, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, in order to counterbalance France politically, wanted the Pope's support against Luther's reforms. Therefore, at the Imperial Council of 1521, it was decided to implement the encyclical and condemn Luther. However, due to the opposition of the assembled barons and Luther's own hardline attitude during the trial, the council finally decided to let Luther go, and then convicted and issued an arrest warrant. On Luther's return, the Elector of Saxony kidnapped him and sent him to Wartburg for protection. During his seclusion in Wartburg, Luther worked on the German translation of the Bible. By this time, Luther's supporters were already on the move, and the Reformation was spreading like wildfire.
Founders of the Reformed Church: from Zwingli to Calvin
Many factors, such as the rise of humanism, the tradition of local self-government, being in the interlace of great powers, and the reaction of the commercial cities against the Holy See, combined
Protestantism
Zwingli is here
Zurich
The reform was quickly echoed in Switzerland. But because of
Holy Communion
The doctrinal understanding was very different from that of Luther, and thus caused the Swiss reform to lose its German ally in the dispute with Luther. In 1531, at the Battle of Kappel against the Catholic League, Zwingli was killed. The centre of the Swiss Reformation then moved to Geneva, where it reached another peak under Calvin.
Calvin wrote his famous book Institutes of the Christian Religion in March 1536. Just four months after its publication, the book was introduced to William Farel, the religious leader of Geneva at the time, who was willing to keep Calvin in Geneva, and Calvin's career as a Protestant in Geneva began.
[12]
Later, due to the discontent of the bourgeoisie who controlled the government during the reform process, he was expelled from Geneva.
When Calvin returned to Geneva in 1541, one of his first tasks was to write a set of Ecclesiastic Ordinances, and Calvin's great influence on Christianity was also reflected in his reform of church organization. It can be said that Calvin set a precedent for the church to be governed in a republican system by electing church clergy from local churches. In 1559, he founded the Geneva Academy. The College soon became a stronghold of the Reformed Church, training a large number of Reformed talents, becoming the backbone of the reform movements in Holland, England, Scotland, Germany, and Italy, and influencing American religion and politics as the new Puritans entered the United States. Calvin, as the only "international religious reformer," had a tremendous impact on modern history and the world.
English Reformation: The establishment of the Anglican Church
Protestantism
Henry VIII died in 1547, his son
Edward VI
Inherit the throne. Because of his youth, real power was in the hands of his ministers, all of whom had strong Protestant leanings. Until Edward's death in 1553, successor
Mary Tudor
She was very sympathetic to the Catholic Church. She took a series of actions to suppress Protestantism in an attempt to recover
Catholicism
Cranmer was publicly burned at Oxford in 1556. Cranmer's position as Archbishop of Canterbury was held by
Pohle
(Reginald Pole) took over. By the time Mary died in 1558, Catholicism had not fully recovered.
in
Elizabeth I
After inheriting the throne, she wanted to appease both Protestants and
Catholicism
The Elizabethan Plan (1558-1559) established the Church of England as a reformed episcopal church with a large number of Protestant articles of faith and more
Catholic liturgy
. This is also later
Episcopal Church
A major feature of.
In 1559, England established the Episcopal Conference with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its supreme religious leader. In 1563, the English Parliament passed the Thirty-Nine Articles, marking the completion of the top-down Reformation and the eventual formation of the Anglican Church. Since then, English religion has entered a more stable situation.
[13]
The Puritan movement in England
The first deeper wave of the establishment of the Church of England
reformation
The tide is
Puritan movement
(Puritanism). Puritanism, which takes its name from "cleansing" or "cleansing", refers to the demand for further reform of the Church of England in the 16th and 17th centuries
Protestant
And they have a great deal of residue in the Church of the State
Roman Catholic
The claims of a "cleansing" or "purification" of the Church represented the force that pushed the English Reformation toward the mainland. Puritanism is the sum total of these Puritan beliefs and practices. Puritanism can also be called a phenomenon of religious migration. These Puritans had to live in exile on the European continent during the restoration of Roman Catholicism by Queen Mary
Geneva
The profound influence of Zurich. When Elizabeth came to power, they returned to England and began to try to reform the Church of England in accordance with the continental religious understanding and church model.
On account of
Puritan movement
The reforms were opposed by Elizabeth because they undermined the peace she had been trying to maintain. Within Puritanism, there were also two possible choices about how to deal with the gap between itself and the Anglican Church. One is the "reform" line, that is, to remain in the national Church, but to try to introduce Puritan organization, rituals and institutions into the national Church, and wait for the government to adopt the opinion and gradually modify the national church; The other was the "revolutionary" line of separating completely from the State Church and establishing your own church in accordance with the teachings of the Bible, which was historically called "Separatist." The secessionist view of the church could deny the King of England supreme authority over ecclesiastical affairs, which could have serious political consequences. In 1592, the British Parliament decreed that anyone who disputed the Queen's authority over the church, or did not attend church, or participated in "secret meetings" that employed illegal worship services was subject to exculpation. In this way, the secessionists had to flee to Europe.
1603 James I ascended the throne as King of England. In 1604 he presided over a meeting of Anglican bishops and Puritans. He accepted the Puritans' request to approve a new translation of the Bible, which became known as the King James Version in 1611. But the main thrust of his religious policy was anti-Puritan. Many English Puritans fled to other countries. Another important development of Puritanism during this period was the introduction of a colony in Plymouth in 1620, after which Puritanism had an important influence on the United States.
Also known as Lutheran. One of the major denominations of Protestant Christianity. It is based on the religious teachings of Martin Luther. In the 16th century, the European Reformation originated in Germany. Martin Luther's 95 Theses in 1517 opened the way to the Reformation in 16th century Europe. He then gathered a following around him. The emphasis on "justification by faith", the belief that man's salvation lies in faith rather than in the church or the good works of man, the emphasis on the authority of the Bible over the authority of the church, and the weakening of the role of the church and clergy. It emphasized that the church organization should be adapted to local conditions, and advocated the establishment of national churches that were not subject to the jurisdiction of the Holy See and adopted the form of national languages and rituals.
Also known as "return to authentic", "elder Zong". One of the major denominations of Protestant Christianity. A general term for various schools of thought based on Calvin's religious teachings. He asserted that the Bible is the sole basis and authority of faith, and stressed that justification by faith cannot be saved by works. Proclaiming God's predestination has nothing to do with the individual's own efforts. Abolish the episcopal system of the Catholic Church and establish the Presbyterian system; It advocated that elders, pastors and deacons should be elected by believers to govern the church together, denying the authority of the Roman Church; Simplify religious rituals; He argued that the secular regime was subordinate to the religious authority.
A.K.A.
Anliganzong
'Anglican. The original meaning is "English". Because the sect originated in England and became the state religion in England, so the name. Although it became independent from the Roman Church in the 1530s, it retained most of the traditions of the Catholic Church in terms of doctrine, liturgy, and organization. Having basic Protestant beliefs; Maintain the Bible as the supreme authority of doctrine; Maintain episcopacy; stress
baptism
and
Holy Communion
Are two different things, etc. In addition, churches in other countries and territories are not affiliated with the Church of England, but continue to use the name. Although there is no unified worldwide organization of Anligan religious churches in various countries and regions, it is still customary to honor them
The Archbishop of Canterbury
As a spiritual leader.
The origins of the Baptist Church date back to the 17th century. It represented one of the more radical wings of the Reformation, insisting that the Church be a pure community of believers, not an amalgam.
[14]
It originated in England and among English exiles in the Netherlands in the early 17th century. Some theologians argue that the order already existed, dating back to a medieval sect that practiced similar rituals and to the 16th-century Anabaptists. Opposed the baptism of infants, believing that the baptized must reach the age of adulthood to understand the meaning of baptism; He also emphasized the relationship between baptism and "burial" in the New Testament, and advocated that the baptized must be immersed in water to symbolize the rebirth of the dead and buried. Therefore, this ritual is called "baptism" in China. Other doctrines include those from Calvinism, those from Armenius, and those who reject all church doctrines. It emphasizes the independence of individual churches and opposes the interference of the state church and the government in local churches. At the time of its creation, it was an independent faction of the Puritans. Later, it divided into Baptists, Baptists, Baptists, and many other branches. Mainly distributed in Britain, the United States and other countries. It was introduced into China after the Opium War.
Methodism is also called "Wesleyan" or "Wesleyan". A general term for various churches (e.g. Methodist, Methodist, etc.) based on the religious ideas of John Wesley. It is also called "Methodism" because of its emphasis on following moral norms and advocating a strict religious life. Its church management carries out the supervision system, so it is also called "supervision Zong". Originated in England in the 18th century. A faction that originated within the Anglican Church and came to be known as the Independent Denomination. It soon spread to the British colonies in North America. He advocated the reform of the church and focused on missionary activities among the lower masses. It was mainly distributed in Britain, the United States and other countries, and was introduced into China after the Opium War.
The Bible
Have supreme authority
The importance of the reform movement
theology
The foundation is the authority of the Bible, and the "Bible alone" principle was held by Luther. In the late Middle Ages, the Church of Rome saw the Bible and tradition as a dual source of God's revelation, one that went hand in hand, much less in conflict with each other. The Church not only preserves the truth of the Bible, but also has the authority to teach, and to write the Bible
Canon
; So the position of the church is above the Bible. These are the very claims Luther was trying to counter. He points out that the authority of the Bible is not taken from the church; Instead, the church's position is determined by Scripture.
[15]
Although the Church has historically established a Canon of the Bible, it has done so in recognition of its inherent value rather than establishing its authority. "People believe in the Gospel, not because the church determines the truth of the Gospel, but because it is the Word of God."
[16]
And God's Word is the ultimate basis for establishing the Canon. All the teachings of the fathers and the doctrines of the church bear witness to the Bible, just as John the Baptist's work was to bring men to Christ.
[17]
At the same time, it should be noted that Luther did not abandon all the traditions of the past church, but only those that were contrary to the clear teaching of Scripture. He also tried to demonstrate the inherent consistency of the Bible with tradition, but in Luther's view the Bible was still superior to tradition. The Bible is the "touchstone," the "norm of norms" (norma mormans).
Justification by faith
Luther's introduction of the theological doctrine of Justification by faith is closely related to the course of his faith. When Luther pondered, how can a sinner find God who is gracious to him? Years of monastic life, procedures of redemption, and promises made could not bring Luther peace of mind. Fortunately, the theological breakthrough he experienced on the convent tower brought him light.
[18]
The relationship between man and God is now restored, not through the good work of man being accepted by God, but on the basis of God's promise to receive the repentant sinner in Christ. It is entirely by the grace of God that a man is justified, that his SINS are forgiven, and that he is seen to be upright. In the matter of justification, God is active and man is passive; God has done all the work necessary for salvation and fulfilled all the conditions for salvation. Therefore, God's righteousness is not a standard by which man is judged, but a gift given to man to conform to God's requirements for eternal life. Luther's new discovery completely overturned the whole medieval Roman Catholic view of salvation, which valued merit and good deeds.
[19]
Luther said, "Faith alone unites man to God."
[20]
There is no one to trust but God, for He alone is our unconditional trust. Such sincere trust in God is the beginning of eternal life.
[21]
According to Luther, Christ's statement that "those who believe have eternal life" is "the basis of our justification."
[22]
On the other hand, the term "justification by faith" can be easily misunderstood, as if Luther were saying that the only good work required for salvation is faith. But for Luther, faith was not good.
[23]
According to Luther, justification is in fact "attributed righteousness", that is, a Christian is both a righteous man and a sinner (simul Justus et peccator).
[24]
priesthood
Protestantism believed that since salvation could be achieved by faith alone, all believers could be priests without the need for clergy to act as intermediaries between God and man. In addition, believers can intercede with each other, and every believer has the right and duty to care for and help each other in religious life, and has the divine responsibility to spread the Gospel. This has diluted or even eliminated the distinction between the clergy and the lay people. Although most Protestant denominations retain the designation and ordination of clerical staff (pastors, etc.), this is primarily a mark of office and does not imply the privilege of conferring grace.
Protestantism
Protestantism retains and uses the four creeds inherited from the early Church: the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Caracton Creed, and the Athanasius Creed.
In addition, Protestantism also established various denominations in the process of religious reform in various places, and each denomination also formed a series of self-contained and complete doctrinal systems. Among the more famous are: the Heidelberg Catechism and its Answers, the Belgian Creed, the Dort Creed, the Westminster Creed, and the Westminster Minor Catechism.
[25]
At the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, when the Catholic Church tried to carry out missionary work in China, some Protestant Christians in England also began to pay attention to missionary work in China. Until 1807, British missionary Morrison was sent to China by the London Missionary Society. As the East India Company steamers refused to carry Morrison, on 31 January 1807 to New York aboard the steamer remittance, on 12 May of the same year, then by the steamer Trifork round the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean, via the Strait of Malacca, arrived on 4 September
Macau
Three days later, he sneaks in
Guangzhou
Secretly sent to live in an American merchant warehouse, learning
Chinese
He became the first Protestant missionary to China. On the ninth day of the ninth month of the lunar calendar in 1814, Morrison helped him with his printing work
CAI Gao
He was baptized and became the first Chinese Protestant Christian. Morrison served in the East India Company for 25 years and devoted himself to evangelism, translation and printing
The Bible
. He published the New Testament in 1813 and the Old Testament in 1823, most of which he personally translated. In 1823, Morrison went to Malacca and Singapore to inspect and temporarily served as pastor of Malacca Yinghua College. He returned to Guangzhou in autumn of that year
Liang Fa
A preacher and a son of Liang Fa
Liang Jinde
Baptize.
[26]
Since Morrison and other pioneer missionaries came to China to preach, some Protestant missions in Europe and the United States began to pay attention to China.
[27]
Elijah Coleman Bridgman (1801-1861) was appointed by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and came to China as a missionary in 1830
America
The pioneers of the Church's mission in China also had a certain impact on the early history of Sino-American relations. In 1830, Elijah Coleman Bridgman arrived in Macau, sailed to Guangzhou on the 25th, and lived in the American mercantile house. Later, he was involved in the publishing, education and medicine activities of early Christianity in China, and was involved in the founding of some early Christian groups. He founded and edited the first English monthly magazine of Chinese Christianity, "Chinese Repository" (also translated as "China Repository"), aiming to investigate and publish China's meteorology, geography, production, business conditions and other information, and introduce China's politics, history, law, customs, literature, religion and humanities to the West. The "China Series" was the main material for Westerners to understand China at that time. in November 1834, he became The Chinese secretary of The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in China. In January 1836, the Morrison Education Association was established with the purpose of opening and financing schools in China, teaching Chinese young people to read Chinese and English, and passing Western knowledge to them through the media, and Bridgman Bridgman served as the corresponding secretary.
[28]
Before the Opium War, Protestantism had been introduced into China through the efforts of Morrison and others, but foreigners could not enter China as missionaries, let alone into the mainland of China.
Protestantism
The number of missionaries is small, the influence is not big, and the spread is not wide. After the Opium Wars, with a series of
Unequal treaty
Under the protection of the "missionary Clause", foreign missionaries flooded into China. In addition, Protestant missionaries were also sent into China by foreign missionary societies, and in a short time, the number of foreign missionary societies in China reached more than 130. These missions will come from
nationality
Above said, mainly belong to the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Canada and other countries; In terms of denominations, it is mainly divided into Anglican Church, Baptist Church, Congregational Church, Lutheran Church, Presbyterian Church, Supervision Church and Mainland Church.
[29]
For the development of Protestantism in China, 1865 has to be mentioned in particular
James Hudson Hudson
This special mission organization, which transcends nationality and denominations, has become a milestone in the expansion of Chinese Protestantism and even the entire Christian religion to the entire territory of China.
When the Qing government was overthrown, China entered a new period, and Chinese society experienced profound social changes, the most fundamental of which was the Revolution of 1911 and the establishment of the Republic of China.
[30]
After the establishment of the Republic of China government, many people who held important positions in the national government believed in Christianity. According to Wang Zhixin's statistics, Christians make up more than 65 percent of the people serving in the Guangdong provincial government. This historical background provided another excellent opportunity for the development of Christian missions.
[31]
In addition to the scale and formalization of churches around the country and the rapid development in number, the preaching and missionary work were also widely carried out in every corner of the society at that time, Protestantism also flourished in the fields of education, medical care, writing and publishing, and charity.
In the 20th century, almost every church had an elementary school near it. According to incomplete statistics, by 1920 there were 5,637 primary schools with 151,582 students; There are 962 senior primary schools with 32,899 students; There are 291 middle schools with 15,213 students. There are also a substantial number of normal schools. At the same time, the church also devoted itself to the construction of higher education institutions. Missionary universities were established, some by the association of several missionary churches of different denominations. In October 1919, the Conference of Presidents of Chinese Missionary Universities held in Shanghai established the Chinese Federation of Missionary Universities. Members are:
Yenching University
,
Qilu University
,
Jinling University
,
Jinling Women's University
,
Soochow University
, Zhejiang University,
St. John's University
,
Zhijiang University
,
Fujian Union University
, Mandarin University,
Bowen College
,
West China Union University
,
Lingnan University
,
Yale-china University
. The number of students in these 14 universities reached 2017, and 10 of these 14 universities are located in their own campus with secondary schools, which have higher teachers and equipment than ordinary secondary schools.
[32]
The Protestant medical service in China is an important part of the missionary service in China. Since the 20th century, with the rise of the social Gospel, many ministries have paid more attention to the development of the church's medical cause. More importantly, Chinese society has a growing need for new medical treatments. In less than 20 years, there has been a 54% increase in foreign doctors and a 165% increase in hospitals and pharmacies.
[33]
After entering the Republic of China, various Protestant missions set up many church hospitals all over the country, such as Fujian Tongan Hospital, Changle Shengjiao Hospital, Hebei Hejian Zhonghua Shenghui Hospital, Jiangsu Taizhou Gospel Hospital, Changzhou Wujin Hospital, etc. The newly established church hospitals in inland provinces mainly include Chengdu Renji Hospital, Suining Boji Hospital, Ziliujing Renji Men and Women's Hospital, Sufu Mingde Women's Hospital, Hunan Hengyang Renji Hospital, Xinhua Xinyi Hospital, Taoyuan Qinjin Hospital, Jiangxi Jiujiang Life Living Water Hospital, Guling Zhonghuapren Hospital, Hubei Xiangyang Tongji Hospital, Yunnan Kunming Huidian Hospital, etc. Xi 'an Guangren Hospital in Shaanxi Province. According to statistics, in the five years from 1919 to 1924, there were 38 newly built mission hospitals in Chahui.
[34]
There were 326 missionary hospitals and 244 pharmacies in all provinces and autonomous regions.
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, how to face this new society, which is different from any previous society, how to survive and adapt to the new China under the leadership of the Communist Party, is a serious problem for Christianity. In the social background at that time, the victory of the Chinese revolution also led to the breakdown of relations between China and the Western countries led by the United States. At that time, the Chinese Church, which depended mainly on the support of foreign missionaries, faced great difficulties and was challenged both economically and ideologically. Many Christian leaders expected that the Christian Church would encounter certain difficulties in the future and hoped to continue to receive sympathy and support from overseas missions. In the autumn of 1949, 19 Chinese church leaders jointly issued an Open letter to Foreign Missions, reminding "foreign friends to note the difficulties encountered by our Christian work in the present situation." Responsibilities and changes in policy and the adjustment of external relations ".
[35]
Protestantism
In 1966, the "Cultural Revolution" swept the whole of China, and Chinese Protestantism experienced this serious disaster along with the whole of China. At this time, family gatherings became the only form of Christian activities, and the countryside became the main place of Christian activities and development. At the same time, this special history also deepened believers' distrust of the government and the Three-Self Patriotic Association.
In December 1978, the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of China was held, and China ushered in reform and opening up. At the same time, the development of Christianity in China ushered in a new spring. In order to meet the needs of the majority of Christians to live a religious life, the Christian two churches have been restored and established in various places, and they have made every effort to recover churches and resume worship. By the 1980s, major churches around the country had been restored one after another, and a large number of churches had sprung up, with one or two churches being built every two or three days nationwide.
[37]
Theological schools across the country that were closed during the Cultural Revolution, including the Jinling Theological Seminary, have been restored. At the same time, with the increase in the number of believers, the demand for the construction of theological teams became more and more urgent, and a total of 22 two-year to four-year theological colleges were established while restoring the original theological colleges.
Nowadays, the development of Chinese Protestantism in China is more and more vibrant, with the deepening of theological thought construction, the quality of clergy and believers has been comprehensively improved. Chinese Protestantism has become an important part of China's diverse culture. With the further development of China and its own prosperity, the rise and self-confidence of the Chinese nation, Chinese Christianity has become an important contact point for China to open up and communicate closely with the world.
towards
Protestantism
One of the biggest characteristics is the absolute respect for the authority of the Bible, so the preaching of the Word of God in the Bible has become a major content in the worship process. Therefore, for most Protestant worship, preaching was given more attention and importance.
In addition, Protestantism believes that everyone is a priest, and everyone has the right to participate in the worship and praise of God. Therefore, in the process of worship, the singing of hymns by all the believers who participate in worship has become a major feature of Protestant worship.
There are also significant differences in the understanding of worship within Protestant Christianity. Some Protestant churches still follow the tradition of the Catholic Church in worship, and still maintain cumbersome worship procedures and rituals. While some Protestant churches simplify the worship procedures and rituals, and do not set up any mounting images in the worship process and place, but only hang the cross as a sign of faith.
Christianity
sacrament
", or"
sacrament
"Is an important Christian ritual. Christianity believes that the sacraments are
Jesus Christ
Personally established and having a certain form
Religious ritual
By means of a certain visible form, it gives the recipient the "favor" and "blessing" of invisible Christ, which can be obtained by all who sincerely receive it.
Catholicism
and
The Orthodox Church
There are seven sacraments, namely baptism (baptism), confirmation, confession, Eucharist (Orthodoxy called "Eucharist blood"), final Sacrament, divine goods (also called "ordination or Holy Father, bishop"), and marriage. Protestantism generally only recognizes
baptism
and
Holy Communion
For "sacraments."
Baptism is regarded by the universal Church as an important religious ceremony of Christianity, is a Christian initiation ceremony, divided into "water baptism and baptism." Christianity believes that this is the sacrament established by Jesus, which can forgive the "original sin" and "this sin" of the believers, and give them "grace" and "seal", so that they become believers, and then have the right to receive other "sacraments".
"Or"
The Lord's Supper
It is another important sacrament recognized by the universal Church. Jesus' last supper with his disciples before his arrest. At that time, he used bread to represent his body and grape juice to represent his blood, and gave it to his disciples to eat, which has become a ritual observed by the church throughout the ages. The Eucharist is a sacrament instituted by Jesus Christ Himself, the Savior of mankind, as a memorial of His suffering for the world and as a proof of his eternal love for the world. The main ingredients of Holy Communion are grape juice and matzoh.
Wycliffe
Wycliffe
Hus
Hus
Martin Luther
Martin Luther
Zwingli
Zwingli
John Calvin
John Calvin
Jean Calvin (1509-1564) was a 16th-century European reformer and founder of Calvinism. Born in Noyon, France, to a family of lawyers. While studying in Paris, he was influenced by the Reformation and from 1531 joined the Protestant movement in Paris. Due to the persecution of Protestants by the French government, he fled to Switzerland in 1535
Basel
. In 1536, he published his main theological work, The Essentials of Christianity, which denied the authority of the Roman Church. Arrived in the same year
Geneva
He joined the Free City regime under Farrell, which had been freed from the control of the Duke of Savoy, and soon became its de facto leader. Preside over a program of Protestant faith that emphasizes strict moral discipline. In 1538, the liberal faction, which consisted mainly of lower-class citizens, was expelled along with Farrell and moved to Strasburg, where they devoted themselves to the study of the Bible. He soon married the widow of an Anabaptist. In 1540 the upper class gained power again and invited them back to Geneva, where they settled. Until the establishment of a theocratic republic, a parliament composed of priests and wealthy citizens, with Calvinism as the sole legal religion. Abolish the episcopate and replace it with a republican Presbyterian system. To claim that government, private property, trade for profit, and loan for interest are to be regarded as orders from God, like clerical office. Servette was executed at the stake in 1553 for "heresy". 1558 Founded the Geneva Academy (the predecessor of the University of Geneva). Died in Geneva. Later generations compiled the Complete Works of Calvin in fifty-two volumes.
[42]
Episcopacy is a type of Christian church system. Administering the church with bishops as the main body. It began to form in the first half of the 2nd century and gradually became complete. The bishop generally has the right to bless the Holy Father (or to appoint a priest), to administer all the sacraments, and to govern all the diocesan churches; The priest (or priest) is subordinate to the bishop, assists the bishop in the administration of certain sacraments, and governs certain parishes entrusted by the bishop. Mainly in
Catholicism
,
Orthodox Church
, Protestant
Episcopal Church
Sum part
Lutheran Church
And in the smaller ancient churches of the East.
[43]
Presbyterianism is a form of Christian church system. Mainly practiced by Calvinist churches. Some non-Calvinist churches also practice presbyterism, but the rules vary slightly from sect to sect. Leaders of the church who are engaged in secular occupations are elected by the church and receive elders."
Holy orders
For the backbone of the church. Professional pastors are authorized by the congregation
elder
Pastors are appointed by the elders to administer the affairs of the church.
[44]
Congregationalism or "congregationalism". A type of Protestant church system. That is, the congregation in each district is the independent and autonomous unit of the church, and there is no general organization at all levels of educational administration. Each independent
ecclesia
The congregations (the whole congregation) directly elect pastors to govern the church in a democratic manner, and the word "congregations" takes its meaning of "public governance." The specific system and liturgy of each church is also decided by the congregation. It is mainly practiced by the Congregational Church and the Baptist Church.
[45]
The names of the countries in this table are sorted alphabetically
|
nation
|
Country
|
% of population (%)
|
nation
|
Country
|
% of population (%)
|
|
American samoa
|
76
|
Kuwait
|
0.1
|
||
|
Andorra
|
0.5
|
Lao,People’s Dem. R.
|
0.2
|
||
|
Angola
|
19.8
|
Latvia
|
14.1
|
||
|
Antigua and Barbuda
|
42.2
|
Lebanon
|
1
|
||
|
Argentina
|
2.7
|
Lesotho
|
29.8
|
||
|
Aruba
|
8
|
Liberia
|
18.6
|
||
|
Australia
|
23.5
|
Libya
|
0.1
|
||
|
Austria
|
6.5
|
Liechtenstein
|
10.7
|
||
|
Bahamas. The
|
47.2
|
Luxembourg
|
1.2
|
||
|
Bahrain
|
0.9
|
Macedonia
|
1
|
||
|
Bangladesh
|
0.2
|
Madagascar
|
22
|
||
|
Barbados
|
33.2
|
Malawi
|
31.5
|
||
|
Belgium
|
0.4
|
Malaysia
|
1.4
|
||
|
Belize
|
13.2
|
Mali
|
0.2
|
||
|
Benin
|
2.8
|
Malta
|
0.5
|
||
|
Bermuda
|
27
|
Martinique
|
2.2
|
||
|
Bolivia
|
2.3
|
Mauritius
|
0.9
|
||
|
Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
4
|
Country
|
0.3
|
||
|
Botswana
|
26.8
|
Mexico
|
1.2
|
||
|
Brazil
|
4
|
The Commonwealth of Micronia
|
Micronesia, Fed. States
|
49.2
|
|
|
Brunei
|
1.1
|
Monaco
|
4.6
|
||
|
Bulgaria
|
0.4
|
Mozambique
|
6.8
|
||
|
Burkina Faso
|
1.6
|
Myanmar
|
3.2
|
||
|
Burundi
|
4.9
|
Namibia
|
64.2
|
||
|
Cambodia
|
0.1
|
Netherlands
|
42.4
|
||
|
Cameroon
|
18.1
|
Netherlands Antilles
|
9.2
|
||
|
Canada
|
29.6
|
New Zealand
|
37.9
|
||
|
Cape Verde
|
3
|
New Caledonia
|
18.1
|
||
|
Cayman Islands
|
92.4
|
Nicaragua
|
4.4
|
||
|
Central African Republic
|
50
|
Nigeria
|
15.8
|
||
|
Chad
|
11.6
|
Norway
|
97.8
|
||
|
Chile
|
1.9
|
Oman
|
0.1
|
||
|
Colombia
|
0.9
|
Pakistan
|
0.8
|
||
|
Congo
|
24.9
|
Panama
|
5.2
|
||
|
Costa Rica
|
5.8
|
Papua New Guinea
|
58.4
|
||
|
Cote d’lvoire
|
4.7
|
Paraguay
|
1.9
|
||
|
Croatia
|
0.4
|
Peru
|
2.7
|
||
|
Cuba
|
0.8
|
Philippines
|
3.8
|
||
|
Cyprus
|
0.6
|
Poland
|
0.1
|
||
|
Czech Republic
|
4.6
|
Portugal
|
1.1
|
||
|
Denmark
|
95.2
|
Puerto Rico
|
5.1
|
||
|
Djibouti
|
0.2
|
Qatar
|
0.9
|
||
|
Dominica
|
8.3
|
Reunion Island
|
Reunion
|
0.5
|
|
|
Dominica Republic
|
1.4
|
Romania
|
5.8
|
||
|
Ecuador
|
1.9
|
Rwanda
|
11.6
|
||
|
Egypt Arab Republic
|
Egypt, Arab Republic
|
0.2
|
Salvador,El
|
12.4
|
|
|
Equatorial Guine
|
4.9
|
Sao Tome and Principe
|
2.2
|
||
|
Estonia
|
66
|
Saudi Arabia
|
0.1
|
||
|
Ethiopia
|
3.8
|
Senegal
|
0.1
|
||
|
Faroe Islands
|
99.8
|
Seychelles
|
1.1
|
||
|
Fiji
|
39.1
|
Sierra Leone
|
4.8
|
||
|
Finland
|
93.1
|
Singapore
|
2.6
|
||
|
France
|
2.4
|
Slovak Republic
|
8.4
|
||
|
French Polynesia
|
French Polynesia
|
54
|
Solomon Island
|
Solomon Island
|
39.8
|
|
French Guiana
|
French Guiana
|
3.9
|
South Africa
|
39
|
|
|
Gabon
|
18.8
|
Spain
|
0.1
|
||
|
Gambia, The
|
0.4
|
Sri Lanka
|
0.4
|
||
|
Germany
|
46.4
|
Saint Kitts and Nevis
|
St. Kitts and Nevis
|
52
|
|
|
Ghana
|
25.8
|
Saint Lucia
|
St. Lucia
|
6.3
|
|
|
Greece
|
0.1
|
Saint Vincent Antilles
|
St. Vincent Antilles
|
40.7
|
|
|
Greenland
|
98.6
|
Sudan
|
0.1
|
||
|
Grenada
|
13.2
|
Suriname
|
36
|
||
|
Guadeloupe
|
1.9
|
Swaziland
|
33.9
|
||
|
Guam
|
16.4
|
Sweden
|
68.4
|
||
|
Guatemala
|
4.9
|
Switzerland
|
43.2
|
||
|
Guinea
|
0.1
|
Syrian Arab Republic
|
0.2
|
||
|
Guinea-bissau
|
0.6
|
Tanzania
|
11.2
|
||
|
Guyana
|
18
|
Thailand
|
0.2
|
||
|
Haiti
|
12.8
|
Togo
|
6.1
|
||
|
Honduras
|
2.6
|
Tonga
|
61.9
|
||
|
Hungary
|
21.6
|
Trinidad and Tobago
|
13.2
|
||
|
Iceland
|
96.6
|
Uganda
|
1.9
|
||
|
India
|
1.1
|
United States of America
|
43.6
|
||
|
Indonesia
|
Indonesia
|
4.8
|
United Arab Emirates
|
0.3
|
|
|
Ireland
|
1.1
|
United Kingdom
|
16.1
|
||
|
Isle of Man
|
20.9
|
Uruguay
|
1.9
|
||
|
Israel
|
0.2
|
Vanuatu
|
54.6
|
||
|
Italy
|
0.4
|
Venezuela
|
1
|
||
|
Jamaica
|
55.5
|
Vietnam
|
0.2
|
||
|
Japan
|
0.9
|
Virgin Islands
|
43
|
||
|
Jordan
|
Jordan
|
0.3
|
Westem Samoa
|
76.3
|
|
|
kazakstan
|
2
|
Yemen Republic
|
0.1
|
||
|
Kenya
|
19.3
|
Zaire
|
29
|
||
|
Kiribati
|
45.3
|
Zambia
|
31.9
|
||
|
Korea,South
|
12.2
|
Zimbabwe
|
21.4
|
This table compilation parameter: Rafael La Porta, Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes, Andrei Shleifer and Robert Vishny.Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization. Oxford University Press. Vol. 15, No. 1, JLEO Bureaucracy.
[46]
